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61sT CONGRESS \ KKN4TK /Bocmunre
SdSemon ( fefcNATi, \No.747
KEPOUTS Of THE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION
ABSTRACTS OF REPORTS OF THE
IMMIGRATION COMMISSION
WITH CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS AND
VIEWS OF THE MINORITY
(IN TWO VOLUMES: VOL. I)
PRESENTED BY MR. DILLINGHAM
DECEMBER 5, 1910. — Referred to the Committee on Immigration
and ordered to be printed, with illustrations
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1911
THE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION.
Senator WILLIAM P. DILLINGHAM, Representative BENJAMIN P. HOWELL.
Chairman. Representative WILLIAM S. BENNET.
Senator HENRY CABOT LODGE. Representative JOHN L. BURNETT.
Senator ASBURY C. LATIMER.O Mr. CHARLES P. NEILL.
Senator ANSELM J. McL/AURiN.6 Mr. JEREMIAH W. JENKS.
Senator LE ROY PERCY. « Mr. WILLIAM R. WHEELEE.
Secretaries:
MORTON E. CRANE. W. W. HUSBAND.
C. S. ATKINSON.
Chief Statistician:
FRED C. CROXTON.
Extract from act of Congress of February 20, 1907, creating and defining the duties of the
Immigration Commission.
That a commission is hereby created, consisting of three Senators, to be appointed
by the President of the Senate, and three Members of the House of Representatives,
to be appointed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and three persons
to be appointed by the President of the United States. Said commission shall make
full inquiry, examination, and investigation, by subcommittee or otherwise, into the
subject of immigration. For the purpose of said inquiry, examination, and investiga-
tion said commission is authorized to send for persons and papers, make all necessary
travel, either in the United States or any foreign country, and, through the chair-
man of the commission, or any member thereof, to administer oaths and to examine
witnesses and papers respecting all matters pertaining to the subject, and to employ
necessary clerical and other assistance. Said commission shall report to Congress the
Conclusions reached by it, and make such recommendations as in its judgment may
fieem proper. Such sums of money as may be necessary for the said inquiry, examina-
tion, and investigation are hereby appropriated and authorized to be paid out of the
''immigrant fund" on the certificate of the chairman of said commission, including
fell expenses of the commissioners, and a reasonable compensation, to be fixed by the
President of the United States, for those members of the commission who are not
Members of Congress; * * * .
! o, Died February 20; 1908.
1 6 Appointed to succeed Mr. Latimer, February 25, 1908. Died December 22, 1909.
c Appointed to succeed Mr. McLaurin, March 16, 1910.
II
LIST OF REPORTS OF THE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION.
Volumes 1 and 2. Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission, with Conclusions and Recom-
mendations and Views of the Minority. (These volumes include the Commission's complete reports
on the following subjects: Immigration Conditions in Hawaii; Immigration and Insanity; Immi-
grants in Charity Hospitals; Alien Seamen and Stowaways; Contract Labor and Induced and Assisted
Immigration; The Greek Padrone System in the United States; Peonage.) (S. Doc. No. 747, 61st
Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 3. Statistical Review of Immigration, 1819-1910— Distribution of Immigrants, 1850-1900. (S. Doc.
No. 756, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 4. Emigration Conditions in Europe. (S. Doc. No. 748, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 5. Dictionary of Races or Peoples. (S. Doc. No. 662, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volumes 6 and 7. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 1, Bituminous Coal Mining. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong.,
2d sess.)
Volumes 8 and 9. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 2, Iron and Steel Manufacturing. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st
Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 10. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 3, Cotton Goods Manufacturing in the North Atlantic States—
Pt. 4, Woolen and Worsted Goods Manufacturing. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 11. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 5, Silk Goods Manufacturing and Dyeing— Pt. 6, Clothing
Manufacturing— Pt. 7, Collar, Cuff, and Shirt Manufacturing. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 12. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 8, Leather Manufacturing— Pt. 9, Boot and Shoe Manufac-
turing—Pt. 10, Glove Manufacturing. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 13. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 11, Slaughtering and Meat Packing. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st
Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 14. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 12, Glass Manufacturing— Pt. 13, Agricultural Implement
and Vehicle Manufacturing. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 15. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 14, Cigar and Tobacco Manufacturing— Pt. 15, Furniture Man-
ufacturing—Pt. 16, Sugar Refining. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 16. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 17, Copper Mining and Smelting— Pt. 18, Iron Ore Mining—
Pt. 19, Anthracite Coal Mining— Pt. 20, Oil Refining. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 17. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 21, Diversified Industries, Vol. I. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong.,
2dsess.)
Volume 18. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 21, Diversified Industries, Vol. II— Pt. 22, The Floating Immi-
grant Labor Supply. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volumes 19 and 20. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 23, Summary Report on Immigrants in Manufacturing
and Mining. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volumes 21 and 22. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 24, Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. (S. Doc. No.
633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volumes 23-25. Immigrants in Industries: Pt. 25, Japanese and Other Immigrant Races in the Pacific
Coast and Rocky Mountain States. (S. Doc. No. 633, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volumes 26 and 27. Immigrants in Cities. (S. Doc. No. 338, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 28. Occupations of the First and Second Generations of Immigrants in the United States— Fe-
cundity of Immigrant Women. (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volumes 29-33. The Children of Immigrants in Schools. (S. Doc. No. 749, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volumes 34 and 35. Immigrants as Charity Seekers. (S. Doc. No. 665, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 36. Immigration and Crime. (S. Doc. No. 750, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 37. Steerage Conditions — Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes — Immi-
grant Homes and Aid Societies— Immigrant Banks. (S. Doc. No. 753, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 38. Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants. (S. Doc. No. 208, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
Volume 39. Federal Immigration Legislation— Digest of Immigration Decisions— Steerage Legislation,
1819-1908— State Immigration and Alien Laws. (S. Doc. No. 758, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 40. The Immigration Situation in Other Countries: Canada— Australia— New Zealand— Argen-
tina—Brazil. (S. Doc. No. 761, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 41. Statements and Recommendations Submitted by Societies and Organizations Interested in
the Subject of Immigration. (S. Doc. No. 764, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Volume 42. Index of Reports of the Immigration Commission. (S. Doc. No. 785, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
Ill
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
THE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION,
Washington, D. C. , December 5, 1910.
To the Sixty-first Congress :
I have the honor to transmit herewith, on behalf of the Immigra-
tion Commission, a report in two volumes entitled u Abstracts of
Reports of the Immigration Commission, with Conclusions and Rec-
ommendations and Views of the Minority." In addition to abstracts
of the more extended reports of the Commission, these volumes include
the complete reports on the following subjects : Immigration Con-
ditions in Hawaii; Immigration and Insanity; Immigrants in Charity
Hospitals; Alien Seamen and Stowaways; Contract Labor and Induced
and Assisted Immigration; The Greek Padrone System in the United
States; Peonage.
Respectfully, WILLIAM P. DILLINGHAM,
Chairman*
IV
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introductory 1-4
Brief statement of the investigations of the Immigration Commission, with
conclusions and recommendations and views of the minority 5-49
Brief statement of the investigations —
The immigration legislation of 1907 9
Membership of the Commission
Organization of the Commission
Purpose of the inquiry
Plan and scope of the inquiry
Investigations in Europe
Investigations in the United States 15
Racial classification of immigrants 17
Methods of work 20
Reports of the Immigration Commission 21
Conclusions —
Sources of immigration and character of immigrants
Causes of the movement
Immigration of diseased aliens 26
Immigration of criminals 27
Immigration of the mentally defective 28
Contract labor and induced and assisted immigration
The padrone system
Importation of aliens for immoral purposes
Steerage conditions
Immigrant homes and aid societies 30
Immigrant banks 31
Boards of special inquiry
Immigration and crime
Immigration and the public health
Immigration and pauperism
Congestion of immigrants in cities
Immigrants in manufacturing and mining 37
Recent immigrants in agriculture 39
Artificial distribution of immigrants 40
Japanese and other immigrants on the Pacific slope 40
Assimilation of immigrants 41
Children of immigrants in schools 43
Changes in bodily form of descendants of immigrants 43
Recommendations 45
Views of the minority 49
Abstract of the statistical review of immigration to the United States, 1820
to 1910 51-118
Number of immigrants, 1820 to 1910 56
Sex, 1820 to 1910 57
Country of origin, 1820 to 1910 59
\ Sex and race of immigrants, 1899 to 1910 97
\Illiteracy, 1899 to 1910 98
Occupation, 1899 to 1910
Financial condition of immigrants 102
Immigrants who have been in the United States previously 104
\ Destination of immigrants in the United States 105
\ Aliens debarred at United States ports 1 10.
Aliens leaving the United States 112
Abstract of the report on distribution of immigrants, 1850 to 1900 119-160
Growth of foreign-born population
Concentration in cities 139
Age 146
Voting age and citizenship 148
Illiteracy and ability to speak English 156
VI Contents.
Page.
Abstract of the report on emigration conditions in Europe 161-204
Old and new European immigration . 166
Attitude of European countries toward emigration 168
Character of European emigration 169
Sex 171
Age 172
Occupations of emigrants
Literacy in Europe 175
Money shown by immigrants 178
Permanent and transient emigration 1 79
Extent and permanence of the return movement ] 81
Effects of the return movement in Europe 184
Causes of emigration 185
Assisted immigration 192
Emigration of criminals 192
Examination of emigrants abroad ; 193
Abstract of the Immigration Commission's dictionary of races or peoples.. 205-283
Introductory 209
Races or peoples 217
Abstract of the report on immigrants in manufacturing and mining 285-541
Scope and method of the investigation —
Geographical extent of the investigation 293
The principal branches of mining and manufacturing studied 293
Extent of information secured 294
Field methods employed i 295
Preparation of data 295
The present discussion . 296
Summary of data secured according to principal industries —
Iron and steel manufacturing 297
Slaughtering and meat packing 298
Bituminous coal mining 300
Glass manufacturing 301
Woolen and worsted manufacturing 302
Silk goods manufacturing and dyeing 303
Cotton goods manufacturing 304
Clothing manufacturing 305
The manufacture of boots and shoes 306
Furniture manufacturing 307
Collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing 308
Leather tanning, currying, and finishing 309
Glove manufacturing 310
Oil refining 311
Sugar refining 312
The manufacture of cigars and tobacco 313
Statistical summary of results —
Explanation of methods of presentation 315
Households studied 315
Members of households 317
Racial composition of operating forces of mines and manufacturing
establishments at present time 320
Racial composition of the operating forces of 16 selected industries. . . 335
Period of residence in the United States of foreign-born employees
and members of their households 348
Industrial condition abroad of members of immigrant households
studied 357
Principal occupation abroad of immigrant wage-earners 361
Principal occupation in this country at the present time of industrial
workers and members of their households 363
Average weekly earnings according to general nativity and race of
employee 366
Average daily earnings according to general nativity and race of
employee 370
The range of weekly earnings according to general nativity and race
of employee 374
The range of daily earnings according to general nativity and race of
employee ' 379
Contents. VII
Abstract of the report on immigrants in manufacturing and mining — Contd. Page.
Statistical summary of results — Continued.
Average weekly earnings according to industry and general nativity
and race of employee 383
Average daily earnings according to industry and general nativity
and race of employee . 396
Average daily earnings according to industry and general nativity of
employee 401
Average hourly earnings in the slaughtering and meat-packing indus-
try, according to general nativity and race of employee 403
Annual earnings of male heads of families 405
Annual earnings of male wage-earners in the households studied 407
Annual earnings of female wage-earners in the households studied 409
Annual family income 412
Sources of family income 413
The immigrant and organized labor 417
Rent in its relation to standard of living 419
Boarders and lodgers 422
Size of apartments 426
\ Size of households 428
l Congestion 430
A Literacy 438
Conjugal condition .. 447
Visits abroad 461
Age classification of industrial workers 463
Ownership of homes 467
Status of children in the households studied 470
Ability to speak English 474
Citizenship 484
The industrial significance of recent immigration —
Recent expansion of American industry 491
Increase in the number of wage-earners 491
Employment of immigrant labor 493
Reasons for the employment of recent immigrants 493
Conditions which made possible the extensive employment of recent
immigrants 494
Present day industrial communities 495
Salient characteristics of the recent immigrant labor supply 498
Effect of the competition of recent immigrants upon native Americans
and older immigrant employees 500
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon labor organiza-
tions 530
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon industrial organ-
ization and methods 538
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon working
relations 540
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon wages and hours
of work 540
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon the establish-
ment of new industries 541
Abstract of the report on recent immigrants in agriculture ; 543-615
Introductory —
Older immigrant race groups in agriculture 547
Scope and method of investigation —
Communities investigated, by races 551
Scope of investigation 553
Purpose of investigation. 554
Method of investigation. 555
General survey of the races studied —
Italians in agriculture _ 559
Italians in the southern States 566
Italians in New York State 572
Hebrew rural communities 575
Poles in agriculture _ 581
Bohemians and other races in agriculture 587
\
VJii Contents.
\
Abstract of the report on recent immigrants in agriculture — Continued. Page.
Seasonal agricultural laborers —
Introductory 593
Race composition 594
Sources whence recruited 595
Conditions of employment 596
Housing conditions 598
Standard of living 599
Americanization . 600
General sociological survey of the immigrants in rural communities from
whom information was secured 601
Abstract of the report on Japanese and other immigrant races in the Pacific
Coast and Rocky Mountain States 617-694
Introductory 621
Scope and method of investigation 625
European and Canadian immigrants 644
Chinese 654
Japanese 660
East Indians 676
Mexicans 682
Conclusions 691
Immigration conditions in Hawaii 695-722
Early immigration 699
Effects of annexation 701
Recent immigration 702
Assisted immigration since 1905 703
Immigration statistics 708
School attendance 1 714
Economic status of immigrants 714
Accumulation of wealth by immigrants 717
Land and settlement 718
General conditions attending immigration 720
Abstract of the report on immigrants in cities 723-772
Introductory 727
Results of investigation'. 727
Method and scope 731
Summary for seven cities 732
Composition of population 733
Living conditions 741
Economic status 760
Assimilation 768
Abstract of the report on occupations of the first and second generations of
immigrants in the United States 773-838
Male breadwinners 778
General laborers 779
Miners and quarrymen 782
Iron and steel workers 783
Textile-mill operatives , 786
The building trades 788
Clerical pursuits 790
Salesmen, agents, and commercial travelers 793
Professional service ta 795
Agriculture 799
Female breadwinners. 803
Servants and waitresses 804
The needle trades 806
Textile-mill operatives 810
Clerical pursuits 813
Saleswomen. 815
Teachers 818
Table A: Male breadwinners 821-829
Table B: Female breadwinners 830-838
Index .. . 839-902
INTRODUCTORY.
The complete report of the Immigration Commission consists of
42 volumes. In volume 1 there is presented a brief history of the
organization and work of the Commission, together with its conclu-
sions and recommendations, but this volume, as well as volume 2,
consists for the most part of abstracts of the more extended reports
of the Commission upon various phases of the subject under consid-
eration. In preparing these abstracts it was the purpose of the
Commission to present in a condensed form some of the more essential
results of its investigations, and while the various abstracts lack the
great mass of important statistical and other data contained in the
reports upon which they are based, it is believed that they are suffi-
ciently exhaustive to meet the requirements of the average student
of the immigration problem.
Included in the two volumes are the complete reports of the
Commission on various subjects, and also the present United States
immigration laws and regulations, the treaty, laws, and regulations
governing the admission of Chinese, and the United States naturali-
zation laws and regulations.
The reports and abstracts of reports included in the two volumes
are as follows :
Statistical review of immigration to the United States, 1820-1910. —
This abstract is based on a statistical work of the same title which
contains a compilation of all available statistics relative to immigra-
tion to the United States from 1819, when such data were first
recorded, to June 30, 1910.
Distribution of immigrants, 1850-1900. — An abstract of a report of
the same title which was prepared under the direction of the Com-
mission by Dr. Joseph A. Hill, chief statistician of the Division of
Revision and Results, Bureau of the Census, assisted by W. F. Hick-
ernell, special agent. The report is based on United States Census
reports.
Emigration conditions in Europe. — Based on the report which
resulted from the Commission's investigations in the principal immi-
grant-furnishing countries of Europe.
Immigrant races or peoples. — An abstract of the dictionary of
races or peoples which was prepared for the Commission by Dr.
Daniel Folkmar, assisted by Dr. Elnora C. Folkmar.
Immigrants in manufacturing and mining. — An abstract of the
reports on immigrants in industries, as follows: Bituminous-coal
mining, iron and steel manufacturing, cotton-goods manufacturing
in the North Atlantic States, woolen and worsted goods manu-
facturing, silk-goods manufacturing and dyeing, clothing manu-
facturing, collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, leather manufac-
turing, boot and shoe manufacturing, glove manufacturing, slaugh-
tering and meat packing, sugar refining, glass manufacturing, agri-
cultural implement and vehicle manufacturing, cigar and tobacco
manufacturing, furniture manufacturing, copper mining and smelt-
Introductory.
ing, iron-ore mining, anthracite-coal mining, oil refining, diversified
industries, and the floating immigrant labor supply. This abstract
and the reports upon which it is based were prepared under the direc-
tion of the Commission by W. Jett Lauck, superintendent of agents,
who also had charge of the main field work in this branch of the
Commission's inquiry.
Recent immigrants in agriculture. — An abstract based on the Com-
mission's general report of the same title, which report concerns the
status and progress of recent immigrants of various races who have
entered agricultural pursuits in States east of the Rocky Mountains.
This branch of the inquiry was conducted under the direction of the
Commission by Alexander E. Cance, Ph. D., of Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College, who also prepared the general report and abstract
upon the subject.
Japanese and other immigrant races in the Pacific Coast and Rocky^
Mountain States. — An abstract based on the Commission's report of
the same title. The abstract and the report upon which it is based
were prepared by Prof. H. A. Millis, of Leland Stanford Junior
University, who as superintendent of agents had charge of the
Commission's general investigations in the Western division of States.
The immigration situation in Hawaii. — This is the complete report
upon the subject and was prepared for the Commission by Dr.
Victor S. Clark.
Immigrants in cities. — An abstract based on the Commission's
report of the same title which treats of the social and economic
status of recent immigrants in congested districts of New York,
Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Buffalo, Cleveland, and Milwaukee.
The -field work in this investigation was conducted under the direction
of the Commission by Dr. E. A. Goldenweiser, special agent, and the
report was prepared by Doctor Goldenweiser and Mary Louise Mark,
special agent, assisted by Nellie F. Sheets.
Occupations of the first and second generations of immigrants in the
United States. — An abstract of a report of the same title which was
prepared under the direction of the Commission by Dr. Joseph A. Hill,
chief statistician of the Division of Revision and Results, Bureau of
the Census. The report is based on unpublished data from United
States Census schedules.
The children of immigrants in schools. — An abstract of the Com-
mission's general report on the status of the children of immigrants
in the public schools of 37 cities and the parochial schools of 24
cities. The data upon which this report is based were collected
and tabulated under the direction of Dr. Roland P. Falkner. Before
the completion of the work, however, Doctor Falkner resigned from
the service of the Commission to become financial representative of
the Republic of Liberia, and the abstract was prepared by Fred C.
Croxton, chief statistician of the Commission, assisted by Frances W.
Simonds.
Immigrants as charity seekers. — An abstract of the Commission's
report of the same title. This report concerns the activities of
federated charity organizations in 43 cities during the winter of
1908-9. The inquiry was conducted with the assistance of Mr.
Francis H. McLean, field secretary of the field department for the
extension of organized charity in the United States, and the field
work was superintended and the report prepared under the direction
of the Commission by Jessie C. Lloyd, special agent.
Introductory.
Immigration and crime. — An abstract of the Commission's report
of the same title, both of which were prepared under the direction of
the Commission by Leslie Hay ford, special agent.
Immigration ana insanity. — This is the complete report of the Com-
mission upon the subject, and was prepared under the direction of
the Commission by Earle Clark, special agent.
Immigrants in charity hospitals. — This is the complete report of the
Commission upon the subject, and is based on data collected by the
Commission in Bellevue and Allied Hospitals, New York City, dur-
ing the seven months ending February 28, 1909. The report was
prepared by Fred C. Croxton, chief statistician of the Commission,
assisted by Inez M. Clark.
Steerage conditions. — An abstract of the Commission's report of the
same title (S. Doc. No. 206, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) which was prepared
by Anna Herkner, special agent, and presented to Congress December
i3, 1909. The report is based on reports of Miss Herkner and other
special agents of the Commission who traveled in the steerage of
transatlantic ships and on vessels engaged in the coastwise trade.
Immigrant homes and aid societies. — An abstract of the Commission's
report of the same title which was prepared under the direction of
the Commission by Martha E. Dodson, special agent, who also had
charge of collecting the data upon which the report is based.
Importation and harboring of women for immoral purposes. — An
abstract of the Commission's report of the same title (S. Doc. No.
196, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) which was presented to Congress December
10, 1909.
Alien seamen and stowaways. — This is the complete report of the
Commission upon the subject, and is based in part on investigations
made for the Commission by Inspector Samuel A. Eppler, of the
United States Immigration Service.
Contract labor and induced and assisted immigration. — This is the
complete report of the Commission upon the subject. It is based in
part upon the investigations of Commission agents and in part upon
data furnished to the Commission by Inspector John Gruenberg, of
the United States Immigration Service.
The Greek padrone system in the United States. — This is the com-
plete report of the Commission upon the subject, and was prepared
for the Commission by Inspector A. A. Seraphic, of the United States
Immigration Service.
Immigrant banks. — An abstract of the Commission's report of the
same title (S. Doc. 381, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) which was presented
to Congress February 24, 1910. This report was prepared by W. K.
Ramsey, jr., special agent, under the direction of W. Jett Lauck,
superintendent of agents.
Peonage. — This is the complete report of the Commission upon the
subject, and is based on investigations conducted under the direction
of a special committee of the Commission.
Fecundity of immigrant women. — An abstract of a report of the
same title which was prepared under the direction of the Commission
by Dr. Joseph A. Hill, chief statistician of the Division of Revision
and Results, Bureau of the Census, assisted by Julius H. Parmelee.
The report is based on unpublished data from United States Census
schedules.
Introductory.
Changes in bodily form of descendants of immigrants . — An abstract
of a report of the same title which was prepared for the Commission
by Franz Boas, professor of anthropology, Columbia University,
New York. A partial report upon the subject (S. Doc. 208, 61st
Cong., 2d sess.) was presented to Congress December 16, 1909.
Federal immigration legislation. — An abstract of a report of the
same title which was prepared under the direction of the Commission
by Frank L. Shaw, special agent.
Steerage legislation, 1819-1908. — An abstract of a report of the
same title which was prepared under the direction of the Commission
by Glen Edwards, special agent.
The immigration situation in other countries. — An abstract of the
Commission's report on the immigration situation in Canada, Austra-
lia, New Zealand, Argentina, and Brazil. The complete report on
Canada (S. Doc. 469, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) was presented to Congress
April 1, 1910. The reports on Australia and New Zealand were
prepared under the direction of the Commission by Mary Helen
Eagan, and the reports on Argentina and Brazil by Mary Mills West.
The complete reports of the Commission include the following, of
which no abstract was made :
Digest of Immigration Decisions.
State Immigration and Alien Laws.
Statements and Recommendations Submitted by Societies and
Organizations Interested in the Subject of Immigration.
The first named consists of a digest of the principal judicial deci-
sions and opinions in cases arising under the statutes and treaties
relating to the exclusion and deportation of aliens, which was com-
piled for the Commission by John W. Clifton, special agent. The
digest is confined chiefly to decisions rendered by courts of final
jurisdiction. The cardinal principles of law involved in the cases
adjudicated are presented, for the most part, through brief extracts
taken from the opinions delivered.
The report on State immigration and alien laws, which also was
compiled by Mr. Clifton, contains the principal legislative enactments
of the various States respecting immigration and aliens, including the
earlier laws of some of the seaboard States for the regulation of the
movement from foreign countries.
The Commission's plan of work did not include formal hearings,
and consequently but little testimony, in the ordinary meaning of
that term, was taken. However, various societies and organizations
were invited by the Commission to submit statements and recommen-
dations relative to the subject under consideration and the invitation
was quite generally responded to. These statements and recom-
mendations are published in a separate volume in the Commission's
general report.
BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF THE
IMMIGRATION COMMISSION, WITH CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS AND VIEWS
OF THE MINORITY.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Brief statement of the investigations:
The immigration legislation of 1907....' '. 9
Membership of the Commission 11
Organization of the Commission 12
Purpose of the inquiry 12
jplan and scope of the inquiry v 13
Investigations in Europe 14
Investigations in the United States 15
Racial classification of immigrants 17
Methods of work 20
Reports of the Immigration Commission 21
Conclusions:
Sources of immigration and character of immigrants 23
Causes of the movement 25
Immigration of diseased aliens 26
Immigration of criminals „ 27
Immigration of the mentally defective 28
Contract labor and induced and assisted immigration 29
The padrone system 29
Importation of aliens for immoral purposes 30
Steerage conditions 30
Immigrant homes and aid societies 30
Immigrant banks 31
Boards of special inquiry 32
Immigration and crime 33
Immigration and the public health 34
Immigration and pauperism 35
Congestion of immigrants in cities. 36
Immigrants in manufacturing and mining 37
Recent immigrants in agriculture 39
Artificial distribution of immigrants 40
Japanese and other immigrants on the Pacific slope 40
Assimilation of immigrants 41
Children of immigrants in schools , 43
Changes in bodily form of descendants of immigrants 43
Recommendations 45
Views of the minority 49
7
BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF THE IMMIGRATION
COMMISSION, WITH CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS AND
VIEWS OF THE MINORITY,
BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.
The Immigration Commission was created by section 39 of the
immigration act of February 20, 1907, which provides as follows :
That a commission is hereby created, consisting of three Senators, to be
appointed by the President of the Senate, and three members of the House of
Representatives, to be appointed by the Speaker of the House of Representa-
tives, and three persons to be appointed by the President of the United States.
Said commission shall make full inquiry, examination, and investigation, by
subcommittee or otherwise, into the subject of immigration. For the purpose
of said inquiry, examination, and investigation said commission is authorized
to send for persons and papers, make all necessary travel, either in the United
States or any foreign country, and, through the chairman of the commission,
or any member thereof, to administer oaths and to examine witnesses and
papers respecting all matters pertaining to the subject, and to employ necessary
clerical and other assistance. Said commission shall report to Congress the
conclusions reached by it, and make such recommendations as in its judgment
may seem proper. Such sums of money as may be necessary for the said
inquiry, examination, and investigation are hereby appropriated and authorized
to be paid out of the "immigrant fund" on th£ certificate of the chairman of
said commission, including all expenses of the commissioners, and a reasonable
compensation, to be fixed by the President of the United States, for those mem-
bers of the commission who are not members of Congress ; * * *.
THE IMMIGRATION LEGISLATION OF 1907.
When the bill ° which was finally enacted as the immigration law of
February 20, 1907,6 was reported from the Senate Committee on Immi-
gration March 29, 1906, it proposed several important amendments
to the existing law. However, no change in the immigration policy
of the Government was suggested. The " head tax " on immigrants
was increased from $2 to $5 ; imbeciles, feeble-minded persons, unac-
companied children under 17 years of age, and persons "who are
found to be and are certified by the examining surgeon as being men-
tally or physically defective, such mental or physical defect being of
a nature which may affect the ability of such aliens to earn a living,"
were added to the excluded classes ; the provision of existing law ex-
cluding prostitutes was amended to also exclude " women or girls com-
ing into the United States for the purpose of prostitution or for any
other immoral purpose; " steamship companies were required to fur-
nish lists of outgoing alien passengers; and the creation of a divi-
sion of distribution in the Bureau of Immigration was authorized.
a Senate bill 4403, Fifty-ninth Congress, first session.
6 See Volume II, pp. 731-744.
72289°— VOL 1—11 2 9
10 The Immigration Commission.
In the Senate the bill was amended by the insertion of a literacy
test, which provided for the exclusion from the United States of—
all persons over sixteen years of age and physically capable of reading who
can not read the English language or some other language; but an admissible
immigrant or a person now in or hereafter admitted to this country may bring
in or send for his wife, his children under eighteen years of age, and his
parents or grandparents over fifty years of age, if they are otherwise admissible,
whether they are so able to read or not.
The bill as amended passed the Senate May 23, 1906.
The House of Representatives Committee on Immigration and
Naturalization, to which was referred Senate bill 4403, on May 29,
1906, reported by substituting another bill, which, however, did not
differ materially from that of the Senate. The " head-tax " pro-
vision was the same and the additions to the excluded classes prac-
tically so, a literacy test similar to that of the Senate being advised.
The bill as originally reported by the House committee also provided
for the exclusion of every adult male who had not $25 in his pos-
session, and every female alien and every male alien under 16 years
not possessed of $15, provided that $50 in the possession of the head
of a family should be considered a sufficient amount for all members
of such family, except grown sons. In a subsequent report, pre-
sented June 11, 1906, the money-qualification feature was omit-
ted. Each of the House reports was accompanied by a minority
report, signed by two members of the committee, in which the in-
creased "head tax" and the educational-test provisions were dis-
agreed to. In the House of Representatives the bill was amended
by striking out the increased " head-tax " provision and the provision
for a literacy test and by inserting a section creating the Immigra-
tion Commission. The House also adopted the so-called "Littauer"
amendment, which provided as follows:
That an immigrant who proves that he is seeking admission to this country
solely to avoid prosecution or punishment on religious or political grounds, for
an offense of a political character, or prosecution involving danger of imprison-
ment or danger to life or limb on account of religious belief, shall not be
deported because of want of means or the probability of his being unable to
earn a livelihood.
In conference between the two Houses the Senate receded from its
provision relative to a literacy test ; the House receded from the Lit-
tauer amendment; the "head-tax" provision was compromised by
fixing the amount at $4, instead of $5 as provided by the Senate and
$2 as provided by the House; the House amendment creating the
Immigration Commission was agreed to, with an amendment which
provided that the Commission should consist of three Senators, three
Members of the House of Representatives, and three persons to be ap-
pointed by the President of the United States, instead of two Sena-
tors, three Members of the House, and two citizen members, as was
provided in the House amendment. The section creating the Com-
mission was further amended in conference by the addition of the
following provision:
* * * The President of the United States is also authorized, in the name
of the Government of the United States, to call, in his discretion, an inter-
national conference, to assemble at such point as may be agreed upon, or to send
special commissioners to any foreign country, for the purpose of regulating by
international agreement, subject to the advice and consent of the Senate of the
Brief Statement of the Investigations. « 11
United States, the immigration of aliens to the United States ; of providing for
the mental, moral, and physicial examination of such aliens by American con-
suls or other officers of the United States Government at the ports of embarka-
tion, or elsewhere; of securing the assistance of foreign governments in their
own territories to prevent the evasion of the laws of the United States govern-
ing immigration to the United States ; of entering into such international agree-
ments as may be proper to prevent the immigration of aliens who, under the
laws of the United States, are or may be excluded from entering the United
States, and of regulating any matters pertaining to such immigration.
The conferees also added a new section (sec. 42) to the bill amend-
ing section 1 of the passenger act of 1882 relative to air space allotted
to steerage passengers, and amended section 1 of the immigration bill
under consideration by inserting the following provision:
That whenever the President shall be satisfied that passports issued by any
foreign government to its citizens to go to any country other than the United
States, or to any insular possession of the United States, or to the Canal Zone,
are being used for the purpose of enabling the holders to come to the continental
territory of the United States, to the detriment of labor conditions therein, the
President may refuse to permit such citizens of the country issuing such pass-
ports to enter the continental territory of the United States from such other
country, or from such insular possessions, or from the Canal Zone.
It will be noted from the above that the attitude of the Senate and
that of the House of Representatives toward the immigration ques-
tion differed radically. In adopting the literacy test provision the
Senate clearly favored restriction, as did the House committee, but
the House of Representatives not only rejected this provision and
refused to increase the "head tax," but, in adopting the Littauer
amendment, seemingly indicated a willingness to >make even the
existing law less formidable.
In view of the fact that the legislation finally agreed upon was a
compromise and made no radical change in existing law, the creation
of a commission charged with making " full inquiry, examination,
and investigation " of the subject under consideration was clearly an
admission that the evidence at hand was insufficient to warrant a con-
gressional verdict either for or against a change in the immigration
policy of the Government. The Commission as created viewed the
situation in this light, and its only purpose has been to execute the
will of Congress accordingly.
MEMBERSHIP OF THE COMMISSION.
On February 22, 1907, the Vice-President appointed as members of
the Immigration Commission on the part of the Senate, the following
Senators : Hon. William P. Dillingham, of Vermont, Chairman of the
Senate Committee on Immigration, and Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge,
of Massachusetts, and Hon. Anselm J. McLaurin, of Mississippi, both
of whom were members of the same committee. Mr. McLaurin, at
his own request, was excused from service on the Commission, and on
March 2, 1907, Hon. Asbury C. Latimer, of South Carolina, also a
member of the Committee on Immigration, was appointed to fill the
vacancy. On March 2, 1907, the Speaker of the House of Represen-
tatives appointed as members of the Commission on the part of that
body, Hon. Benjamin F. Howell, of New Jersey. Hon. William S.
Bennet, of New York, and Hon. John L. Burnett, of Alabama. Mr.
Howell was chairman, and Messrs. Bennet and Burnett were members,
12 The Immigration Commission.
of the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. The
President of the United States appointed as representatives of the
executive department on the Commission, Hon. Charles P. Neill, of
the District of Columbia, Prof. Jeremiah W. Jenks, of New York, and
Mr. William R. Wheeler, of 'California. Mr. Latimer died February
20, 1908. and on February 25, 1908, Hon. Anselm J. McLaurin was
again appointed to the Commission. The latter died December 22,
1909, and on March 16, 1910, Hon. Le Eoy Percy, of Mississippi,
was appointed as his successor. With the exceptions noted the mem-
bership of the Commission remained unchanged.
ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMISSION.
The Commission organized April 22, 1907, by electing Hon. William
P. Dillingham, chairman ; Morton E. Crane, of Massachusetts, secre-
tary and disbursing officer ; and W. W. Husband, of Vermont, clerk of
the United States Senate Committee on Immigration, and C. S.
Atkinson, of New Jersey, clerk of the House of Representatives Com-
mittee on Immigration and Naturalization, secretaries. Fred C.
Croxton, of the United States Bureau of Labor, was later chosen as
chief statistician of the Commission. In the early part of the work
Mr. Croxton was assisted by Erville B. Woods, and later by Mary
Louise Mark. In the final preparation of the reports of the Com-
mission, H. Parker Willis wras the editorial adviser. Mr. Atkinson
was, at his own request, furloughed without pay on June 1, 1908,
and from that date was not actively engaged in the work of the
Commission.
PURPOSE OF THE INQUIRY.
As previously stated, the act creating the Commission directed that
it should "make full inquiry, examination, and investigation, by sub-
committee or otherwise, into the subject of immigration," and the
Commission has followed this instruction.
In the beginning two plans of work were considered. One plan
contemplated bringing together in a new form already existing data ;
conducting an inquiry into the effectiveness of the existing immigra-
tion law and its administration, and by means of hearings securing
information and expressions of opinion from persons interested in
various phases of the subject under consideration. By the second
plan it was proposed to utilize such existing data as might be con-
sidered of value, but also to make an original inquiry into funda-
mental phases of the subject which had previously been considered
only in a superficial manner, or not at all.
After due consideration the Commission reached the conclusion
that the first-mentioned plan, no matter how carefully it might be
carried out, would yield very little new information that would be of
value to Congress in a serious consideration of the Government's im-
migration policy. Consequently it was discarded in favor of an
original investigation which, it was perfectly apparent, would neces-
sarily be more far reaching and involve more work than any inquiry
of a similar nature, except the census alone, that had ever been under-
taken by the Government.
Brief Statement of the Investigations. 13
PLAN AND SCOPE OF THE INQUIRY.
Briefly stated, the plan of work adopted by the Commission in-
cluded a study of the sources of recent immigration in Europe, the
general character of incoming immigrants, the methods employed
here and abroad to prevent the immigration of persons classed as un-
desirable in the United States immigration law, and finally a thorough
investigation into the general status of the more recent immigrants
as residents of the United States, and the effect of such immigration
upon the institutions, industries, and people of this country. As
above suggested, the chief basis of the Commission's work was the
changed character of the immigration movement to the United States
during the past twenty-five years.
During the fiscal year 1907, in which the Commission was created,
a total of 1,285,349 immigrants were admitted to the United States.
Of this number 1,207,619 were from Europe, including Turkey in
Asia, and of these 979,661, or 81 per cent, came from the southern
and eastern countries, comprising Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece,
Italy, Montenegro, Poland, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Servia,
Spain, Turkey in Europe, and Turkey in Asia.
Twenty-five years earlier, in the fiscal year 1882, 648,186 European
immigrants came to the United States, and of these only 84,973, or
13.1 per cent, came from the countries above enumerated, while
563,213, or 86.9 per cent, were from Belgium, Great Britain and
Ireland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, and Switzer-
land, which countries furnished about 95 per cent of the immigration
movement from Europe to the United States between 1819 and 1883.
During the entire period for which statistics are available — July
1, 1819, to June 30, 1910— a total of 25,528,410 European immigrants,
including 106,481 from Turkey in Asia, were admitted to the United
States.0 Of these, 16,052,900, or 62.9 per cent, came from the northern
and^ western countries enumerated, and 9,475,510, or 37.1 per cent,
from southern and eastern Europe and Turkey in Asia. For conven-
ience the former movement will be referred to in the Commission's
reports as the " old immigration " and the latter as the " new immi-
gration." The old and the new immigration differ in many essentials.
The former was, from the beginning, largely a movement of settlers
who came from the most progressive sections of Europe for the pur-
pose of making for themselves homes in the New World. They en-
tered practically every line of activity in nearly every part or the
country. Coining during a period of agricultural development,
many of them entered agricultural pursuits, sometimes as inde-
pendent farmers, but more often as farm laborers, who, neverthe-
less, as a rule soon became landowners. They formed an important
part of the great movement toward the West during the last century,
and as pioneers were most potent factors in the development of the
territory between the Allegheny Mountains and the Pacific coast.
They mingled freely with the native Americans and were quickly
assimilated, although a large proportion of them, particularly in
later years, belonged to non-English-speaking races. This natural bar
to assimilation, however, was soon overcome by them, while the racial
identity of their children was almost entirely lost and forgotten.
0 See pp. 61 to 64.
14 The Immigration Commission.
On the other hand, the new immigration has been largely a move-
ment of unskilled laboring men who have come, in large part tempo-
rarily, from the less progressive and advanced countries of Europe in
response to the call for industrial workers in the eastern and middle
western States. They have almost entirely avoided agricultural pur-
suits, and in cities and industrial communities have congregated
together in sections apart from native Americans and the older immi-
grants to such an extent that assimilation has been slow as com-
pared to that of the earlier non-English-speaking races.
The new immigration as a class is far less intelligent than the old,
approximately one-third of all those over 14 years of age when ad-
mitted being illiterate. Racially they are for the most part essen-
tially unlike the British, German, and other peoples who came during
the period prior to 1880, and generally speaking they are actuated
in coming by different ideals, for the old immigration came to be a
part of the country, while the new, in a large measure, comes with the
intention of profiting, in a pecuniary way, by the superior advan-
tages of the new world and then returning to the old country.
The old immigration movement, which in earlier days was the sub-
ject of much discussion and the cause of no little apprehension among
the people of the country, long ago became thoroughly merged into
the population, and the old sources have contributed a comparatively
small part of the recent immigrant tide. Consequently the Commis-
sion paid but little attention to the foreign-born element of the old
immigrant class and directed its efforts almost entirely to an inquiry
relative to the general status of the newer immigrants as residents of
the United States.
In pursuance of this policy the Commission began its study of the
subject in the countries of Europe which are the chief sources of the
new immigration, and followed the emigration movement to ports of
embarkation, across the ocean in the steerage, and finally to every part
of the United States and into practically every line of activity in
which the new immigrants were to be found.
The general plan and scope of the Commission's work are briefly
stated in the pages following.
INVESTIGATIONS IN EUROPE.
The main subjects considered in the European inquiry were as
follows :
1. Causes of emigration, natural and artificial.
2. Economic conditions in Europe and the effect on emigration to
the United States.
3. Steamship companies and their agents as factors in promoting
emigration.
4. Classes and character of European emigrants.
5. Emigration of criminals.
G. Attitude of European governments toward emigration.
7. Laws of the various countries respecting emigration and emi-
grants.
8. Effect of the United States immigration law in preventing the
embarkation of undesirable emigrants.
Brief Statement of the Investigations. 15
9. Medical examination of intending emigrants at ports of em-
barkation and elsewhere, and practicability of having such exami-
nations made by United States medical officers.
10. United States consular officers as a factor in regulating immi-
gration.
11. International regulation of emigration and immigration.
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.
Before undertaking investigations in the United States several
months were spent in examining existing data upon the subject under
consideration with special reference to material which could be
utilized in a study of the effect of the new immigration upon the
United States, in both an economic and a sociological sense. It was
found that in the United States census schedules for 1900 there were
considerable data relating to the general subject that had not been
utilized, and by courtesy of the Department of Commerce and Labor
this material was made available for the use of the Commission, with
the result that a valuable and interesting report on the occupational
status of immigrants and their children and another on the relative
fecundity of foreign-born and native-born women were prepared. In
the meantime the Commission's investigations into the white-slave
traffic and some other subjects were undertaken.
The main object of the Commission, however, was to secure data
which would show as clearly as possible the general effect, in a broad
sense, of the new immigration movement upon the people, the in-
dustries, and the institutions of the United States, and in order to ac-
complish this it was found imperative that a large amount of original
statistical data be collected. Consequently a broad and comprehen-
sive plan of work was adopted, and in the winter of 1908 the Com-
mission's field investigations, which eventually were extended to every
part of the country, were inaugurated.
The plan of work under which the field investigations of the Com-
mission wrere carried on contemplated an extensive inquiry into the
status of the new immigrants and including the following subjects:
1. Congestion of immigrants in New York, Chicago, Boston, and
other large cities.
2. Immigrants as industrial workers in the leading industries, in-
cluding effect on wages, employment of native-born workers, condi-
tions of work, etc.
3. Effect of recent immigration on wages and other conditions in
various trades, from the standpoint of native-born and older immi-
grant workers in such trades.
4. Progress of immigrant industrial workers.
5. Recent immigrants as residents of industrial communities.
6. Recent immigrants in agriculture.
7. Immigrant children and the children of immigrants in schools.
8. Extent to which recent immigrants and their children are be-
coming assimilated or Americanized, and agencies promoting or re-
tarding Americanization.
9. The physical assimilation of immigrants.
10. Alien criminality.
16 The Immigration Commission.
11. Immigrants in penal and reformatory institutions.
12. Immigrants in institutions for the insane.
13. Immigrants as charity seekers in various cities.
14. Immigrants in charity hospitals.
Other features included in the Commission's plan of work and
which required the collection of original data through field agents
were:
1. An inquiry concerning the importation of women for immoral
purposes — the " white slave " traffic.
2. An investigation of immigrant homes, aid societies, and em-
ployment agencies.
3. An investigation of the immigrant bank system, which included
also an inquiry relative to the amount of money sent abroad by
immigrants.
4. An investigation of conditions under which immigrants are
carried at sea.
5. The original plans of the Commission contemplated, in connec-
tion with the general field work, an inquiry into the alleged holding
of immigrants in peonage in various pa*rts of the country. This was
made the subject of a special inquiry, however, because of the fol-
lowing resolution by the House of Representatives, adopted March
2,1908:
Resolved, That the Immigration Commission be requested to make an investi-
gation into the treatment and conditions of work of immigrants on the cotton
plantations of the Mississippi Delta, in the States of Mississippi and Arkansas,
and upon the turpentine farms, lumber camps, and railway camps in the States
of Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and other States; and to report them at as
early a date as possible.
In addition to the various branches of the investigation requiring
field work, the plan of the Commission contemplated digest work as
follows :
1. Review of national and state legislation respecting immigration.
2. Review of United States and European legislation for the regu-
lation of the steerage-passenger traffic.
-5. Digest of judicial decisions on aliens, immigration, and the im-
migration and Chinese-exclusion laws.
4. The immigration situation in other immigrant-receiving coun-
tries and the laws of such countries regulating the movement.
5. Statistical review of immigration to the United States from 1819
to date, including revision of data for the earlier years from original
reports.
6. Geographical distribution and general status of the foreign-born
and their children in census years 1850 to 1900, from census reports.
As previously stated, hearings in the ordinary meaning of that
term were not included in the Commission's plan of work. In lieu of
this several important societies and organizations interested in vari-
ous phases of the immigration question were invited to submit in
writing such statements as they desired to bring to the attention of
the Commission. In response to this invitation several interesting
statements were received and these are made a part of the Commis-
sion's report.
Brief Statement of the Investigations. 17
RACIAL CLASSIFICATION OF IMMIGRANTS.
Since 1899 the Bureau of Immigration has classified arriving
immigrants by races or peoples, as well as by country of last perma-
nent residence, and this plan was followed by the Commission in
collecting and compiling original data respecting the foreign-born
element in the population of the United States. The bureau's classi-
fication of races or peoples, which was also adopted by the Com-
mission, is as follows:
African (black). Korean.
Armenian. Lithuanian.
Bohemian and Moravian. Magyar.
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin. Mexican.
Chinese. Pacific Islander.
Croatian and Slovenian. Polish.
Cuban. Portuguese.
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzefeovi- Roumanian.
nian. Russian.
Dutch and Flemish. Ruthenian (Russniak).
East Indian. Scandinavian.
English. Scotch.
Finnish. Slovak.
French. Spanish.
German. Spanish-American.
Greek. ' Syrian.
Hebrew. Turkish.
Irish. Welsh.
Italian, North. West Indian (except Cuban).
Italian', South. All other peoples.
Japanese.
In the Commission's work it was sometimes found expedient to
amplify the above list somewhat, but in no case were changes made
which would render noncomparable the reports of the bureau and of
the Commission. In this connection it may be explained that the
Commission, like the bureau, uses the term " race " in a broad sense,
the distinction being largely a matter of language and geography,
rather than one of color or physical characteristics such as determines
the various more restricted racial classifications in use, the most com-
mon of which divides mankind into only five races.0 For practical or
statistical purposes such classification is obviously without value,
and it is rarely employed.
In the United States, until the Bureau of Immigration departed
from the custom, practically all statistics dealing with the population
had been recorded by country of birth. For immigration purposes
prior to 1880 this system was in the main satisfactory, for in the case
of immigrants from northern and western Europe the country of
birth as a usual thing also fairly established the racial status. With
the development of the immigration movement from eastern and
southern Europe, however, data based on a knowledge of the country
of birth alone indicated practically nothing of the racial status of
persons coming from such country to the United States. This may
be illustrated by the fact that, according to Bureau of Immigration
statistics, as many as 12 different races, all indigenous to the coun-
« See pp. 200-211.
IB The Immigration Commission.
try, are represented among immigrants from Austria-Hungary, while
people of 7 distinct races come from Russia. In the case of both
countries the distinctions are even greater than those indicated
merely by language, for among the immigrants the Teutonic, Slavic,
Semitic, and even the Mongolian races are all largely represented.
The immigration movement from Turkey also furnishes a most strik-
ing illustration of the mingling of emigrating races in a single po-
litical division, for in the fiscal year 1907 there came from that coun-
try to the United States 9,412 Bulgarians, Servians, and Montene-
grins, 7,060 . Greeks, 952 Syrians, 588 Hebrews, 194 Roumanians,
1,124 Turks, and 1,437 persons of other races. It is not probable
that all of these immigrants were born in Turkey, but nevertheless
the figures show the uncertain value of a classification by nativity,
for while in the absence of other data it might be necessary to assume
that all persons of the above group born in Turkey were Turks, as a
matter of fact only 1 in about 18 was really of that race.
In most European countries population statistics, including cen-
suses, are recorded by the racial or language classification, and this
method has also been followed in Canada for many years. The
practice of recording the population of the United States by country
or place of birth has been in force since the census of 1850. When
the bill providing for the census of 1910 was under consideration in
Congress, the Senate, at the instance of the Immigration Commission,
inserted an amendment requiring that the foreign-born should be
recorded by race as well as by place of birth, but the provision was
eliminated from the bill in conference. Later, however, the census
act was amended to provide for the enumeration of the foreign-born
in the United States according to their "nationality or mother
tongue." By this amendment the result desired by the Commission
will be essentially attained, except in the case of certain races or peo-
ples whose original language is not in general use and who speak the
language of the country where they reside, and both the scientific and
practical value of the census undoubtedly will be greatly enhanced.
In recommending the enactment of the above-mentioned amend-
ment Dr. E. Dana Durand, Director of the Census, stated in part as
follows :
It is a well-known fact that in several of the leading foreign countries,
notably in Russia, Austria, and Turkey, the population is far from being
homogeneous, but is made up of a number of decidedly distinct nationalities,
sometimes referred to as races. The differences in racial characteristics, lan-
guage, and habits of life, as between these different sections of the population,
are often very marked, and unless they are recognized in enumerating the
population from these countries the census will fail to disclose facts which are
of much importance from the practical as well as the scientific standpoint. In
considering legislation relating to immigration particularly, information with
regard to the nationality of the foreign-born population is of great importance.
No adequate statistics of the number of the different leading nationalities
among our foreign-born population can be secured, even by the most elaborate
method of returning the place of birth. It is true that the census act does not
confine the inquiry to country of birth, but reads " place of birth," so that
provinces or well-recognized sections within any country can be reported as
places of birth. With this in view, the instructions for the population schedule
have provided for reporting persons born in Bohemia, Poland, and Lithuania.
The number of Bohemians, Poles, and Lithuanians, however, does not corre-
spond at all precisely with the number born in those sections respectively, and
the same is still more true with regard to many other provinces and nationali-
ties, i
Brief Statement of the Investigations. 19
Aside from the scientific value of a report of nationality, it appears that the
members of some of the nationalities which are now largely represented in our
population feel strongly opposed to a disregard of nationality in the census
reports. The various Slavic nationalities coming from Austria-Hungary appear
almost unanimously to object to being reported as born in Austria or Hungary,
unless the additional information showing their nationality is presented, so that
they will not be supposed to be Austrians or Hungarians. This strong feeling
on the part of a large number of the population is likely to render it difficult for
the enumerators to do their work, and may endanger the accuracy of the returns
of these classes.
As far as ascertained by the Commission, the practice of classifying
the foreign-born by race or people, rather than by country of birth,
is acceptable to the people of such races in the United States with
one exception. Indeed, as stated by Doctor Durand, many of them
appear to prefer the racial classification to one of nativity, which is
only natural, because as a rule they are, both here and in their native
countries, more accustomed to the former.
The objection to the racial classification adopted by the Commis-
sion, referred to above, was specifically directed against the use of
the word " Hebrew " or " Jewish " to designate a race. This objection
was voiced by several prominent Hebrews, who contended that the
Jews are not a distinct race in an ethnological sense, and that the
terms " Hebrew " and " Jewish " rightly refer to a religious sect and
not to a race. The alternative suggested was that Hebrews be classed
according to the country in which they were born. At a hearing be-
fore the Commission December 4, 1909,° Hon. Simon Wolf, of Wash-
ington, D. C., representing the executive committee of the board of
delegates on civil rights of the Union of American Hebrew Congre-
gations, appeared in opposition to the use by the Commission of the
word " Hebrew " in a racial sense. Hon. Julian W. Mack, of Chicago,
also made a similar argument. Mr. Wolf's argument may be briefly
summarized by quoting the following extract f r&n his remarks :
The point we make is this: A Jew coming from Russia is a Russian; from
Roumania, a Roumanian; from France, a Frenchman; from England, an Eng-
lishman; and from Germany, a German; that Hebrew or Jewish is simply a
religion.
Mr. Wolf explained, however, that the Jews are not a unit in deny-
ing a racial status, but that a certain portion of the Jewish people,
especially the Zionists, claim that the Jews are a race.
Subsequent to the hearing above referred to the Commission re-
ceived several communications from Hebrew organizations urging
the continued use of the word " Jew " or " Hebrew " to designate a
race or people, one of these petitions being in the form of a special
resolution adopted by the federated Jewish organizations of one of
the largest cities.
While appreciating the motive which actuated the protest against
the designation of the Hebrews as a race or people, the Commission
is convinced that such usage is entirely justified. Unfortunately,
both the terms in question are used interchangeably to designate a
religion as well as a race or people, but the Commission has employed
°For report of hearing see Statements and Recommendations Submitted by
Societies and Organizations Interested in the Subject of Immigration. Reports
of the Immigration Commission, vol. 41. (S. Doc. No. 764, Gist Cong., 3d sess.)
20 The Immigration Commission.
them only in the latter sense in collecting and compiling data respect-
ing immigrants of the various races. As a matter of fact, the terms
" Jewish race " and u Hebrew race " are in common and constant use,
even among Hebrews themselves. Many instances of this usage are
to be found in the Jewish Encyclopedia, which, in fact, treats of the
Jews as a race rather than a religious sect, as appears in the folloAving
quotation taken from the introduction to that work :
An even more delicate problem that presented itself at the very outset was the
attitude to be observed by the encyclopedia in regard to those Jews who, while
born within the Jewish community, have, for one reason or another, abandoned
it. As the present work deals with Jews as a race, it was found impossible to
exclude those who were of that race, whatever their religious affiliations may
have been.
METHODS OF WORK.
By far the greater part of the Commission's work has consisted of
the collection and compilation of data respecting recent immigrants
in the United States. Something of the extent of the investigation is
indicated by the fact that original information was secured for more
than 3,200,000 individuals. This number, it will be understood, does
not include data secured from existing records, but only such as were
directly collected by agents of the Commission, a large number of
whom were employed. The nature of the information secured will be
clearly understood by reference to the appendix of this report which
shows the schedules used in the various inquiries undertaken.0
All of the field work of the Commission was carried on under the
immediate supervision of committees or members of the Commission
or the central office in Washington. This feature of the inquiry was
practically concluded on July 1, 1909, and the compilation of data and
preparation of reports required the employment of a large office force
in Washington.
The result of the inquiry is contained in 42 volumes of varying size,
and it is the hope and belief of the Commission that the intent of the
Congress as expressed in section 39 of the immigration act of 1907
has been fully carried out.
A complete list of the Commission's reports is presented on the
following page.
0 See Vol. II, pp. 651-727.
Brief Statement of the Investigations. 21
REPORTS OF THE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION.
Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission, with Conclusions and Recom-
mendations and Views .of the Minority.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
Immigrants in Industries:
Bituminous Coal Mining.
Iron and Steel Manufacturing.
Cotton Goods Manufacturing in the North Atlantic States.
Woolen and Worsted Goods Manufacturing.
Silk Goods Manufacturing and Dyeing.
Clothing Manufacturing.
Collar, Cuff, and Shirt Manufacturing.
Leather Manufacturing.
Boot and Shoe Manufacturing.
Glove Manufacturing.
Slaughtering and Meat Packing.
Sugar Refining.
Glass Manufacturing.
Agricultural Implement and Vehicle Manufacturing.
Cigar and Tobacco Manufacturing.
Furniture Manufacturing.
Copper Mining and Smelting.
Iron Ore Mining.
Anthracite Coal Mining.
Oil refining.
Diversified Industries.
The Floating Immigrant Labor Supply.
Summary Report on Manufacturing and Mining.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
Japanese and Other Immigrant Races in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Moun-
tain States.
Immigrants in Cities. ,
The Children of Immigrants in Schools.
Immigrants as Charity Seekers.
Immigration and Crime.
Immigration and Insanity.
Immigrants in Charity Hospitals.
Steerage Conditions.
Immigrant Homes and Aid Societies.
Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes.
Contract Labor and Induced and Assisted Immigration.
The Greek Padrone System in the United States.
Immigrant Banks.
Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants.
Statistical Review of Immigration to the United States, 1820-1910.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850-1900.
Occupations of the First and Second Generations of Immigrants in the United States.
Fecundity of Immigrant Women.
Digest of Immigration Decisions.
Steerage Legislation, 1819-1908.
State Immigration and Alien Laws.
Dictionary of Races or Peoples.
The Immigration Situation in Other Countries: Canada — Australia — New Zealand —
Argentina — Brazil.
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii.
Alien Seamen and Stowaways.
Peonage.
Statements and Recommendations Submitted by Societies and Organizations
Interested in the Subject of Immigration. i
CONCLUSIONS.
While it has been no part of the work of the Commission, to en-
force the provisions of the immigration laws, it has been thought
best to furnish from time to time to the proper authorities such infor-
mation acquired in the course of the investigation as could further
good administration and the enforcement of the law. City, state, and
federal officials have officially recognized such assistance in their at-
tempts to control the so-called " white slave traffic," in the proper
regulation of the immigrant societies and homes, in securing evidence
and penal certificates to accomplish the deportation of criminals, and
in the administration of the Chinese-exclusion act. In some instances
such information has led to local reorganization of the immigrant
service. While mention is made of this matter the real work of the
Commission has consisted in the collection and preparation of new
material, largely statistical in nature, which might form a basis on
which to frame legislation. A very condensed summary of the re-
sults on some of the principal questions investigated follows.
SOURCES OF IMMIGRATION AND CHARACTER OF IMMIGRANTS.
From 1820 to June 30, 1910, 27,918,992 immigrants were admitted
to the United States.0 Of this number 92.3 per cent came from
European countries,6 which countries are the source of about 93.7
per cent of the present immigration movement. From 1820 to
1883 more than 95 per cent of the total immigration from Europe
originated in the United Kingdom, Germany, Scandinavia, the
Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Switzerland.0 In what follows
the movement from these countries will be referred to as the " old
immigration." Following 1883 there was a rapid change in the
ethnical character of European immigration, and in recent years
more than 70 per cent of the movement has originated in southern
and eastern Europe. The change geographically, however, has been
somewhat greater than the change in the racial character of the
immigration, this being due very largely to the number of Germans
who have come from Austria-Hungary and Russia. The movement
from southern and eastern Europe will be referred to as the " new
immigration." In a single generation Austria-Hungary, Italy, and
Russia have succeeded the United Kingdom and Germany as the chief
sources of immigration. In fact, each of the three countries first
named furnished more immigrants to the United States in 1907 than
came in the same year from the United Kingdom, Germany, Scan-
dinavia, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland com-
bined.
«* See p> 65, & Including Turkey in Asia. <-' See pp. 61-63.
23
24 The Immigration Commission.
The old immigration movement in recent years has rapidly de-
clined, both numerically and relatively, and under present conditions
there are no indications that it will materially increase. The new
immigration movement is very large, and there are few, if any, indi-
cations of its natural abatement. The new immigration, coming in
such large numbers, has provoked a widespread feeling of apprehen-
sion as to its effect on the economic and social welfare of the country.
Because of this the Commission's investigations have been mainly
directed toward a study of its general status as part of the popula-
tion of the country.
The old immigration movement was essentially one of permanent
settlers. The new immigration is very largely one of individuals a
considerable proportion of whom apparently have no intention of
permanently changing their residence, their only purpose in coming
to America be^ng to temporarily take advantage of the greater wages
paid for industrial labor in this country. This, of course, is not true
of all the new immigrants, but the practice is sufficiently common to
warrant referring to it as a characteristic of them as a class. From
all data that are available it appears that nearly 40 per cent of the
new immigration movement returns to Europe ° and that about two-
thirds of those who go remain there.6 This does not mean that all
of these immigrants have acquired a competence and returned to live
on it. Among the immigrants who return permanently are those
who have failed, as well as those who have succeeded. Thousands
of those returning have, under unusual conditions of climate, work,
and food, contracted tuberculosis and other diseases; others are in-*
jured in our industries; still others are the widows and children of
aliens dying here. These, with the aged and temperamentally unfit,
make up a large part of the aliens who return to their former homes
to remain.
The old immigration came to the United States during a period of
general development and was an important factor in that develop-
ment, while the new immigration has come during a period of great
industrial expansion and has furnished a practically unlimited supply
of labor to that expansion.
As a class the new immigrants are largely unskilled laborers coming
from countries where their highest wage is small compared with the
lowest wage in the United States. Nearly 75 per cent of them are
males.0 About 83 per cent are between the ages of 14 and 45 years/* and
consequently are producers rather than dependents. They bring little
money into the country and send or take a considerable part of their
earnings out. More than 35 per cent are illiterate, as compared with
less than 3 per cent of the old immigrant class.6 Immigration prior to
1882 was practically unregulated, and consequently many were not
self-supporting, so that the care of alien paupers in several States was
a serious problem. The new immigration has for the most part been
carefully regulated so far as health and likelihood of pauperism
are concerned, and, although drawn from classes low in the economic
scale, the new immigrants as a rule are the strongest, the most en-
terprising, and the best of their class.
0 See p. 182. c gee p. 171. e See p. 176.
6 See p. 184. * See p. 172,
Conclusions of the Commission. 25
CAUSES OF THE MOVEMENT.
While social conditions affect the situation in some countries, the
E resent immigration from Europe to the United States is in the
irgest measure due to economic causes. It should be stated, how-
ever, that emigration from Europe is not now an absolute economic
necessity, and as a rule those who emigrate to the United States are
impelled by a desire for betterment rather than by the necessity of
escaping intolerable conditions. This fact should largely modify the
natural incentive to treat the immigration movement from the stand-
point of sentiment and permit its consideration primarily as an
economic problem. In other words, the economic and social welfare
of the United States should now ordinarily be the determining factor
in the immigration policy of the Government.
Unlike Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and other immi-
grant-receiving countries, the United States makes no effort to
induce immigration. A law for the encouragement of immigration
by guaranteeing in this country labor contracts made abroad was
enacted in 1864 but repealed in 1868. Later legislation has tended
to prevent the introduction of contract laborers and assisted or
induced immigration, the purpose of the Government being that
the movement should be a natural one. The law respecting assisted
immigration, however, does not deny the right of a person already
in this country to send for an otherwise admissible relative or friend,
and a large part of the present movement, especially from southern
and eastern Europe, is made possible through such assistance. The
immediate incentive of the great bulk of present-day immigration is
the letters of persons in this country to relatives or friends at home.
Comparatively few immigrants come without some reasonably
definite assurance that employment awaits them, and it is probable
that as a rule they know the nature of that employment and the rate
of wages. A large number of immigrants are induced to come by
quasi labor agents in this country, who combine the business of sup-
plying laborers to large employers and contractors with the so-called
immigrant banking business and the selling of steamship tickets.
Another important agency in promoting emigration from Europe
to the United States is the many thousands of steamship-ticket
agents and subagents operating in the emigrant-furnishing districts
of southern and eastern Europe. Under the terms of the United
States immigration law, as well as the laws of most European coun-
tries, the promotion of emigration is forbidden, but nevertheless the
steamship-agent propaganda flourishes everywhere. It does not ap-
pear that the steamship lines as a rule openly direct the operations of
these agents, but the existence of the propaganda is a matter of com-
mon knowledge in the emigrant-furnishing countries and, it is fair to
assume, is acquiesced in, if not stimulated, by the steamship lines as
well. With the steamship lines the transportation of steerage pas-
sengers is purely a commercial matter; moreover, the steerage busi-
ness which originates in southern and eastern Europe is peculiarly
attractive to the companies, as many of the immigrants travel back
and forth, thus insuring east-bound as well as west-bound traffic.
72289 c— VOL 1—11 3
26 The Immigration Commission.
IMMIGRATION OF DISEASED ALIENS.
Prior to 1882, when the federal Government first assumed control
of immigration, the movement was practically unregulated. Xo
process of selection was exercised among the immigrants who came
between 1819 and 1882, and as a result the diseased, defective, de-
linquent, and dependent entered the country practically at will. With
the development of federal immigration laws the situation in this re-
spect has entirely changed, and while, unfortunately, the present law,
from the difficulty in securing proof, is largely ineffectual in prevent-
ing the coming of criminals and other moral delinquents, it does
effectively debar paupers and the physically unsound and generally
the mentally unsound. The law provides that debarred aliens must
be returned at the expense of the steamship companies, and also that
companies bringing diseased persons of certain classes whose condi-
tion might have been detected at ports of embarkation shall be sub-
jected to a fine of $100 in each case.a Consequently the transportation
of diseased aliens has become so unprofitable that steamship com-
panies have inaugurated at foreign ports of embarkation a medical
inspection of intending emigrants similar to that made at United
States ports. As a result of the foreign inspection, in an ordinary
year about four times as many intending emigrants are refused trans-
portation for medical reasons alone as are debarred here for all causes,
and about ten times as many as are debarred for medical reasons
only. In the fiscal year 1907, 1,285,349 aliens were admitted to the
United States, and only 4,040 were debarred because of physical and
mental diseases.6 When it is considered that the great majority of all
immigrants now come from countries where trachoma and other
contagious diseases are prevalent among the emigrating classes, the
relatively small number of rejections at United States ports is good
evidence of the effectiveness of the steamship-company inspections
abroad.
It is highly desirable both for humanitarian and medical reasons
that aliens who are not admissible to the United States should be
turned back at foreign ports of embarkation, or better still, that
they should not leave their homes for such ports only to be returned.
It has been strongly urged by immigration officials and other students
of the question that the embarkation at foreign ports of persons not
admissible to the United States because of their physical condition
would be more effectually prevented by a medical inspection by
American officers at such ports. This plan was so strongly urged
that this Government a few years ago made official inquiry respecting
the probable attitude of European Governments toward it. At that
time one or two Governments expressed a willingness to permit such
an inspection by American officials ; others made indefinite replies to
the inquiry, while others were positively opposed. No attempt was
thereafter made to further the plan. After an investigation by the
Commission of the situation at all the principal ports of Europe it is
clear that even were its consummation possible, such an arrangement
would not materially improve conditions. As a matter of fact
American medical officers, in an advisory capacity, have conducted
a medical inspection of emigrants at Italian ports for the past ten
years and their recommendations invariably have been respected by
« See Vol. II, p. 734. b See pp. 95 and 111.
Conclusions of the Commission. 27
the steamship companies. A comparison of results at United States
ports, however, shows that the proportion of aliens rejected here
for medical reasons was somewhat larger among persons embarking
at Italian ports than among those from several other European ports
where the medical inspection was made solely by physicians employed
by steamship companies. This is not a reflection on the work of
American surgeons at Italian ports, which is highly efficient, but
rather an illustration of the impossibility of making an absolutely
effective medical inspection at foreign ports of embarkation. Con-
sidering the time that elapses between embarkation at European ports
and arrival in the United States and the opportunities for surrepti-
tiously avoiding inspection which frequently exist at European ports,
it is clear that no medical inspection abroad, however thorough it
might be, would obviate the necessity of a rigid inspection at United
States ports.
It has been suggested that some system ought to be devised by
which intending emigrants could be physically examined as to their
admissibility to the United States before leaving their homes for
ports of embarkation. While an effective arrangement of that nature
would be of great benefit to the many thousands annually who are
turned back at foreign ports of embarkation, it is a matter over which
our Government has no jurisdiction.
Steamship companies should be held responsible for the transpor-
tation to United States ports of physically and mentally diseased
aliens. That policy has been pursued since the first federal immi-
gration law was enacted and it has increased in effectiveness accord-
ingly as the bringing of such aliens became more unprofitable to the
companies. The present law operates to secure a reasonably careful
medical inspection by steamship companies at foreign ports of em-
barkation, but as circumstances vary materially in different cases,
the law should be amended so as to retain the present fine as a mini-
mum but permit the imposition of a fine not exceeding $500.
IMMIGRATION OF CRIMINALS.
While control of the immigration movement so far as physical and
mental defectives are concerned has reached a high degree of effi-
ciency, no adequate means have been adopted for preventing the
immigration of criminals, prostitutes, and other morally undesirable
aliens. The control of the latter classes is a much more difficult mat-
ter. In spite of the stringent law, criminals or moral defectives of
any class, provided they pass the medical inspection, can usually em-
bark at European ports and enter the United States without much
danger of detection. A considerable number of criminals or aliens
with criminal records are debarred annually at United States ports,
but this results from the vigilance of immigrant inspectors or from
chance information rather than from our system of regulation.
While it does not appear from available statistics that criminality
among the foreign-born increases the volume of crime in proportion
to the -total population, nevertheless the coming of criminals and
persons of criminal tendencies constitutes one of the serious social
effects of the immigration movement. The present immigration law
is not adequate to prevent the immigration of criminals, nor is it
sufficiently effective as regards the deportation of alien criminals who
are in this country. The effective exclusion of criminals merely by
28 The Immigration Commission.
means of inspection at United States ports of entry obviously is
impossible, and the movement can not be satisfactorily controlled in
the absence of definite knowledge respecting the alien's criminal
record in the country from which he comes.
Several years ago the Italian Government decided to assist in en-
forcing the provisions of our law by refusing to issue passports to
criminals subject to exclusion here. Subsequently this was enacted
as a part of the Italian emigration law. As passports are not de-
manded at our ports, the benefit of this act of comity has not been
great, for though Italian criminals can not embark at Italian ports,
they can and do come through the ports of other countries. No ap-
parent attempt has been made on the part of our Government to treat
this attitude on the part of the Italian Government as a basis for
negotiations to secure an agreement which might have produced more
practical results.
While in Italy the Commission investigated the operation of this
Italian statute and found that in the main it was enforced, though in
some instances acts of minor officials resulted in giving passports to
criminals.
Members of the Commission found an apparent willingness on the
part not only of the Italian, but of other Governments, to cooperate
with us, by governmental action, in the enforcement of our immi-
gration laws. The best place to bar alien criminals is in their own
countries, and the best way is through the utilization of the police
records of such countries. Aliens from countries where adequate
records are kept should be admitted only upon the production of
proper certificates showing an absence of convictions for excludable
crimes. If this is done, the alien criminal can be largely barred.
Under the immigration act of 1907 the President is authorized to
send commissioners to foreign countries for the purpose of entering
into agreements with such countries to prevent the evasion of the
laws governing immigration to the United States.0 Such agreement
with the principal countries from which immigration conies is the
best method through which to secure the desired result.
IMMIGRATION OF THE MENTALLY DEFECTIVE.
The immigration of mentally defective aliens is reasonably well
controlled under the existing immigration law. The law provides
for the exclusion of insane persons, persons who have been insane
within five years, and persons who have had two attacks of in-
sanity at any time previously.5 Owing to the nature of mental
diseases, they are not easily detected through such necessarily limited
inspection as can be made at ports of arrival. When the least
evidence of mental disease is exhibited by an arriving alien, such
alien invariably is held for observation until his mental condition
is determined. It is entirely possible, however, that persons may
exhibit no evidence of insanity and yet that they may become insane
within a short time after their admission. Such cases have occurred
and the matter has given rise to considerable apprehension. Until
some means can be devised of informing the immigration authorities
as to'the previous mental history of arriving aliens, the present safe-
guards are practically all that can be afforded, unless all arriving
a See Vol. II, p. 743. 6 See Vol. II, p. 732.
Conclusions of the Commission. 29
aliens are detained for observation as to their mental condition, a
plan which is impracticable.
CONTRACT LABOR AND INDUCED AND ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.
Since 1884 aliens brought to the United States in pursuance of con-
tracts to perform labor in this country have, with certain exceptions,
been debarred by law. This provision does not apply to skilled
laborers where labor of a like kind unemployed can not be found in
this country. The law has been made more rigid from time to time
until under its terms almost any semblance of a contract or agree-
ment is now sufficient to include immigrants within the contract-
labor clause. Owing to the rigidity of the law and the fact that
special provision is made for its enforcement there are probably at
the present time relatively few actual contract laborers admitted.
There are annually admitted, however, a very large number who come
in response to indirect assurance that employment awaits them. In
the main these assurances are contained in letters from persons
already in this country who advise their relatives or friends at home
that if they will come to the United States they will find work await-
ing them. On the other hand, it is clear that there is a large induced
immigration due to labor agents in this country who, independently
or in cooperation with agents in Europe, operate practically without
restriction. As a rule only unskilled laborers are induced to come to
the United States by this means.
It is impossible to estimate what part of the present immigration
movement to the United States is assisted to come either by friends
in this country or by persons here and abroad who advance transpor-
tation contingent on the immigrants repaying the same from wages
received after admission to the United States.
In earlier times a good many immigrants were enabled to come to
this country through public assistance, and, in fact, it is recorded that
many paupers and even criminals who had become a burden upon the
public in Great Britain and some of the German States were practi-
cally deported to this country. So far as the Commission is able to
learn, however, no part of the present immigration movement direct
to the United States is thus publicly assisted.
THE PADRONE SYSTEM.
In the case of the earlier immigration of several southern and east-
ern European races to the United States the control of some individ-
uals in this country by padrones has occurred. Under this system
persons have taken advantage of their better knowledge of our
language and conditions to control the labor of the new immigrants
of the same race. The system was somewhat prevalent in the case of
the earlier Italian immigrants and in such case the padrones con-
trolled the labor of their fellow-countrymen in construction and other
work. Later a good many Syrian peddlers Avere controlled by pa-
drones who furnished them with stocks in trade and profited unduly
by their labor. With the development of immigration of any such
race, however, and the establishment of such races as factors in the
population of the country, the padrone system has substantially
disappeared. At the present time practically the only aliens
under the control of padrones in any considerable numbers are the
Greek boys employed in shoe-shining establishments or in peddling
30 The Immigration Commission.
flowers, fruit, or vegetables in the larger cities. This evil became so
prevalent that when the immigration law of 1907 was enacted the
following were included in the debarred classes :
All children under 16 years of age unaccompanied by one or both of their
parents at the discretion of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, or under such
regulations as he may from time to time prescribe.
Under this provision the importation of boys by padrones has
been curtailed and the Bureau of Immigration makes persistent and
continual efforts to stamp out the evil. While this condition in the
case of the Greeks may continue for some time, it seems altogether
probable that as persons of that race progress in the United States the
influence of the padrones will largely disappear, as has been the
case with other European races.
IMPORTATION OF ALIENS FOR IMMORAL PURPOSES.
The Commission's investigation of the importation of women
for immoral purposes, commonly known as the u white slave traffic,"
disclosed the fact that this business is regularly carried on between
some European countries and the United States. There is a con-
siderable movement of prostitutes to this country, but the most serious
phase of the situation is the traffic in women and girls through both
male and female procurers who make a regular business of importing
alien women for houses of prostitution, as wrell as for the large number
of foreign-born pimps who control these women and live upon the
proceeds of their prostitution. As a result of the work and upon
the recommendation of the Immigration Commission, Congress has
already passed a law ° that if vigorously enforced will do much to
minimize the evil.
STEERAGE CONDITIONS.
While the conditions under which immigrants are transported by
sea are immeasurably better than in the days of sailing vessels or
even in the early days of steam navigatfon, bad conditions are still
found in the steerage of many transatlantic ships. Agents of the
Commission traveled as immigrants in the steerage of 14 ships,
representing practically all the more important transatlantic lines.
These agents found that some of the lines had entirely abolished
the proverbial steerage and substituted so-called third-class accom-
modations which were in every way comfortable and satisfactory,
while on the ships of some lines the old-time steerage still prevailed.
These bad conditions are at the present time entirely avoidable;
and as the conditions under which immigrants are brought to the
United States and the treatment they receive on shipboard are
matters of concern to this country, not only from a humanitarian but
from a practical standpoint, measures should be taken to insure the
improvement of the immigrants' accommodations, where such im-
provement is needed.
IMMIGRANT HOMES AND AID SOCIETIES.
There have been established at a number of our important ports
societies which, with the permission of the immigration authorities,
send representatives to meet incoming aliens whose friends ani rela-
tives fail to call for them. In case these immigrants need advice or a
0 See Vol. II, pp. 744-747.
Conclusions of the Commission. 31
place where they can remain in safety for a few days, these societies
furnish such aid and permit them to come to the homes which have
been established for that purpose. These societies and hornes have
usually been founded by and are under the direction of societies con-
nected" with some religious body. In a number of instances they
receive subventions from foreign governments, inasmuch as they care
for the immigrants of the countries concerned.
As the welfare of the immigrants, especially young women, might
be materially affected by the care exercised by the representatives of
these homes, it seemed wise to investigate their methods of work and
the conditions Qf the homes. The results were surprising. While in
a number of cases the societies were doing excellent work and the
homes were giving due attention to the welfare of the young women
placed in their charge, securing them positions and ascertaining
that the positions were those suitable for the girls, in a number of
instances it was found that the managers of the homes had apparently
deceived the directors and supporters of the societies and were making
of the homes mere money-making establishments for themselves.
In a few cases, in order to promote their own financial advantage,
the managers overcharged the immigrants, permitted the immigrant
homes to remain in a filthy condition from lack of care, and even were
ready to furnish to keepers of disreputable houses young girls as
servants in such houses. The Commission called the attention of the
immigration commissioner at Ellis Island and of the authorities at
Washington to these abuses. In a number of cases vigorous action
was taken, and representatives of seven societies were forbidden
access to the immigrant station until a complete change in the
management had been brought about. Under the vigorous action of
the immigration authorities the worst abuses have been stopped and
care is taken to prevent their recurrence. The homes in some places
are now inspected to prevent a relapse into the former conditions.
In New York escorts from Ellis Island to their destination in the city
are furnished by the immigration authorities at nominal rates to those
needing them. The immigration authorities need to maintain con-
stant vigilance and make frequent inspections in order to prevent
abuses. It is believed that the societies and homes can be ade-
quately controlled by the immigration authorities without additional
legislations
IMMIGRANT BANKS.
"Immigrant banks " are important factors in the life of southern
and eastern European immigrants during their earlier years in the
United States. The term " bank " as applied in most cases is a mis-
nomer, for the bankers are usually steamship ticket agents, small
merchants, saloon keepers, or labor agents, who, because of superior
intelligence and a better knowledge of conditions in this country,
become the general advisers of newly arrived immigrants of the same
race. A great amount of money is annually placed in the hands of
these so-called bankers for safe-keeping or for transmission abroad.
Except in three or four States they are entirely unregulated by law,a
and in the past, through failure and defalcation, they have often
been responsible for heavy losses on the part of the new immigrant
population. In two or three States more or less effective measures
a See Vol. II, pp. 434-436.
32 The Immigration Commission.
have been adopted for the regulation of these " banks," and it is
desirable for the protection of the immigrant that strict control be
exercised over such institutions in all States where they are located.
BOARDS OF SPECIAL INQUIRY.
Boards of special inquiry are one of the most, if not the most,
important factors in the administration of the immigration law. To
them are referred for decision all cases held by the examining sur-
geon because of disease or mental or physical defects, and also every
alien who may not appear to the examining immigrant inspector to
be clearly and beyond doubt entitled to land. In the case of aliens
certified by the examining surgeon as being afflicted with a loathsome
or dangerous contagious disease, tuberculosis, or pronounced mental
defects, the board has no alternative but to exclude, and from its
decision in such cases there is no appeal. In the case of persons
held as contract laborers or because of the likelihood that they may
become a public charge, and in other cases, the board exercises dis-
cretionary power as to the admission or rejection of the alien, in
which cases, however, there lies the right of appeal to the Secretary
of Commerce and Labor. The boards exercise a power which if not
properly used may result in injustice to the immigrant or, through
the admission of undesirable aliens, in harm to the country. It is
important, therefore, that these boards should be composed of un-
prejudiced men of ability, training, and good judgment. Under the
present law these boards are appointed by the commissioners of
immigration at the various ports, from such of the immigrant officials
in the service as the Commissioner-General of Immigration, with
the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, shall from
time to time designate as qualified to serve. At ports where there
are fewer than three immigrant inspectors other United States offi-
cials may be designated for service on such boards.
All hearings before boards are required to be separate and apart
from the public, but a complete permanent record of the proceed-
ings, including all testimony produced, is kept. The decision of
any two members of the board shall prevail, but either the alien, or
any dissenting member of the board, may take an appeal to the
Secretary of Commerce and Labor, and the taking of such appeal
shall operate to stay any action in regard to final disposal of the
case until it has been passed upon by the Secretary. At all the
important ports the boards of special inquiry are composed of immi-
grant inspectors, who generally are without judicial or legal training.
This, together with the fact that they are selected by the commis-
sioners of immigration at the ports where they serve, tends to impair
the judicial character of the board and to influence its members in a
greater or less degree to reflect in their decisions the attitude of the
commissioner in determining the cases. The character of their deci-
sions is indicated somewhat by the fact that nearly 50 per cent of
the cases appealed are reversed by the Secretary of Commerce and
Labor, whose decision, under the law, must be based solely upon the
evidence adduced before the board. This record of reversals on
appeal suggests that their decisions which are not reviewed may be
equally wrong.
Conclusions of the Commission. 33
In justice to the immigrant, and to the country as well, the char-
acter of these boards should be improved. They should be com-
posed of men whose ability and training fit them for the judicial
functions performed, and the provision compelling their hearings to
be separate and apart from the public should be repealed.
In view of the number and importance of these appeals from the
boards of special inquiry, and the amount of time and labor de-
manded of the Secretary and Assistant Secretary "of Commerce and
Labor, an additional assistant secretary should be authorized by
Congress.
IMMIGRATION AND CRIME.
It is impossible from existing data to determine whether the immi-
grant population in this country is relatively more or less criminal
than the native-born population. Statistics show that the proportion
of convictions for crimes according to the population is greater among
the foreign-born than among the native-born. It must be remem-
bered, however, that the proportion of persons of what may be termed
the criminal age is greater among the foreign-born than among
natives, and when due allowance is made for this fact it appears that
criminality, judged by convictions, is about equally prevalent in each
class. It is obviously impossible to determine whether the propor-
tion of unpunished criminals is relatively greater among the foreign
or among the native born. It is sometimes stated that the detection
and conviction of criminals, especially for higher crimes, is more dif-
ficult in the case of the foreign-born. Probably this is true of certain
localities and perhaps generally true in the case of certain nation-
alities, but there is no proof that this condition applies to the foreign-
born element as a whole in the country at large. It is possible that in
some localities prejudice against or sympathy for foreigners influences
convictions or acquittals. In large cities a part of the apparent crimi-
nality of the foreign-born consists merely of violations of ordinances,
which are offenses only because the persons who commit them are not
naturalized. Prominent in this class of offenses is street peddling
without a license in cities where such licenses are granted only to
citizens.
The proportion of the more serious crimes of homicide, black-
mail, and robbery, as well as the least serious offenses, is greater
among the foreign-born. The disproportion in this regard is due
principally to the prevalence of homicides and other crimes of per-
sonal violence among Italians and to the violation of city ordinances
previously mentioned.
The United States immigration law provides for the exclusion of
persons who have been convicted of or who admit having committed
a crime involving moral turpitude,0 but notwithstanding this a con-
siderable number of aliens of the following classes succeed in entering
the United States:
1. Those who have been convicted of crime abroad and have
served out their sentence.
2. Those who have been convicted of crime by foreign courts
during their absence from the place of trial, having escaped arrest
and fled the country.
« See Vol. II, p. 732.
34 The Immigration Commission.
Besides these our law does not exclude those who are regarded
at home as dangerous or suspicious persons or probable criminals.
There are two fundamental defects in the law relative to the immi-
gration of criminal aliens. In the first place no adequate provision is
made for securing a knowledge of the criminal record of aliens in
other countries, and the inspection at United States ports that is
largely depended upon for the detection of arriving aliens of the
criminal class is in the nature of the case entirely inadequate to
control the movement. As previously explained, ^in the case of
Italy, advantage is not taken of the only instance in which arriving
immigrants bring with them any written evidence as to their moral
character at home.
The other serious, and in the opinion of the Commission inex-
cusable, defect is the fact that aliens admitted to this country, unless
it appears that such admission was in violation of law, may pursue
a criminal career without danger of deportation. To deport an alien
of any class is entirely within the rights of any Government, and
provision should be made for ridding the United States of aliens
who, within a relatively short time after arrival, become criminals.
It seems entirely reasonable and just that this country should not
harbor dangerous criminals of another country, especially when their
residence in the United States has been so brief that their tendency to
crime can not be attributed to conditions arising subsequent to their
entry into this country. Under the Canadian immigration law aliens
who become a charge upon the public, by reason of crime or any other
cause, within three years after their arrival may be, and in consid-
erable numbers are, deported to the countries whence they came.
Under the British aliens act the right to deport criminals is exercised,
and the Commission emphatically believes that the same principle
should be applied in the United States. It is not believed that the
practice of deportation should be sufficiently extended to include
minor offenses, nor that the period of time within which deporta-
tion could be made should be longer than the period required for
naturalization.
IMMIGRATION AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH.
The effective administration of the present immigration law insures
the admission to the United States of physically healthy immigrants,
so that there is no adequate cause for concern in this regard. While
it is true that a large part of the present-day immigration is drawn
from countries where certain dangerous and loathsome contagious
diseases are' prevalent among the immigrating classes, the medical
inspection conducted by the steamship companies at foreign ports
of embarkation and elsewhere in Europe prevents the coming to this
country of great numbers of diseased aliens, and the inspection here
by officers of the United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital
Service effectively supplements the examination abroad.
It is doubtless true that some cases of contagious or infectious
disease are introduced, and to a limited extent spread, in this country
because of immigration, but there is no cause for serious alarm in
this regard. From investigations of the Commission in industrial
localities and from other investigations that have been made it seems
probable that a considerable number of persons afflicted with vene-
Conclusions of the Commission. 35
real diseases are admitted to this country and that such diseases
have been spread in many communities as a result of immigration.
It is difficult always to detect the existence of such diseases by means
of a medical inspection as it is now conducted at United States ports,
and it would seem impracticable to make the medical examination
more thorough in this regard than it is at the present time.
The Commission included within the scope of the investigation the
study of cases admitted to Bellevue and Allied Hospitals in New York
City.0 These hospitals are public charitable institutions, and a suffi-
cient number of persons are treated there to warrant some conclu-
sions relative to the existence of disease among the poorer classes of
the foreign-born. While it appears that a considerable number of
immigrants are treated at these hospitals for various causes within
a comparatively short time after their admission to the United States,
it does not appear that the number is sufficiently large or the diseases
for which they are treated are sufficiently serious to warrant the con-
clusion that diseased persons are being admitted in any considerable
numbers. A study of these cases, however, permits an interesting
and significant comparison between immigrants of the old and the
new class with regard to alcoholism. Of the 23,758 cases treated at
Bellevue and Allied Hospitals during the period covered by the Com-
mission's inquiry, 25.5 per cent of the native-born and 18.2 per cent
of the foreign-born persons involved were treated for alcoholism.
Among the foreign-born this treatment was confined almost entirely
to the races of old immigration, such as the Irish, Scotch, English,
and Germans, while relatively very few southern and eastern Euro-
peans were treated for that cause. A striking difference between the
old and new immigration in this regard was also apparent to a greater
or less degree in many industrial communities included in the
Commission's general investigation. Some complaint was made that
drunkenness interfered with the industrial efficiency of some southern
and eastern Europeans, but these cases were comparatively rare.
IMMIGRATION AND PAUPERISM.
In the earlier days of unregulated immigration pauperism among
newTly admitted immigrants was one of the most serious phases of the
problem. In New York, Massachusetts, and other States which
received immigrants in large numbers the care of those who either
were paupers on arrival or became paupers soon afterwards so
taxed the public resources that various attempts wrere made to levy a
duty on arriving immigrants for the purpose of supporting the large
number of those who became charges upon the public. It is recorded
that in some cases a considerable part of the immigrants arriving on
a ship would be so destitute of means of support that it was necessary
to transport them immediately to almshouses, and the earlier poor-
house records show that there were constantly being cared for large
numbers of newly arrived foreign-born. At the present time, how-
ever, pauperism among newly admitted immigrants is relatively at a
minimum, owing to the fact that the present immigration law pro-
vides for the admission only of the able-bodied, or dependents whose
support by relatives is assured.
« See Vol. II, pp. 253-290.
36 The Immigration Commission.
The number of those, admitted who receive assistance from organ-
ized charity in cities is relatively small. In the Commission's inves-
tigation,0 which covered the activities of the associated charities in 43
cities, including practically all the larger immigrant centers except
New York, it was found that a small percentage of the cases repre-
sented immigrants who had been in the United States three years
or under, while nearly half of all the foreign-born cases were those
who had been in the United States twenty years or more. This
investigation was conducted during the winter of 1908-9 before
industrial activities had been fully resumed following the financial
depression of 1907-8, and this inquiry showed that the recent immi-
grants, even in cities in times of relative industrial inactivity, did not
seek charitable assistance in any considerable numbers. Undoubt-
edly conditions would have been otherwise had it not been for the
large outward movement of recent immigrants following the depres-
sion, but however that may be, it is certain that those who remained
were for the most part self-supporting.
CONGESTION OF IMMIGRANTS IN CITIES.
Of late years the general impression that owing to immigration the
poorer districts of the large cities are greatly overcrowded and that
in consequence the living conditions are insanitary and even degrad-
ing, has been so prevalent that it seemed desirable to make a very
thorough investigation of this question. In consequence, in seven
cities — New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, Cleveland, Buffalo,
Milwaukee — a very careful study was made of the conditions pre-
vailing in the poorer quarters o*f the city inhabited by immigrants
of various races. As was to be expected, many extremely pitiful
cases of poverty and overcrowding were found, at times six or even
more people sleeping in one small room, sometimes without light or
direct access by window or door to the open air. On the whole, how-
ever, the average conditions were found materially better than had
been anticipated. Moreover, a comparison of the conditions in a
great city like New York or Chicago with those in some of the smaller
industrial centers, such as mining or manufacturing towns, shows
that average conditions as respects overcrowding are very materially
worse in some of the small industrial towns than in the large cities.
For example, the per cent of households having six or more persons
per sleeping room of the race which showed the worst conditions in
these large, cities was only 5.2, whereas in the industrial centers
studied in several cases the proportion was higher than this and in
the case of one race as high as 9.5 per cent.&
Moreover, in the large cities the population changes much more fre-
quently than is generally thought. New immigrants are attracted
to these poorer residential quarters by the presence of friends or
relatives and the necessity of securing living quarters at the lowest
possible cost, but as their economic status improves after living in
this country for some time, they very generally move to better sur-
roundings. The undesirable districts of the cities that are now in-
habited largely by recent immigrants were formerly populated by
persons of the earlier immigrant races. Few of these are now found
0 See Vol. II, pp. 87-157. & See pp. 435 and 74G.
Conclusions of the Commission. 37
there, and these remnants ordinarily represent the economic fail-
ures— the derelicts — among a generation of immigrants which, for
the most part, has moved to better surroundings.
In many instances, too, where deplorable conditions were found
they were due in part, at any rate, to circumstances over which the
inhabitants have little direct control, such as a poor water supply or
insanitary drainage — matters that should be attended to by the city
authorities.
While instances of extreme uncleanliness wrere found, the care of
the households as regards cleanliness and an attempt to live under
proper conditions was usually found unexpectedly good, about five-
sixths of all the families visited in the poorer quarters of these large
cities keeping their homes in reasonably good or fair condition.
There seems to be little doubt that the various races, owing presum-
ably to their differing environments in Europe, differ somewhat as
regards overcrowding and the care of their apartments, but the
differences are less than might have been anticipated. The reports
seem to indicate clearly that the chief cause of the overcrowding is a
desire of the families to keep well within their income or to save
money, even at the expense of serious discomfort for the present, in
order that they may better their condition in the future. The worst
conditions were found among those who live in boarding groups,
largely unmarried men, whose purpose in the main is to save money
in order that they may send it back to their home country or return
thither themselves as soon as a sufficient amount has been secured.
Although, as has been intimated, the average conditions are dis-
tinctly better than had been anticipated, the bad conditions still pre-
vail to such an extent that the city authorities, as well as landlords
and philanthropic people, have rich opportunities of improving them.
It should not be forgotten that the bad conditions can not be esti-
mated by the number of people that live on a square acre, but rather
by the number of people per room and per sleeping room, by the
amount of air space, the opportunities for light and ventilation, and
the care that is taken of the rooms. Conditions in New York, where
the largest number of people live per acre, were found, generally
speaking, distinctly better than in some of the other cities where less
care had been taken to pass or enforce proper laws and ordinances.
IMMIGRANTS IN MANUFACTURING AND MINING.
A large proportion of the southern and eastern European immi-
grants of the past twenty-five years have entered the manufacturing
and mining industries of the eastern and middle western States,
mostly in the capacity of unskilled laborers. There is no basic in-
dustry in which they are not largely represented and in many cases
they compose more than 50 per cent of the total number of persons
employed in such industries. Coincident with the advent of these
millions of unskilled laborers there has been an unprecedented ex-
pansion of the industries in which they have been employed.
Whether this great immigration movement was caused by the in-
dustrial development or whether the fact that a practically unlimited
and available supply of cheap labor existed in Europe was taken
advantage of for the purpose of expanding the industries, can not
well be demonstrated. Whatever may be the truth in this regard
it is certain that southern and eastern European immigrants have
38 The Immigration Commission.
almost completely monopolized unskilled labor activities in many of
the more important industries. This phase of the industrial situa-
tion was made the most important and exhaustive feature of the
Commission's investigation, and the results show that while the
competition of these immigrants has had little, if any, effect on the
highly skilled trades, nevertheless, through lack of industrial pro-
gress and by reason of large and constant reinforcement from abroad,
it has kept conditions in the semiskilled and unskilled occupations
from advancing.
Several elements peculiar to the new immigrants contributed to
this result. The aliens came from countries where low economic condi-
tions prevailed and where conditions of labor were bad. They were
content to accept wages and conditions which the native American
and immigrants of the older class had come to regard as unsatisfac-
tory. They were not, as a rule, engaged at lower wages than had
been paid to the older workmen for the same class of labor, but their
presence in constantly increasing numbers prevented progress among
the older wage-earning class, and as a result that class of employees
was gradually displaced. An instance of this displacement is shown
in the experience in the bituminous coal mines of western Pennsyl-
vania. This section of the bituminous field was the one first entered
by the new immigrants, and the displacement of the old workers was
soon under way. Some of them entered other occupations and many
of them migrated to the coal fields of the Middle West. Later these
fields also were invaded by the new immigrants, and large numbers
of the old workers again migrated to the mines of the Southwest,
where they still predominate. The effect of the new immigration is
clearly shown in the western Pennsylvania fields, where the average
wage of the bituminous coal worker is 42 cents a day below the aver-
age Avage in the Middle West and Southwest.* Incidentally, hours of
labor are longer and general working conditions poorer in the Penn-
sylvania mines than elsewhere. Another characteristic of the new
immigrants contributed to the situation in Pennsylvania. This was
the impossibility of successfully organizing them into labor unions.
Several attempts at organization were made, but the constant influx
of immigrants to whom, prevailing conditions seemed unusually favor-
able contributed to the failure to organize. A similar situation has
prevailed in other great industries.
Like most of the immigration from southern and eastern Europe,
those who entered the leading industries were largely single men or
married men unaccompanied by their families. There is, of course, in
practically all industrial communities a large number of families of the
various races, but the majority of the employees are men without fam-
ilies here and whose standard of living is so far below that of the
native American or older immigrant workman that it is impossible for
the latter to successfully compete with them. They usually live in
cooperative groups and crowd together. Consequently, they are
able to save a great part of their earnings, much of which is sent
or carried abroad. Moreover, there is a strong tendency on the part
of these unaccompanied men to return to their native countries after
a few years of labor here. These groups have little contact with
American life, learn little of American institutions, and aside from
a See p. 534.
Conclusions of the Commission. 39
the wages earned profit little by their stay in this country. During
their early years in the United States they usually rely for assistance
and advice on some member of their race, frequently a saloon keeper
or grocer, and almost always a steamship ticket agent and c; immi-
grant banker," who, because of superior intelligence and better
knowledge of American ways, commands their confidence. Usually
after a longer residence they become more self-reliant, but their
progress toward assimilation is generally slow. Immigrant families
in the industrial centers are more permanent and usually exhibit a
stronger tendency toward advancement, although, in most cases, it
is a long time before they even approach the ordinary standard of
the American or the older immigrant families in the same grade of
occupation. This description, of course, is not universally true,
but it fairly represents a great part of the recent immigrant popula-
tion in the United States. Their numbers are so great and the
influx is so continuous that even with the remarkable expansion of
industry during the past few years there has been created an over
supply of unskilled labor, and in some of the industries this is re-
flected in a curtailed number of working days and a consequent
yearly income among the unskilled workers which is very much less
than is indicated by the daily wage rates paid;a and while it may not
have lowered in a marked degree the American standard of living, it
has introduced a lower standard which has become prevalent in the
unskilled industry at large.
RECENT IMMIGRANTS IN AGRICULTURE.
According to the census of 1900, 21.7 per cent of all foreign-born
male breadwinners in the United States were engaged in agricultural
pursuits, but the great majority of these were of the old immigration
races. Up to that time comparatively few of the immigrants from
the south and east of Europe had gone on the land, and, while
during the past ten years some of the races have shown a tendency
in that direction, the proportion is still small. Among the races of
recent immigration which have showrn a more or less pronounced
tendency toward agriculture in States east of the Rocky Mountains
are the Italians and Poles, while several Hebrew agricultural colonies
have been established. A considerable number of the 'Italians are
to be found in various parts of the East, the South, and the South-
west, where, as a rule, they have established communities, and on
the whole have made good progress. In the East many have engaged
in truck gardening in the vicinity of the largest cities, while in the
South and Southwest they have entered fruit and berry raising
and, to a lesser degree, general farming. The Poles have gone into
general agriculture in many parts of the East and Middle West,
while the Hebrews are, as a rule, located in the more populous
States and usually near large cities. The small number of Hebrews
wyho have engaged in agricultural pursuits have not been conspicu-
ously successful, although in some localities they have made fair
progress. The Polish farmers, as a rule, have succeeded, particularly
in some of the eastern localities where they have purchased worn-out
lands and succeeded in making them productive and profitable.
a See tables on pp. 371 and 407-408.
40 The Immigration Commission.
The Italians usually have been successful in general farming and
especially so in truck gardening and small farming in the vicinity of
large cities.
While encouragement is to be found in the experiences of the
past few years, it is clear that the tendency of the new immigration
is toward Industrial and city pursuits rather than toward agriculture.
ARTIFICIAL, DISTRIBUTION OF IMMIGRANTS.
In making the larger cities and industrial communities their place
of residence, aliens composing the new immigration movement have
continued to follow a tendency which originated with the advent of
such immigrants in considerable numbers. This may be ascribed to
various reasons. A large part of the immigrants were agricultural
laborers at home, and their immigration is due to a desire to escape
the low economic conditions which attend agricultural pursuits in
the countries from which they come. With no knowledge of other
conditions it is natural, therefore, that they should seek another
line of activity in this country. The destination of these immigrants
in the United States on arrival is controlled by the fact that they
almost invariably join relatives or friends, and few of these, even
among earlier immigrants of the class, are engaged in agricultural
pursuits. Remaining in the cities and industrial centers they follow
a general tendency of the times. The law of 1907 provided for the
establishment of a division of information in the Bureau of Immi-
gration, the intent being that the division should disseminate among
admitted immigrants information relative to opportunities for set-
tlers in sections of the country apart from cities and purely indus-
trial centers. It was hoped that the division could devise means of
inaugurating a movement among immigrants which would eventually
result in their more equitable distribution. The apparent result, how-
ever, does not indicate that the purpose of the law is being fulfilled.
As conducted, the work of the division appears to be essentially that
of an employment agency whose chief function is supplying indi-
viduals to meet individual demands for labor in agricultural dis-
tricts. It does not appear that persons thus distributed have, as a
rule, been distributed with the purpose that they would become per-
manent settlers in the districts to which they went, but rather that a
more or less temporary need of the employer and employee was sup-
plied through this agency.
No satisfactory or permanent distribution of immigrants can be
effected through any federal employment system, no matter how
widespread, because the individual will seek such social and economic
conditions as best suit him, no matter where sent. What is needed
is a division of information which will cooperate with States de-
siring immigrant settlers. Information concerning the opportunities
for settlement should then be brought to the attention of immigrants
in industrial centers who have been here for some time and who
might thus be induced to invest their savings in this country and
become permanent agricultural settlers. Such a division might also
secure and furnish to all laborers alike information showing oppor-
tunities for permanent employment in various sections of the country,
together with the economic conditions in such places.
Conclusions of the Commission. 41
JAPANESE AND OTHER IMMIGRANTS ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE.
The immigration situation on the Pacific slope differs materially
from that in the States east of the Kocky Mountains. Because of
the geographical location there has been no large movement of Euro-
pean immigrants to the coast States. Oriental immigration, how-
ever, was early attracted to California, and the coming of the Chinese
was soon followed by a determined opposition to the immigration of
that race, and this opposition has continued unabated.
In 1882 a law excluding Chinese of the laboring classes w7as enacted,0
and such exclusion has continued to the present time. The various
laws have resulted in a steady decrease of the Chinese population
until the immigration of that race is no longer a problem of present
importance. In later years Japanese immigration assumed con-
siderable proportions, but through a provision of the immigration
law of 190T& and by agreement with the Government of Japan c this
movement has been checked, and during the past two years the num-
ber of Japanese leaving the country has exceeded the number ad-
mitted. Recently a relatively small number of East Indians have
immigrated to the coast States, and while there is no provision for
the exclusion of this race their coming has been discouraged by the
Federal Government. Though sentiment is divided in the matter of
Asiatic immigration, the people of the coast States as a wrhole are
opposed to such immigration, and the force and validity of their
objections are recognized.
In the southern section of the Western division immigration from
Mexico has become an important factor in the situation, the immi-
gration of that race corresponding somewhat to some of the southern
and eastern European races coming to the eastern States. This
resemblance lies chiefly in the fact that they as a rule do not come as
settlers, but as a transient and migratory unskilled labor supply.
Their presence, as well as the presence of the Japanese, is reflected in
the rather low economic conditions w^hich exist in mining, railroad
labor, and some other activities. The Japanese are now an important
factor in the agricultural and horticultural industries in California
and other States, and also in the fish canneries in Washington and
Oregon, and in the city trades. The East Indian has not yet come
in sufficient numbers to be an important factor, but the comparatively
few who have been admitted have been utilized as common laborers
in various industries. One-eighth of the total population and more
than three-fifths of the foreign-born on the Pacific slope are natives
of the north and west of Europe, while only 2.6 per cent of the popu-
lation are from southern and eastern European countries. The
European peoples are well distributed geographically and indus-
trially, and they have aided materially in developing industry, par-
ticularly the fruit and wine growing peculiar to the coast States, and
especially California. There is a general demand for more Euro-
peans, both as settlers on the land and as agricultural and other
laborers. It is anticipated that with the opening of the Panama
Canal direct steamship communication with Europe will result in an
increase of direct European immigration to the coast.
« See Vol. II, pp. 785-788.
6 See Vol. II, pp. 732 and 757-758.
c See Vol. II, p. 584.
72289°— VOL 1—11 4
42 The Immigration Commission.
ASSIMILATION OF IMMIGRANTS.
It is difficult to define and still more difficult to correctly measure
the tendency of newer immigrant races toward Americanization, or
assimilation into the body of the American people. If, however, the
tendency to acquire citizenship, to learn the English language, and
to abandon native customs and standards of living may be considered
as factors, it is found that many of the more recent immigrants are
backward in this regard, while some others have made excellent
progress. The absence of family life, which is so conspicuous among
many southern and eastern Europeans in the United States, is
undoubtedly the influence which most effectively retards assimila-
tion. The great majority of some of these races are represented in
the United States by single men or men whose wives and families are
in their native country. It is a common practice for men of this class
in industrial communities to live in boarding or rooming groups, and
as they are also usually associated with each other in their work they
do not come in contact with Americans, and consequently have little
or no incentive to learn the English language, become acquainted
with American institutions, or adopt American standards. In the
case of families, however, the process of assimilation is usually much
more rapid. The families as a rule live in much more wholesome sur-
roundings, and are reached by more of the agencies which promote
assimilation. The most potent influence in promoting the assimila-
tion of the family is the children, who. through contact with Ameri-
can life in the schools, almost invariably act as the unconscious agents
in the uplift of their parents. Moreover, as the children grow older
and become wage earners, they usually enter some higher occupation
than that of their fathers, and in such cases the Americanizing influ-
ence upon their parents continues until frequently the whole family
is gradually led away from the old surroundings and old standards
into those more nearly Americaji. > This influence of the children is
potent among immigrants in the great cities, as well as in the smaller
industrial centers.
Among the new immigration as a whole the tendency to become
naturalized citizens, even among those who have been here five years
or more, is not great, although much more pronounced in some races
than in others. This result is influenced by language considerations
and by the fact that naturalization is accomplished with greater
difficulty than formerly, as the requirements are higher and expense
greater, and that adequate facilities are not in all cases provided.
Another reason is that many do not regard their stay here as per-
manent.
In recent years the work of promoting the welfare and assisting
in the assimilation of recent immigrants has been inaugurated on a
large scale by various religious and civic organizations. Until
recently a great part of the efforts of this nature was carried on by
organizations of the various races or peoples, but now the movement
has been joined by organizations composed of all classes of citizens.
In general this propaganda is in the main divorced from any sem-
blance of proselyting and is confined to practical efforts calculated
to promote the well-being and advancement of the immigrant. Most
of the societies lay particular stress upon influencing the immigrant
Conclusions of the Commission. 43
to become acquainted with the duties and privileges of American
citizenship and civilization. Teaching the English language and the
primary branches of learning is a prominent feature in most of this
work. It does not appear that the Federal Government can directly
assist in this work, but where possible effort should be made to pro-
mote the activities of these organizations.
CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANTS IN SCHOOLS.
A census of 2,036,376 pupils in schools in 37 cities0 shows that
847,423, or 41.6 per cent of the total, were children of native-born
fathers, and 1,188,953, or 58.4 per cent of the total, were children of
foreign-born fathers — that is to say, both native-born and foreign-
born children whose fathers were born abroad. Of the 1,815,217
pupils in the public schools of 37 cities, 42.2 per cent were children
of native-born fathers, and 57.8 per cent were children of foreign-
born fathers. Of the 221,159 pupils in the parochial schools of 24
cities, 36.5 per cent were children of native-born fathers, and 63.5
per cent were children of foreign-born fathers. The study covers
practically all of the large cities in all parts of the country and a
number of smaller cities whose population includes a large propor-
tion of foreign-born persons.
Several cities have particularly large proportions of children of
foreign-born fathers among the public-school pupils. These cities
are Chelsea, Mass., 74.1 per cent, Duluth, Minn., 74.1 per cent, and
New York, N. Y., 71.5 per cent. In New Orleans only 18.1 per cent
of the public-school pupils are children of foreign-born fathers.
The proportion of public-school pupils in the high school is 9.1
per cent for the children of native-born white fathers, and only 4.7
per cent for the children of foreign-born fathers, although a larger
proportion of the pupils of two foreign races — the Canadian (other
than French) and the Scotch — than of the native-born white are in
the high school. Of the pupils who are children of foreign-born
fathers, three races — the Portuguese, Slovak, and South Italian —
show less than 1 per cent in the high school. ,
Among pupils of some of the immigrant races the proportion of
children older than the normal age for their grade is less than the
proportion among pupils who are children of native-born white
fathers, but among several of the races of recent immigration a much
larger proportion are older than the normal age for their grade.
Among the non-English-speaking races a much greater proportion
are retarded of children in homes where English is not spoken than
of children in homes where English has been adopted as the language
commonly used by the family.
CHANGES IN BODILY FORM OF DESCENDANTS OF IMMIGRANTS.
The question of the assimilation of immigrants under American
conditions has long been looked upon as vital, and it has been much
discussed, but heretofore with little accurate information. Speaking
from general personal observation, people have thought that under
the influence of the existing educational, social, and political con-
a See Vol. II, pp. 1-86.
44 The Immigration Commission.
ditions the immigrants gradually change their habits of life and
their ways of thinking, and thus become Americans. Little or no
thought has been given to the possible effect of these conditions on the
physical type of the descendants of immigrants. It was suggested to
the Commission that if measurements of the bodies of European
immigrants and their descendants at different ages and under
different circumstances could be made in a careful way by scien-
tific anthropometrists, valuable results might be reached. One of
the best experts on this subject, Prof. Franz Boas, of Columbia Uni-
versity, was invited to direct the investigation and was put in general
charge. Although the investigation has been carried on only in New
York City and its immediate vicinity and with only a few races, the
results, in the opinion of Professor Boas, are much more far-reaching
than was anticipated. It is probably not too much to say that they
indicate a discovery in anthropological science that is fundamental in
importance. The report indicates that the descendant of the Euro-
pean immigrant changes his type even in the first generation almost
entirely, children born not more than a few years after the arrival of
the immigrant parents in America developing in such a way that they
differ in type essentially from their foreign-born parents. These
differences seem to develop during the earliest childhood and persist
throughout life. It seems that every part of the body is influenced
in this way, and that even the form of the head, which has always
been considered one of the most permanent hereditary features, un-
dergoes considerable change.
The importance of this entirely unexpected result lies in the fact
that even those characteristics which modern science has led us to
consider as most stable seem to be subject to thorough changes under
the new environment, which would indicate that even racial physical
characteristics do not survive under the new social and climatic en-
vironment of America. The investigation has awakened the liveliest
interest in scientific circles here and abroad, and as the subject is one
of great importance the Commission expresses strongly the hope that
by either private or public means the work may be continued.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
As a result of the investigation the Commission is unanimously
of the opinion that in framing legislation emphasis should be laid
upon the following principles:
1. While the American people, as in the past, welcome the op-
pressed of other lands, care should be taken that immigration be such
both in quality and quantity as not to make too difficult the process
of assimilation.
2. Since the existing law and further special legislation recom-
mended in this report deal with the physically and morally unfit,
further general legislation concerning the admission of aliens" should
be based primarily upon economic or business considerations touching
the prosperity and economic well-being of our people.
3. The measure of the rational, healthy development of a country
is not the extent of its investment of capital, its output of products,
or its exports and imports, unless there is a corresponding economic
opportunity afforded to the citizen dependent upon employment for
his material, mental, and moral development.
4. The development of business may be brought about by means
which lower the standard of living of the wage earners. A slow
expansion of industry which would permit the adaptation and
assimilation of the incoming labor supply is preferable to a very
rapid industrial expansion which results in the immigration of
laborers of low standards and efficiency, who imperil the American
standard of wages and conditions of employment.
The Commission agrees that:
1. To protect the United States more effectively against the immi-
gration of criminal and certain other debarred classes —
(a) Aliens convicted of serious crimes within a period of five years
after admission should be deported in accordance with the provisions
of House bill 20980, Sixty-first Congress, second session.
(&) Under the provisions of section 39 of the immigration act of
February 20, 1907,° the President should appoint commissioners to
make arrangements with such countries as have adequate police
records to supply emigrants with copies of such records, and that
thereafter immigrants from such countries should be admitted to the
United States only upon the production of proper certificates show-
ing an absence of convictions for excludable crimes.
(<?) So far as practicable the immigration laws should be so
amended as to be made applicable to alien seamen.
(d) Any alien who becomes a public charge within three years after
his arrival in this country should be subject to deportation in the dis-
cretion of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor.
a See Vol. II, pp. 742 and 743.
45
46 The Immigration Commission.
2. Sufficient appropriation should be regularly made to enforce
vigorously the provisions of the laws previously recommended by the
Commission and enacted by Congress regarding the importation of
women for immoral purposes.
3. As the new statute relative to steerage conditions ° took effect so
recently as January 1, 1909, and as the most modern steerage fully
complies with all that is demanded under the law, the Commission's
only recommendation in this connection is that a statute be immedi-
ately enacted providing for the placing of Government officials, both
men and women, on vessels carrying third-class or steerage passen-
gers for the enforcement of the law and the protection of the immi-
grant. The system inaugurated by the Commission of sending in-
vestigators in the steerage in the guise of immigrants should be con-
tinued at intervals by the Bureau of Immigration.
4. To strengthen the certainty of just and humane decisions of
doubtful cases at ports of entry it is recommended—
That section 25 of the immigration act of 1907 6 be amended to pro-
vide that boards of special inquiry should be appointed by the Sec-
retary of Commerce and Labor, and that they should be composed of
men whose ability and training qualify them for the performance of
judicial functions; that the provisions compelling their hearings to
be separate and apart from the public should be repealed, and that
the office of an additional Assistant Secretary of Commerce and Labor
to assist in reviewing such appeals be created.
5. To protect the immigrant against exploitation; to discourage
sending savings abroad ; to encourage permanent residence and natu-
ralization ; and to secure better distribution of alien immigrants
throughout the country—
(a) The States should enact laws strictly regulating immigrant
banks.
(b) Proper State legislation should be enacted for the regulation
of employment agencies.
(c) Since numerous aliens make it their business to keep immigrants
from influences that may tend toward their assimilation and naturali-
zation as American citizens with the purpose of using their funds, and
of encouraging investment of their savings abroad and their return to
their home land, aliens who attempt to persuade immigrants not to
become American citizens should be made subject to deportation.
(d) Since the distribution of the thrifty immigrant to sections of
the country where he may secure a permanent residence to the best
advantage, and especially where he may invest his savings in farms
or engage in agricultural pursuits, is most desirable, the Division of
Information, in the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization,
should be so conducted as to cooperate with States desiring immigrant
settlers ; and information concerning the opportunities for settlement
should be brought to the attention of immigrants in industrial centers
who have been here for some time and who might be thus induced to
invest their savings in this country and become permanent agri-
cultural settlers. The division might also secure and furnish to all
laborers alike information showing opportunities for permanent
employment in various sections of the country, together with the
economic conditions in such places.
0 See Vol. II, pp. 598 and 599. 6 See Vol. II, p. 740.
Recommendations of the Commission. 47
6. One of the provisions of section 2 of the act of 1907 reads as
follows :
And provided further, That skilled labor may be imported if labor of like kind
unemployed can not be found in this country.
Instances occasionally arise, especially in the establishment of new
industries in the United States, where labor of the kind desired, un-
employed, can not be found in this country and it becomes necessary
to import such labor. Under the law the Secretary of Commerce
and Labor has no authority to determine the question of the neces-
sity for importing such labor in advance of the importation, and it is
recommended that an amendment to the law be adopted by adding
to the clause cited above a provision to the effect that the question of
the necessity of importing such skilled labor in a'ny particular in-
stance may be determined by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor
upon the application of any person interested prior to any action in
that direction by such person; such determination by the Secretary
of Commerce and Labor to be reached after a full hearing and an in-
vestigation into the facts of the case.
7. The general policy adopted by Congress in 1882 of excluding
Chinese laborers ° should be continued.
The question of Japanese and Korean immigration should be per-
mitted to stand without further legislation so long as the present
method of restriction proves to be effective.
An understanding should be reached with the British Government
whereby East Indian laborers would be effectively prevented from
coming to the United States.
8. The investigations of the Commission show an oversupply of
unskilled labor in basic industries to an extent which indicates an
oversupply of unskilled labor in the industries of the country as a
whole, a condition which demands legislation restricting the further
admission of such unskilled labor.
It is desirable in making the restriction that —
(a) A sufficient number be debarred to produce a marked effect
upon the present supply of unskilled labor.
(&) As far as possible, the aliens excluded should be those who
come to this country with no intention to become American citizens
or even to maintain a permanent residence here, but merely to save
enough, by the adoption, if necessary, of low standards of living, to
return permanently to their home country. Such persons are usually
men unaccompanied by wives or children.
(c) As far as possible the aliens excluded should also be those who,
by reason of their personal qualities or habits, would least readily be
assimilated or would make the least desirable citizens.
The following methods of restricting immigration have been sug-
gested :
(a) The exclusion of those unable to read or write in some language.
(b) The limitation of the number of each race arriving each year
to a certain percentage of the average of that race arriving during a
given period of years.
(<?) The exclusion of unskilled laborers unaccompanied by wives
or families.
« See Vol. II, pp. 785-788.
48 The Immigration Commission.
(d) The limitation of the number of immigrants arriving annually
at any port.
(e) The material increase in the amount of money required to be
in the possession of the immigrant at the port of arrival.
(/) The material increase of the head tax.
(g) The levy of the head tax so as to make a marked discrimina-
tion in favor of men with families.
All these methods would be effective in one way or another in
securing restrictions in a greater or less degree. A majority of the
Commission favor the reading and writing test as the most feasible
single method of restricting undesirable immigration.
The Commission as a whole recommends restriction as demanded
by economic, moral, and social considerations, furnishes in its report
reasons for such restriction, and points out methods by which Con-
gress can attain the desired result if its judgment coincides with that
of the Commission.
VIEWS OF THE MINORITY.
I recoguize the great value of the work of the Immigration Com-
mission and unite in the conclusions, so far as they are based on the
reports, whether they coincide with my personal and previously
formed opinions or not.
A slowing down of the present rate of the immigration of 'unskilled
labor is justified by the report, and, according to the report, restriction
should be limited to unmarried male aliens or married aliens unac-
companied by their wives and families. The reports show that in the
main the present immigrants are not criminal, pauper, insane, or
seekers of charity in so great a degree as their predecessors. The edu-
cational test proposed is a selective test for which no logical argument
can be based on the report. As the report of the Commission is finally
adopted within a half hour of the time when, under the law, it must
be filed, there is no time for the preparation of an elaborate dissent.
I sincerely regret that I can not fully agree with the remainder of
the Commission, and if time permitted I would point out the many
excellent provisions contained in the report, some of my own sugges-
tion. My main ground of dissent is the specific recommendation by
the majority of the educational test, though there are other instances
in which it has not my full approval.
WILLIAM S. BENNET.
49
ABSTRACT OF THE
STATISTICAL REVIEW OF IMMIGRATION TO THE
UNITED STATES, 1820 TO 1910.
For the complete statistical review of immigration to the United States,
1820 to 1910, see Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 3.
51
CONTENTS.
Page.
Number of immigrants, 1820 to 1910 56
Immigration by sex, 1820 to 1910 57
Country of origin, 1820 to 1910 60
Sex ana race of immigrants, 1899 to 1910 , 97
Illiteracy, 1899 to 1910 98
Occupation, 1899 to 1910. 100
Financial condition of immigrants, 1899 to 1910 102
Immigrants who have been in the United States previously, 1899 to 1910 104
Destination of immigrants in the United States, 1899 to 1910 105
Aliens debarred at United States ports, 1892 to 1910 aiO
Aliens leaving the United States, 1908 to 1910 112
LIST OP TABLES.
TABLE 1. Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 56
2. Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910, by decade 57
3. Per cent distribution (approximate) immigration to the United
States, by sex, for years ending June 30, 1820 to 1867 58
4. Immigration to the United States, by sex, for years ending June 30,
1868 to 1910 58, 59
5. Immigration to the United States, by sex, for periods specified,
1820 to 1910 59
6. Immigration to the United States from northern and western Europe,
southern and eastern Europe, and other countries, 1820 to 1910 61-63
7. Immigration to the United States from northern and western Europe,
southern and eastern Europe, and other countries, 1820 to 1910,
by decade .- 64
8. Immigration to the United States, by country of origin, during the
period 1820 to 1910. 65
9. Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 :
Part 1— By country of origin, 1820 to 1868, inclusive 66-81
Part 2 — By country of origin and by sex, for years ending June 30,
1869 to 1910, inclusive 82-96
10. Immigration to the United States, by sex and by race or people, dur-
ing the fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive 97
11. Number and per cent of immigrants admitted to the United States
who were 14 years of age or over and who could neither read nor
write, during the fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or
people 99
12. Number of immigrants admitted to the United States reporting each
specified occupation, fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race
or people 100
13. Per cent of immigrants admitted to the United States reporting each
specified occupation, fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race
or people 101
14. Financial condition of immigrant aliens admitted to the United
States during the fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or
people 103
15. Number and per cent of immigrants admitted to the United States,
1899 to 1910, inclusive, who had been in the United States pre-
viously, by race or people 104
16. Destination reported by immigrants admitted to the United States
during the fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive 105
17. Destination of immigrants admitted to the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or people 106-109
53
54 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 18. Aliens debarred at all United States ports during the fiscal years
1892 to 1910, inclusive, by cause Ill
19. Emigrant aliens departed from the United States in fiscal years
1908, 1909, and 1910, by race or people 112
20. Immigrant aliens admitted to the United States, emigrant aliens
departed, and number departed for every 100 admitted, fiscal
years 1908, 1909, and 1910, by race or people 113
21. Emigrant aliens departed from the United States in fiscal years
1908, 1909, and 1910, by race or people, sex, and age ~ 115
22. Emigrant aliens departed, fiscal years 1908, 1909, and 1910, by race
or people and length of continuous residence in United States . . 116
23. Number of emigrant aliens departed from the United States in
fiscal years 1908, 1909, and 1910, by race or people and by class
or occupation " 117
24. Per cent of emigrant aliens in each specified class or occupation
departed from the United States in fiscal years 1908, 1909, and
1910, by race or people 118
STATISTICAL REVIEW OF IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES,
1820 TO 1910,
As a part of its complete report to Congress the Immigration
Commission has undertaken to bring together all official statistics
relative to the immigration movement during the ninety-one years
specified.0 This abstract contains the more essential data shown in
the complete report.
Statistics relative to immigration to the United States date from
1819, when the first United States law regulating the carriage of
steerage passengers at sea was enacted.6 In addition to the require-
ments respecting the carriage of steerage passengers, the act of 1819
provided that the captain or master of any ship or vessel arriving
in the United States from any foreign place should —
deliver and report to the collector of the district in which such ship or vessel shall
arrive, a list or manifest of all the passengers taken on board of the said ship or ves-
sel at any foreign port or place; in which list or manifest it shall be the duty of the
said master to designate, particularly, the age, sex, and occupation of said passengers,
respectively, the country to which they severally belong, and that of which it is their
intention to become inhabitants.
The law further provided that collectors of customs should return
copies of such lists or manifests to the Secretary of State, quarter
yearly, which official was directed to present statements of the same
to Congress at each and every session.
The first report of the Secretary of State under the law closed
with the end of the following fiscal year, September 30, 1820. In
addition to the other data specified in the law, the first report con-
tained the names of arriving passengers, but this practice was not
continued.
.Statistics of immigration were collected by the Department of
State from 1820 to 1874, and by the Bureau of Statistics from 1867
to 1895. Since 1895 they have been gathered exclusively by the
Commissioner-General of Immigration, whose bureau began the col-
lection of these statistics several years prior to that date. The statis-
tics therefore have been duplicated for a part of the period by the
Bureau of Statistics and Department of State, and for a part by the
Bureau of Statistics and the Commissioner-General of Immigration.
In 1903 the United States Bureau of Statistics published a mono-
graph entitled " Immigration into the United States, Showing the
Number, Nationality, Sex, Age, Occupation, Destination, etc., from
1820 to 1903." Undoubtedly this was the most complete and com-
prehensive statistical review of immigration in existence, and except
0 See Statistical review of immigration to the United States, 1820-»1910. Reports
of the Immigration Commission, vol. 3. (S. Doc. No. 756, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
& See Vol. II, p. 590.
55
56
The Immigration Commission.
for the fiscal years 1892 to 1895, inclusive, when the total immigra-
tion as presented in the monograph differs from that presented in
annual reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, the
Commission accepted it as the basis of the present compilation. For
the period since 1903 the data presented have been taken from
annual reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration. Since
1899 immigrants have been recorded by "race or people" as well as
by country of birth or origin, and considerable data compiled on this
basis have been utilized in the preparation of this abstract.0
The basis of enumeration varied during the ninety-one years cov-
ered by the statistics of the Commission, and this fact should be
borne in mind in comparing years. For 1820 to 1867 the data are
for "alien passengers arriving;" for 1868 to 1903, for "immigrants
arriving;" for 1904 to 1906, for "aliens admitted;" and for 1907 to
1910, for "immigrant aliens admitted."
NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS, 1820 TO 1910.
The table which appears below shows the immigration to the
United States for each year from 1820 to 1910, inclusive.
TABLE 1. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910.
[Compiled from official sources. For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for alien passengers arriving; for 1868 to
1903, for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to 190(>, for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1910, for immigrant
aliens admitted. The years from 1820 to 1831 and from 1844 to 1849, inclusive, are those ending
September 30; 1833 to 1842 and 1851 to 1867, inclusive, those ending December 31; 1869 to 1910, those
ending June 30.]
Year.
Immi-
grants.
Year.
Immi-
grants.
Year.
Immi-
grants.
1820
8,385
1851
379, 466
1882
788 992
1821
9,127
1852
371, 603
1883
603, 322
1822 .
6,911
1853...
368, 645
1884
518 592
1823
6,354
1854
427, 833
1885
395 346
1824...
7,912
1855
200,877
1886... .
334 203
1825
10, 199
1856
200, 436
1887
490 109
1826
10,837
1857
251,306
1888
546, 889
1827
' 18, 875
1858...
123, 126
1889 .
444 427
1828
27, 382
1859
121,282
1890
455 302
1829...
22, 520
I860
153, 640
1891
560, 319
1830
23, 322
1861
91,918
1892
579 663
1831
22,633
1862
91,965
1893
439, 730
1832 b ,
60,482
1863 ..
176, 282
1894
285, 631
1833
58,640
1864
193, 418
1895
258 536
1834...
65,365
1865
248, 120
1896
343, 267
1835
45, 374
1866
318, 568
1897. .
230, 832
1836
76, 242
1867
315, 722
1898
229 299
1837...
79,340
1868 d.
138, 840
1899
311,715
1838
38, 914
1869
352, 768
1900
448, 572
1839
68,069
1870
387 203
1901
487 918
1840
84,066
1871 .
321,350
1902
648, 743
1841
80, 289
1872
404,806
1903
857, 046
1842...
104, 565
1873
459, 803
1904
812,870
1843 c
52, 496
1874
313, 339
1905
1,026,499
1844
78, 615
1875
227 498
1906
1,100,735
1845
114,371
1876
169,986
1907
1,285,349
<846
154, 416
1877
141,857
1908
782,870
1847
234 968
1878
138, 469
1909.. . .
751,786
'848
226 527
1879
177 826
1910 .
1,041,570
1849
297 024
1880
457 257
1850 b
369 980
1881
669, 431
Total
27,918,992
a See pp. 97 to 118.
b Fifteen months ending December 31.
c Nine months ending September 30.
d Six months ending June 30.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
57
The number of immigrants in 1910 was 1,041,570. This number
has been exceeded only in 1906 and 1907, and it is almost equal to
one-half the number during the thirty-one years from 1820 to 1850.
The figures given are summarized by decades in the table next
presented.
TABLE 2.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910, by decade.
[Compiled from official sources. For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for alien passengers arriving; for 1868 to 1903,
for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to 1906, for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1910, for immigrant aliens
admitted.]
Period.
Immi-
grants.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Average
per year.
1820 to 18oO
151,824
0.5
13,802
1831 to 1840
599,125
2.1
59,913
1841 to 1850
1,713.251
6.1
171,325
1851 to 1860
2,598,214
9.3
259,821
1861 to 1870
2,314,824
8.3
231,482
1871 to 1880
2,812,191
10.1
281,219
1881 to 1890
5,246,613
18.8
524, 661
1891 to 1900 .,
3,687,564
13.2
368,756
1901 to 1910
8, 795, 386
31.5
879,539
Total
27,918,992
100.0
306,802
The number arriving during the decade from 1901 to 1910 was
8,795,386, which is more than 60 per cent higher than the greatest
number arriving during any previous decade and almost two and
four-tenths times as many as the number arriving during the decade
from 1891 to 1900. Of the total immigration during the ninety-one
years, 31.5 per cent came during the decade from 1901 to 1910; 18.8
per cent came during the decade from 1881 to 1890; and 13.2 per
cent came during the decade from 1891 ^1900.
The average number of immigrants during the past ten years has
been 879,539; during the ten years from 1891 to 1900 the average
was 368,756; and during the ten years from 1881 to 1890 the average
was 524,661.
-IMMIGRATION BY SEX, 1820 TO 1910.
Although the act of 1819, as previously shown, required that
arriving immigrants be recorded by sex, no satisfactory compilation
of these data prior to the year 1869 has been made. The earlier
reports of the Secretary of State to Congress, however, contain par-
tial data on this subject, and the Commission has compiled such
data to show the approximate sex distribution from 1820 to 1867,
inclusive. This compilation is made on the basis of years ending
June 30 during the period under consideration, and consequently
can not be compared with the annual immigration from 1820 to 1867
as shown in Table 1, for the reason that the last mentioned data, as
explained in that table, are for entirely different fiscal years. There-
fore the percentages given in the table which follows can not possi-
bly be reduced to numbers.
Moreover, as previously explained, the data are not complete, as
in most years during the period a considerable number of immigrants
were admitted for whom sex was not reported; but on the whole
the percentages may be accepted as fairly representative of the sex
distribution in the years considered.
72289°— VOL 1—11 5
58
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 3. — Per cent distribution (approximate] immigration to the United States, by sex,
for years ending June 30, 1820 to 1867.
[See explanatory text immediately preceding this table.]
Year ending June 30—
Per cent a—
Year ending June 30 —
Per cent a —
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
1820
69.8
74.2
77.5
79.0
80.1
74.2
70.9
71.7
65.4
65.2
72.5
64.4
65.6
67.5
67.8
62.0
63.8
63.4
63.3
64.0
64.2
61.5
61.0
57.4
56.0
30.2
25.8
22.5
21.0
19.9
25.8
29.1
28.3
34.6
34.8
27.5
35.6
34.4
32.5
32.2
38.0
36.2
36.6
36.6
36.0
35.9
38.5
39.0
42.6
44.0
1845
57.7
57.5
57.9
58.9
60.0
62.2
57.7
58.8
56.7
57.6
58.8
57.8
53.9
57.8
58.2
58.6
57.1
58.4
60.1
59.4
59.9
62.7
62.0
42.3
42.5
42.1
41.1
40.0
37.8
42.3
41.2
43.3
42.4
41.2
42.2
41.7
42.2
41.8
41.4
42.9
41.6
39.9
40.6
40.1
37.3
38.0
1821
1846
1822
1847
1823
1848
1824
1849
1325
1850
1826
1851
1827
1852
1828
1853
1829
1854
1830
1855
1831
1856
1832 . . .
1857
1833
1858
1834
1859
1835
1860
1836
1861 , . .
1837 ....
1862
1838
1863
1839
1864
1840 .
1865
1841 -
1866
1842
1867
1843
Total, 1820-1867
1844
59.6
40.3
a Based on number reporting sex.
The total immigration to the United States for the fiscal years
ending June 30, 1868 to 1910, and the distribution by sex from 1869
to 1910, are shown in the following table. Data relative to the
sex of immigrants admitted during the fiscal year 1868 are not
available.
TABLE 4. — Immigration to the United States, I
1910.
sex, for years ending June 30, 1868 to
[Compiled from official sources. For 1868 to 1903 the figures are for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to
1906, for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1910, for immigrant aliens admitted.]
Year ending June 30 —
Total
number
of immi-
grants.
Number.
Per cent.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
1868
282. 189
352,768
387,203
321,350
404, 806
459, 803
313,339
227, 498
169.986
141,857
138, 469
177,826
457,257
669,431
788,992
603,322
518,592
395, 346
334.203
(a)
214,865
235, 612
190,428
240, 170
275, 792
189, 225
139,950
111,786
92.033
86,259
111,882
287,623
410,729
498,814
363,863
308,509
226. 382
200,704
(a)
137,903
151,591
130,922
164, 63d
184,011
124, 114
87,548
58,200
49. 824
52,210
65,944
169, 634
258,702
290, 178
239.459
210,083
168,964
133.499
(a)
60.9
60.8
59.3
59.3
60.0
60.4
61.5
65.8
64.9
62.3
62.9
62.9
61.4
63.2
60.3
59.5
57.3
60.1
'%
39.1
40.7
40.7
40.0
39.6
38.5
34.2
35.1
37.7
37.1
37.1
38.6
36.8
39.7
40.5
42.7
39.9
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881 ..
1882
1883
1884..
1885
1886 - - .
a- Not reported.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
59
TABLE 4. — Immigration to the United States, by sex, for years ending June 30, 1868 to
1910 — Continued.
Year ending June 30—
Total
number
of immi-
grants.
Number.
Per cent.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
1887
490, 1 09
546,889
444, 427
455,302
560,319
579, 663
439,730
285, 631
258,536
343, 267
230,832
229,299
311,715
448, 572
487,918
648, 743
857,046
812,870
1.026,499
1,100,735
1,285,349
782,870
751,786
1,041,570
306,658
345,375
263,024
281,853
354,059
361 864
280,344
169, 274
1*9,016
212, 466
135, 107
135,775
195,277
304, 148
331,055
466,369
613, 146
549,100
724,914
764, 463
929,976
506,911i
519,969
736,038
183,451
201,514
181,403
173, 449
206,260
217, 799
159, 386
116,357
109,520
130,801
95,725
93, 524
116,438
144, 424
156,863
182, 374
243, 900
263, 7"0
301,585
336,272
355,373
275,958
231,817
305, 532
62.6
63.2
59.2
61.9
63.2
62.4
63.8
59.3
57.6
61.9
58.5
59.2
62.6
67.8
67.9
71.9
71.5
67.6
70.6
69.5
72.4
64.8
69.2
70.7
37.4
36.8
40.8
38.1
36.8
37.6
36.2
40.7
42.4
38.1
41.5
40.8
37.4
32.2
32.1
28.1
28.5
32.4
29.4
30.5
27.6
35.2
30.8
29.3
1888
1889
1890
1891 . . .
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897 .
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
Total
21,563,914
13,820,808
7,460,917
o64.9
« 35.1
t a Based on number reporting sex.
During the period 1820-1867, approximately 59.6 per cent of the
immigrants were males. From 1869 to 1910 the percentage of males
was 64.9. Of every 1,000 immigrants in 1910, 707 were males and
293 were females. This means that among the immigrants there were
2.4 times as many males as females. During each or the past eleven
years more than twice as many males as females have arrived in the
United States, except in 1908, when the proportion of males was
slightly lower. In 1 907 the proportion of males was 724 per thou-
sand immigrants, which was the highest proportion since 1830.
The statistics relative to sex of immigrants are summarized in
the table which follows:
TABLE 5. — Immigration to the United States, by sex, for periods specified, 1820 to 1910.
[Compiled from official sources. For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for alien passengers arriving; for 1868 to 1903,
for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to 1906, for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1910, for immigrant aliens
admitted.]
Period.
Total
number
of immi-
grants.
Number.
Per cent.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
1820-1867
6,355,078
282. 189
352,768
387,203
2,812,191
5,246,613
3,687,564
8,795,386
o59.6
(6)
60.9
60.8
61.3
61.1
62.3
69.8
040.3
(b)
39.1
39.1
38.7
38.9
37.7
30.2
1868
(b)
214,865
235,612
1,725,148
3,205,911
2,297,330
6,141,942
(6)
137, 903
151,591
1,087,043
2,040,702
1,390,234
2,653,444
1869
J 870 . .
1871-1880 . .
1881-1890
1891-1900
1901-1910
Total... .
27,918,992
13,820,808
7,460,917
C64.9
C35.1
a Approximate.
b Not reported.
c Based on number reporting sex.
60 The Immigration Commission.
As will be noted from Table 3 the data, so far as they are avail-
able, show that in some years during the period 1820 to 1830 the
proportion of males in the immigration movement was larger than
at any subsequent period. During that period as a whole there
were 700 males per 1,000 immigrants for whom sex was reported,
while during the last decade, 1901 to 1910, the proportion was 698
males per 1,000 immigrants admitted. The lowest proportion of
males was during the decade from 1851 to 1860, when there were
580 males per 1 ,000.
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1910.
With respect to origin of the immigration to the United States a
remarkable change has taken place. More than 70 per cent of the
present immigration is from the south and east of Europe and only
about 20 per cent is from the north and west of Europe. Two
decades ago more than 70 per cent was from the north and west of
Europe and less than 20 per cent from the south and east of Europe.
The table next presented shows for each year from 1820 to 1910
the number of immigrants from the countries of northern and western
Europe, from those of southern and eastern Europe, and from all other
countries. The table also shows for each year the per cent of the
immigrants from each of the three sources.
For the period from 1820 to 1910, 92.3 per cent of the immigrants
for whom country of origin was reported came from Europe, 58 per
cent being from the north and west of Europe, and 34.2 per cent
from the south and east of Europe.0 Only a very small proportion
of the immigrants came from the south and east of Europe until in
the late eighties. The proportion from that section of Europe reached
25 per cent for the first time in 1887. A notable shifting of the
source of immigration took place between 1895 and 1896. In 1895,
54.7 per cent of the immigrants came from the north and west of
Europe and 43.2 per cent from the south and east of Europe. In
1896, only 40 per cent came from the north and west of Europe and
57 per cent came from the south and east of Europe. The change
in the character of immigration, as far as source is concerned, is
clearly shown by Table 7, page 64, which summarizes the data con-
cerning source of immigration by decades.
a Including Turkey in Asia.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 61
The Immigration Commission.
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Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
63
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Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
65
During the decade from 1901 to 1910, 71.9 per cent of the immi-
grants for whom information concerning origin was secured came
from the south and east of Europe. The proportion from that part
of Europe was 52.8 per cent during'the decade 1891 to 1900, 18.3
per cent during the decade 1881 to 1890, and only 7.1 per cent
during the decade 1871 to 1880.
During the ninety-one years from 1820 to 1910, more immigrants
came from the United Kingdom than from any other country, the
number being 7,766,330. The number from the German Empire
during that period was 5,351,746, the number from Austria-Hungary
3,172,461, the number from Italy 3,086,356, and the number from the
Russian Empire 2,359,048.
The number coming from each country during the period from
1820 to 1910 is shown in the table which follows:
TABLE 8. — Immigration to the United States, by country of origin, during the period
1820 to 1910.
[Compiled from official sources. For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for alien passengers arriving; for 1868 to
1903, for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to 1906, for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1910, for immigrant
aliens admitted.]
Country of origin.
Number of
immigrants.
Country of origin.
Number of
immigrants.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary ..
3,172,461
103, 796
39, 440
258,053
470,868
5,351,746
186,204
3,086,356
175,943
o665,189
b 165, 182
132,989
72,117
2,359,048
69, 296
c 1,021, 165
237, 401
85,800
2,212,071
4,212,169
488, 749
59,540
Europe — Continued .
United Kingdom, not specified . . .
Other Europe
793,801
2,545
Belgium
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro.
Denmark
Total Europe
25,421,929
326,060
5,409
158,344
106,481
16,942
France, including Corsica
Asia:
China
German Empire
Greece
Italy, including Sicily and Sar-
dinia...
India ... .
Japan
Netherlands
Turkey in Asia
Norway. . .
Other Asia
Poland
Total Asia
Portugal, including Cape Verde
613,236
and Azores Islands
Roumania .
Africa
9,581
31,654
8,859
1,231,107
. 9,759
77,645
29,385
233, 146
252,691
Russian Empire
Australia and New Zealand
Spain, including Canary and Ba-
learic Islands
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American possessions. . .
Central America .
Sweden . . .
Switzerland
Mexico
Turkey in Europe
South America
United Kingdom —
England .
West Indies, including Jamaica
Countries not specified ,.
Grand total
Scotland .
27,918,992
Wales
a Including natives of Sweden who arrived 1820 to 1868.
b Not including natives of Poland who arrived 1899 to 1910 and were Included under Austria-Hungary,
German Empire, and Russian Empire.
cNot including natives of Sweden who arrived 1820 to 1868 and were included under Norway.
The table nex^ presented shows in detail the immigration
United States from each specified country of origin for the
1820 to 1910.
to the
years
66
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE.
[Compiled from official sources. For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for alien passengers arriving; for 1868 they
are for immigrants arriving. The years from 1820 to 1831 and from 1844 to 1849, inclusive, are those ending
September 30; 1833 to 1842 and 1851 to 1867, inclusive, those ending December 31.]
Country.
1820.
1821.
1822.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
1
2
10
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro - .
20
371
968
12
370
383
18
351
148
France, including Corsica
German Empire
Greece
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia ....
30
49
3
5
35
63
56
12
1
18
35
51
10
3
28
Norway a
Poland
Portugal including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
Roumani
14
139
7
191
10
152
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands .
Sweden &
Switzerland
31
1
1,782
3,614
268
93
110
4
856
2,267
198
13
154
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom-
England .
1,036
1,518
293
11
1,870
Scotland
Wales
Not specified
360
Other Europe
Total Europe
7,691
5,936
4,418
Asia:
China
1
1
1
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
3 !
Total Asia
5
1
1
2
Australia and New Zealand
""264
3
5
7
159
2,114
British North American possessions
209
2
1
11
164
301
184
Mexico
4
8
107
2,886
Countries not specified
Grand total
8,385
9,127
6,911
a Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
67
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1823.
1824.
1825.
Europe:
\uslria-Hungary
Belgium
2
1
1
6
11
14
460
377
515
German Empire
183
230
450
5
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia
33
45
75
19
40
37
Norway °
1
9
4
Poland
3
4
1
Portugal including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
24
13
13
Roumania
7
7
10
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands. .
220
359
273
Switzerland
47
253
166
Turkey in Europe
2
2
United Kingdom —
England
851
713
1,002
1,908
2,345
4 888
Scotland
180
257
113
Wales
69
33
11
Not specified
261
969
Other Europe c
1
1
Total Europe
4,016
4,965
8,543
Asia:
1
India . . ....
1
Japan
Turkey in Asia .
Other Asia
Total Asia
1
1
Africa
1
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific Islands, not specified
British North American possessions
167
155
314
Central America
10
8
Mexico
35
110
68
South America . . . . -
20
25
67
West Indies, including Jamaica
160
259
389
Countries not specified
1,956
2,387
808
Grand total
6,354
7,912
10, 199
Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
Malta.
68
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1826.
1827.
1828.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
2
7
2
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro
Denmark
10
15
50
France, including Corsica
545
1,280
2 843
German Empire"
511
432
1 851
Greece
4
7
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
57
35
34
Netherlands
176
245
263
Norway <*.
16
13
10
Poland
1
1
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
16
7
14
Roumania
Russian Empire
4
19
7
Spa-'Ti, innlnrling Canary anr) Ba.lpa.rir> Islands
436
414
209
Sweden b
Switzerland
245
297
1,592
Turkey in Europe
2
1
6
United Kingdom-
England
1,459
2,521
2,735
Ireland
5 408
9,766
12,488
Scotland
230
460
1,041
Wales
6
17
Not specified
624
1,205
1,559
Other Europe c . ...
' 1
Total Europe
9,751
16, 719
24,729
Asia:
China
India
1
1
3
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia .'
Total Asia
1
1
3
Africa .
4
6
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific Islands, not specified
British North American possessions
223
165
267
Central America
12
7
5
Mexico
106
127
1,089
South America
63
54
77
West Indies, including Jamaica
427
227
652
Countries not specified
254
1,571
554
Grand total
10,837
18, 875
27, 382
• Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway,
c Malta.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1 820 to 1910.
69
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1829.
1830.
1831.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium.
1
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro
Denmark
17
16
23
France including Corsica
582
1,174
2,038
German Empire
597
1,976
2,413
1
3
Italv including Sicily and Sardinia. .
23
9
28
Netherlands
169
22
175
13
3
13
2
9
3
Russian Empire
1
3
1
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands..
202
21
37
Switzerland
314
109
63
1
2
United Kingdom—
England. •
2,149
733
251
Ireland
7,415
2,721
5,772
Scotland...
111
29
226
Wales
3
7
131
Not specified . . . .
916
384
1,867
Other Europe
Total Furope
12,523
7,217
13,039
Asia:
China
1
India
1
1
Japan.
Other Asia
Total Asia
2
Africa
1
2
2
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific Islands not specified
British North American possessions
409
189
176
Central America
10
50
3
Mexico . .
2,290
983
692
South America
73
137
42
West Indies, including Jamaica..
517
937
1,281
Countries not specified
6 695
13 807
7 3°7
Grand total
22 520
23 322
22 633
a Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
70
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1832.o
1833.
1834.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary .
Belgium.
3
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro...
Denmark. . . .'
21
173
24
France including Corsica
5,361
4,682
2,989
German Empire
10,194
6,988
17,686
1
1
Italy including Sicily amd Sardinia
3
1,699
105
Netherlands
205
39
87
Norway &
313
16
42
Poland
34
1
54
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
5
633
44
52
159
15
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands..
106
516
107
Switzerland
129
634
1,389
1
United Kingdom—
944
* 2,966
1,129
Ireland
12,436
8,648
24,474
Scotland
158
1,921
110
Wales
29
1
4,229
9,250
2
5
Total Europe
34, 193
29,111
57,510
Asia:
India
4
3
6
Total Asia
4
3
6
Africa .
2
1
1
Australia and New Zealand
British North American possessions.....
608
1,194
1,020
6
18
9
827
779
885
South America
174
27
74
West Indies including Jamaica..
1,256
1,264
791
Countries not specified
23,412
26,243
5,069
Grand total
60,482
58,640
65,365
Fifteen months ending December 31. & Including Sweden. c Included in Norway. a Malta.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
71
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1835.
1836.
1837.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium . . . . , .
1
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro
Denmark
37
2,696
8,311
7
60
124
31
54
29
416
4,443
20, 707
28
115
301
57
53
29
109
5,074
23,740
5
36
312
290
81
34
France including Corsica
German Empire
Greece
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia
Netherlands
Norway o
Poland
Portugal including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
Roumatua
Russian Empire
9
183
2
180
19
230
. Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands...
Sweden b
Switzerland
548
445
3
420
30, 578
106
2
12, 578
2
383
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom-
England
468
20,927
68
16
8,423
896
28, 508
14
6
11,302
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
Not specified..
Other Europe c
Total Europe
41,987
70,465
71,039
Asia:
China.,
8
8
India
A
11
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
1
Total Asia.
17
4
11
2
Africa
14
6
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified . .
British North American possessions
1,193
1,032
145
938
44
2,814
1,279
4
627
91
1,627
4,660
Central America
Mexico
798
146
1,178
831
South America
West Indies, including Jamaica ..
Countries not specified ,
Grand total
45,374
76, 242
79,340
a Including Sweden.
& Included in Norway.
c Malta.
72
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9 .—Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1838.
1839.
1840.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
14
1
2
Bulgaria Servia, and Montenegro
52
3,675
11,683
4
86
27
60
41
24
56
• 7. 198
21,028
152
7,419
29,704
3
37
57
55
5
12
France including Corsica
German Empire
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia . .
84
85
324
46
19
Norway o,
Poland
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
Roumania - -
13
202
7
428
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands
136
Sweden &
Switzerland
123
607
1
62
23,963
500
1
318
39, 430
21
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom —
England
157
12,645
48
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
5,215
1
10,209
30
2,274
Other Europe c
Total Europe
34, 070
64, 148
80, 126
Asia:
China
India
1
1
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
Total Asia - - - - - -
1
1
Africa
10
10
6
Australia and New Zealand . . .
Pacific islands not specified
British North American possessions
1,476
1,926
1,938
Central America
Mexico
211
72
1,231
1,843
353
49
1,289
294
395
36
1,446
118
South America
West Indies including Jamaica
Countries not specified . . v
Grand total
38,914
68,069
84,066
a Including Sweden.
& Included in Norway.
c Malta.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1 820 to 1910.
73
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1841.
1842.
1843.«
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
106
44
135
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro. .
Denmark
31
5,006
15, 291
35
4,504
20, 370
1
100
330
553
10
15
29
3,346
14,441
4
117
330
1,748
17
32
France, including Corsica
German Empire .
Greece
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
179
214
195
15
7
Netherlands "
Norway &
Poland
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
Roumania
Russian Empire.. .
174
215
28
122
6
145
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands
Sweden c
Switzerland
751
6
147
37, 772
35
55
15, 951
66
483
2
1,743
51,342
24
38
20,200
1
553
5
3,517
19,670
41
Turhey in Europe. .
United Kingdom —
England
Ireland . . .
Scotland
Wales...
Not specified
4,872
5
Other Europe d. .
Total Europe
76,216
99, 945
49,013
Asia:
China
2
1
4
3
2
India.
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
1
6
Total Asia :
3
7
11
Africa
14
3
6
Australia and New Zealand...
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American possessions
1,816
2,078
1
403
102
1,410
616
1,502
12
398
62
880
612
Central America
Mexico
352
219
1,042
627
South Amsrica
West Indies, including Jamaica ...
Countries not specified
Grand total...
80,289
104, 565
52,496
Nine months ending September 30. b Including Sweden.
72289°— VOL 1—11 6
c Included in Norway. d Malta.
74
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART!: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1844.
1845.
1846.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
165
541
43
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro
Denmark
25
54
114
France, including Corsica
3,155
7,663
10 583
German Empire
20 731
34 355
57 561
Greece
3
2
3
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
141
137
151
Netherlands
184
791
979
Norway o
1,311
928
1,916
Poland
36
6
4
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
16
14
2
Roumania.
Russian Empire
13
1
248
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands
270
304
73
Sweden *>
Switzerland
839
471
698
Turkey in Europe . .
10
3
4
United Kingdom-
England
1,357
1,710
2,854
Ireland . .
33, 490
44, 821
51 752
Scotland
23
368
305
Wales
3
11
147
Not specified
12,970
17, 121
18 874
Other Europe c
3
4
Total Europe
74,745
109,301
146 315
Asia:
China
3
6
7
India. .
1
4
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
2
Total Asia
6
6
11
Africa
14
4
1
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American possessions
2,711
3,195
3,855
Central America
21
5
Mexico
197
498
222
South America
61
80
92
West Indies, including Jamaica
771
1,241
1,351
Countries not specified
110
25
2,564
Grand total...
78, 615
114,371
154,416
o Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
c Malta.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
75
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1847.-
1848.
1849.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary .
1,473
897
590
Denmark .
13
210
g
France, including Corsica
20,040
7,743
5,841
German Empire ^.
74,281
58,465
60, 235
1
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia.
164
241
209
Netherlands
2.631
918
1,190
Norway a
1,307
903
3,473
Polana
8
4
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
6
67
26
Roumania
Russian Empire .. . .
5
^
44
Spain including Canary and Balearic. Islands
168
164
329
Sweden b
Switzerland
192
319
13
Turkey in Europe
2
3
9
United Kingdom-
England
3,476
4,455
6,036
Ireland ...
105, 536
112,934
159, 398
Scotland
337
659
1 060
Wales
145
348
272
Not specified
19, 344
29, 697
47, 764
Other Europe
Total Europe
229,117
218 025
286 501
Asia:
China
4
3
India
8
6
g
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
2
Total Asia
12
g
H
Africa
10
3
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American possessions
3,827
6 473
6 890
Central America
21
4
233
Mexico
62
24
518
South America
70
150
190
West Indies, including Jamaica
1 251
1,338
1 073
Countries not specified
608
495
1 605
Grand total
234 968
226 527
297 024
a Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
76
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1850.0
1851.
1852.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
1,080
8
Bulgaria, Servia and Montenegro
Denmark _
20
14
3
France, including Corsica
9,381
20 126
6 763
German Empire
78 896
72 482
145 918
Greece
2
10
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
431
447
351
Netherlands
684
352
1 719
Norway b
1,569
2,424
4,103
Poland
5
10
110
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
366
50
68
Roumania
Russian Empire
31
1
2
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands
429
435
391
Sweden e
Switzerland
325
427
2 788
Turkey in Europe
15
2
United Kingdom —
England
6,797
5 306
30 007
Ireland
164,004
221. 253
159,548
Scotland
860
966
8,148
Wales
242
211
741
Not specified . . .
43,186
45,004
1,803
Other Europe.
Total Europe
308, 323
369,510
362, 484
Asia:
China
3
India :
4
2
4
Japan ..
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
Total Asia
7
2
4
Africa
3
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified . .
British North American possessions
9,376
*,«ro
7 438
6,352
Central \merica
96
Mexico .
597
181
72
South America
2 553
59
39
West Indies, including Jamaica
3,171
1,929
1,232
Countries Tint spfynfied
45 882
248
1,420
Grand total r
369,980
379,466
371,603
Fifteen months ending December 31.
Including Sweden.
; Included in Norway.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 77
TABLE 9 .—Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
. Country.
1853.
1854.
1855.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
87
266
1,506
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro
Denmark
32
10,770
141,946
12
555
600
3,364
33
95
691
13,317
215,009
1
1,263
1,534
3,531
208
72
528
6,044
71,918
France, including Corsica.
German Empire
Greece
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
1,052
2,588
821
462
205
Netherlands
Norway a
Poland..
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
Roumania
Russian Empire
3
1,091
2
1,433
13
951
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands
Sweden b
Switzerland
2,748
15
28,867
162,649
6.006
222
2,481
7,953
7
48,901
101,606
4,605
816
4,325
2
4,433
9
38,871
49,627
5,275
1,176
2,250
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom-
England
Ireland
Scotland...
Wales
Not specified
Other Europe c
Total Europe
361,576
405,542
187, 729
Asia:
China
42
5
13,100
3,526
6
India
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
8
Total Asia
47
13,100
3,540
Africa
8
14
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American possessions
5,424
6,891
24
446
136
1,036
658
7,761
1
420
191
887
334
Central America
Mexico
162
38
406
984
South America
West Indies, including Jamaica
Countries not specified
Grand total
368,645
427,833
200,877
a Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
Malta.
78
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE— continued.
Country.
1856.
1857.
1858.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium. . . .
1,982
627
184
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro
Denmark
173
1,035
232
France, including Corsica
7,246
2,397
3,155
German Empire
71,028
91, 781
45, 310
Greece
2
4
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
1.365
1.007
1,240
Netherlands "
1,395
1,775
185
Norway o
1,157
1,712
2,430
Poland . .
20
124
9
Portugal including Cape Verde and \zores Islands
128
92
177
Roumania
Russian Empire
9
25
246
Spain inc'uding Canary and Balearic Inlands
786
714
1,282
Sweden &....
Switzerland
1.780
2,080
1,056
Turkey in Europe
5
11
17
United Kingdom —
England
25,904
27,804
14, 638
Ireland
54,349
54,361
26,873
Scotland
3,297
4,182
1,946
Wales
1,126
769
316
Not specified
14,331
25, 724
12,056
Other Europe c .
2
Total Europe
186,083
216,224
111,354
Asia:
China
4,733
5*944
5,128
India
13
' 1
5
Japan
Turkey in Asia . '
Other Asia
1
Total Asia . .
4,747
5,945
5,133
Africa
(i
25
17
Pacific islands not specified
British North American possessions
6,493
5, 670
4,603
Central \merica -
303
' 2
11
Mexico
741
133
429
South America
184
83
131
West Indies including Jamaica. .
1,337
923
647
Countries not specified
542
22, 301
801
Grand total • '.
200, 436
251,306
123,126
a Including Sweden.
b Included in Norway.
c Malta.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
79
TABLE 9 .—Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1 9 10— Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1859.
1860.
1861.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
51
Belgium . .
25
53
153
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro
Denmark .
499
542
234
France including Corsica
2,579
3,961
2,326
German Empire
41,784
54,491
31,661
Greece .
1
1
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
932
1,019
811
Netherlands
290
351
283
Norway a
1,091
298
616
Poland
106
82
48
Portugal including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
46
122
47
Roumania ... •
Russian Empire
91
65
34
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands
1,283
932
448
Sweden b
Switzerland .
833
913
1,007
Turkey in Europe
10
4
5
United Kingdom—
England
13,826
13,001
8,970
Ireland
35,216
48,637
23,797
Scotland
2,293
1,613
767
Wales
332
610
461
Not specified
9,712
14,513
9,477
Other Europe c
1
3
Total Europe
110,949
141,209
81,200
Asia:
China
3,457
5,467
7,518
India
2
5
6
Japan
1
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
2
4
3
Total Asia
3,461
5,476
7,528
Africa
11
126
47
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American possessions
4,163
4,514
2,069
Central America
4
8
21
Mexico
265
229
218
South America
155
208
97
West Indies, including Jamaica .
879
1,384
358
Countries not specified
1,395
486
380
Grand total
121,282
153,640
91 918
a Including Sweden.
b Included In Norway.
Malta.
80
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 1: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1862.
1863.
1864.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary . ...
Ill
85
230
Belgium ...
169
301
389
Bulgaria Servia and Montenegro . .
1,658
1,492
712
France including Corsica
3,142
1,838
3,128
German Empire
27,529
33,162
57,276
Greece
5
5
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia
566
547
600
Netherlands
432
416
708
Norway a-
892
1,627
2,249
Poland
63
94
165
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
72
86
240
Roumania
79
77
256
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands
348
500
917
Sweden b ....
643
690
1,396
Turkey in Europe
11
16
11
United Kingdom-
England
10.947
24,065
26,096
Ireland
23,351
55,916
63,523
Scotland
657
1,940
3,476
Wales
536
705
628
Not specified
12,499
40,172
23,228
Other Europe
Total Europe
83,710
163,733
185,233
Asia:
China
3,633
7,214
2,975
India
5
1
6
Other Asia - ...
2
1
1
Total Asia
3,640
7,216
2,982
\frica
12
3
37
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands not specified
British North American possessions
3,275
3,464
3,636
Central America
27
2
2
Mexico
142
96
99
South \merica
146
94
152
West Indies including Jamaica
585
491
718
Countries not specified
448
1,183
559
Grand total
91,985
176,282
193,418
a Including Sweden.
t> Included in Norway.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 81
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART i: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1820 TO 1868, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.a
Europe:
•Vustria-Hungary
422
93
692
192
741
1,254
789
14
1,149
1,862
1,436
819
3,583
6,855
5,237
1,989
German E mpire
83,424
115,892
133,426
55,831
7
10
10
Italy including Sicily amd Sardinia
924
1,382
1,624
891
Netherlands
779
1,716
2,223
345
Norway b -
6,109
12,633
7,055
11,166
Poland
528
412
310
Portugal including Cape Verde and Azores Islands
365
344
126
174
Russian Empire .
183
287
205
141
Spain including Canary and Balearic Islands
692
718
904
384
Sweden c
Switzerland
2,889
3,823
4,168
1,945
Turkey in Europe . .
14
18
26
4
United Kingdom-
England . .
15,038
3,559
36,972
(d)
Ireland . -
29,772
36,690
72,879
32,068
Scotland
3,037
1,038
7,582
(d)
Wales
146
23
143
(d)
Not specified
64,244
90,304
7,944
24,127
Other Europe <
2
3
Total Europe
214,048
278,916
283,751
130,090
Asia:
China
2,942
2,385
3,863
5,157
India ...
5
17
2
Japan
7
67
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
2
29
14
Total Asia
2,947
2,411
3,961
5,171
Africa
49
33
25
3
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands, not specified .
British North American possessions
21,586
32,150
23,379
2,785
Central America
4
3
Mexico
193
239
292
129
South America
148
294
224
82
West Indies including Jamaica
851
895
817
419
Countries not specified ...
8,298
3,626
3,270
161
Grand total
248, 120
318, 568
315,722
138 840
a Six months ending June 30.
b Including Sweden.
c Included in Norway.
d Included in United Kingdom not specified.
e Malta.
82
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE.
[Compiled from official sources. For 1869 to 1903 the figures are for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to
1906 for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1910 for immigrant aliens admitted.]
Country.
1869.
1870.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
A ustria-TTnrigjwy
867
1,122
632
800
1,499
1, 922
2,341
718
2,084
284
4,425
1,002
Belgium
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro
Denmark ' "
2,397
2,531
77,438
7
1,076
739
9,147
138
302
1,252
1,348
53,604
1
413
395
6,921
46
205
3,649
3,879
131,042
8
1,489
1,134
16, 068
184
507
2,519
2,693
70,688
20
2,132
663
8,003
140
450
1,564
1,316
47,537
2
759
403
5,213
83
247
4,083
4,009
118,225
22
2,891
1,066
13,216
223
697
France, including Corsica
(rp.rmar\ Empire ....
Greece
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
Netherlands
Norway
Poland ..
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores
Islands
Roumania
Russian Empire . .
228
749
15,663
2,373
14
22, 952
22,708
4,915
460
23,379
115
374
8,561
1,277
12,721
18,078
2,836
200
16,975
343
1,123
24,224
3,650
18
35, 673
40,786
7,751
660
40,354
550
487
8,306
2,002
6
38, 106
31,414
7,605
574
17,084
357
176
5,137
1,073
22,851
25,582
4,916
437
12,104
907
663
13,443
3,075
6
60,957
56, 996
12,521
1.011
29,188
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands.
Sweden
Switzerland ....
Turkey in Europe. . .
United Kingdom—
England
Ireland
Scotland
* Wales
Not specified.
Other Europe
Total Europe .
189,205
126,758
315,963
196,501
132,125
328,626
Asia:
China
11,900
1
53
2
4
974
2
10
12,874
3
63
2
7
14, 624
19
46
1,116
5
2
15,740
24
48
India
Japan . . . .
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
3
10
3
13
Total Asia
11,960
47
989
25~
12,949
72~
14,699
26
17
1,126
15,825
Africa
5
19
31
36
Australia and New Zealand
Pacific islands not specified
British North American possessions
11,888
3
225
64
1,462
11
9,232
21, 120
3
320
91
2,233
17
22,726
31
358
59
1,181
14
235,612
17,688
2
105
10
498
13
151,591
40,414
33
463
69
1,679
27
387,203
Central America
Mexico
95
27
771
6
South America .
West Indies including Jamaica .
Countries not specified
Grand total
214,865
137,903
352,768
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
83
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1871.
1872.
1873.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
2,557
2,330
4,887
2,465
1,945
4,410
3,813
3,299
7,112
Belgium
523
251
774
481
257
738
763
413
1,176
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
1,347
668
2,015
2,534
i, ise
3,690
3,326
1,605
4,931
France,including Corsica .
German Empire
1,993
47, 775
1,145
34, 779
3,138
82, 554
6,061
83,418
3,256
57, 691
9,317
141, 109
9,500
86, 411
5,298
63,260
14,798
149, 671
Greece
10
11
11
1
12
21
2
23
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
2,072
744
2,816
3,171
1,019
4,190
6,878
1,879
8,757
Netherlands
697
296
993
1,185
724
1,909
2,282
1,529
3,811
Norway .
6,179
3,239
9,418
6,840
4,581
11,421
9,928
6,319
16, 247
Poland
328
207
535
1,158
489
1,647
2,224
1,114
3,338
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
510
377
887
956
350
1,306
807
378
1,185
Russian Empire
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden
394
423
6,803
279
135
3,896
673
558
10,699
648
435
8,510
370
160
4,954
1,018
595
13, 464
1,023
409
8,656
611
132
5,647
1,634
541
14,303
Switzerland
1,399
870
2,269
2,312
1,338
3,650
1,943
1,164
3,107
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom-
England.
19
34, 412
4
22, 118
23
56,530
16
42,496
4
27,268
20
69,764
39
45,024
14
29,777
53
74, 801
Ireland
30, 939
26,500
57, 439
36, 548
32, 184
68,732
40,993
36,351
77, 344
Scotland
7,087
4,897
11,984
7,940
5,976
13,916
8,254
5,587
13, 841
Wales
517
382
899
685
529
1,214
518
322
840
Not specified ....
9,128
6,914
16,042
12
6
18
12
6
18
Other Europe
1
1
11
4
15
6
4
10
Total Europe
155, 112
110,033
265,145
207,893
144,262
352, 155
232,830
164,711
397,541
Asia:
China ...
6,786
349
7,135
7,605
183
7,788
19,403
889
20, 292
India
8
6
14
5
12
15
Japan .
77
1
78
17
17
9
9
Turkey in Asia
2
r
4
3
Other Asia.. .
8
1
9
6
2
8
^
6
Total Asia. . .
6,881
359
7,240
7,635
190
7,825
19,431
894
20,325
Africa
19
5
24
24
17
41
22
6
28
Australia and New Zealand..
Pacific islands, not specified.
British North American pos-
sessions
13
27, 195
]
19,969
18
47,164
1,961
194
20,965
219
42
19,239
2,180
236
40,204
992
238
20, 461
143
41
17,430
1,135
279
37,891
Central America
4
1
8
31
38
Mexico
336
66
402
487
82
569
483
123
606
Soutfh America .
71
25
96
75
27
102
145
21
166
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
749
420
1,169
837
485
1,322
1,067
567
1,634
Countries not specified
48
37
86
92
72
164
92
68
160
Grand total
190 428
130,922
321,350
240, 170
164,636
404,806
275, 792
184,011
459,803
84
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
I
Country.
1874.
1875.
1876.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
4,882
556
3,968
261
8,850
817
4,129
475
3,529
140
7,658
615
3,484
418
2,792
97
6,276
515
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
1,824
5,856
49,554
33
6,140
1,409
6,766
1,078
1,132
1,258
3,788
37,737
3
1,526
1,035
3,618
717
479
3,082
9,644
87,291
36
7,666
2, 444
10, 384
1,795
1,611
1,563
5,378
27,576
19
2,812
750
3,726
586
1,261
1,093
2,943
20, 193
6
819
487
2,367
398
678
2,656
8,321
47,769
25
3,631
1,237
6,093
984
1,939
967
5,317
18,673
17
2,312
560
3,404
568
745
580
2,687
13,264
2
703
295
1,769
357
532
1,547
8,004
31,937
19
3,015
855
5,173
925
1,277
France,including Corsica.
German Empire
Greece «
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
Netherlands
Norway .
Poland
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands ....
Roumania
Russian Empire
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden
2,692
388
3,318
1,845
47
29,921
27,047
6,301
392
11
6
1,381
97
2,394
1,248
15
20,984
26,660
4,128
273
11
4
4,073
485
5,712
3,093
62
50,905
53,707
10,429
665
22
10
4,384
467
3,274
1,127
25
24, 497
18,029
4,473
270
15
155
3,613
134
2,299
687
2
15,633
19,928
2,837
179
1
4
7,997
601
5,573
1,814
27
40,130
37,957
7,310
449
16
159
2,776
406
3,479
1,047
29
14,949
8,938
2,989
199
6
24
1,999
112
2,124
502
9
9,424
10,637
1,593
125
6
4
4,775
518
5,603
1,549
38
24,373
19, 575
4,582
324
12
28
Switzerland
Turkey in Europe...
United Kingdom—
England
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
Not specified...
Other Europe
Total Europe
151,198j 111,585
262,783
104,991
77,970
182,961
71,307
49, 613
120,920
Asia:
China...
13,533
9
18
2
15
243
8
3
4
3
13,776
17
21
6
18
16,055
13
3
1
37
382
6
16,437
19
3
1
39
22,521
14
4
7!
260
11
""3
52
22,781
25
4
8
125
India
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia..
2
Total Asia ....
13,577
261
13,838
16,109
390
16,499
22, 617
60
976
98
15, 299
6
466
130
809
18
111,786
326
22,943
89
1,205
107
22,505
12
, 631
156
1,382
36
Africa
39
782
206
21,792
10
311
121
1,109
80
189,225
19
178
27
11,228
2
75
23
668
48
58
960
233
33,020
12
386
144
1,777
128
38
879
147
16,189
10
481
105
958
43
16
225
17
7,908
1
129
27
832
33
87,548
54
1,104
164
24,097
11
610
132
1,790
76
227,498
29
229
9
7,206
6
165
26
573
18
Australia and New Zealand..
Pacificislands, notspecifled..
British North American pos-
sessions
Central America
Mexico
South America
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
Countries not specified
Grand total
124, 114
313,339
139,950
58,200
169, 986
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
85
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY or ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1877.
4878.
1879.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
2,989
2,407
5.396
2,925
2,225
5,150
3,391
2,572
5 963
Belgium
379
109
488
231
123
354
320
192
512
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
1 073
622
1 695
1 308
797
2 105
2 244
1,230
3 474
France, including Corsica .
German Empire
3,839
17, 732
2,017
11,566
5,856
29,298
2,589
18,019
1,570
11 294
4,159
29 313
2,954
21 578
1,701
13 024
4,655
34 602
Greece
19
5
24
16
16
18
3
21
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
2 321
874
3 195
3 126
1 218
4 344
4 252
1 539
5 791
Netherlands
391
200
591
392
'216
608
467
286
753
Norway
2,950
1,638
4,588
3,034
1,725
4,759
4,695
2,650
7,345
Poland
382
151
533
362
185
547
335
154
489
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
1 725
638
2 363
885
447
1 332
916
458
1 374
Roumania
Russian Empire
3,838
2,761
6 599
1 757
1 291
3 048
2 497
1 956
4 453
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden
489
2 919
176
2 072
665"
4 991
350
3 272
107
2 118
457
5 390
352
7 313
105
3 688
457
11 001
Switzerland
1,193
493
1,686
1 236
'572
l'808
2 167
994
3 161
Turkey in Europe
21
11
32
20
g
29
22
7
29
United Kingdom-
England
12 045
7 116
19 161
11 448
6 957
18 405
15 476
8 707
24 183
Ireland :
6,819
7,750
14,569
7,203
8'729
15 932
9*635
10 378
20 013
Scotland
2 843
1,292
4 135
2 145
1 357
3 502
3 443
1 782
5 225
Wales
169
112
281
145
98
243
351
192
543
Not specified.. .
1
3
4
2
4
Other Europe
41
4
45
89
22
111
139
72
211
Total Europe .
64 178
42 017
106 195
60 552
41 060
101 612
82 567
51 692
134 259
Asia:
China
10 518
76
10 594
8 641
351
8 992
9 264
340
9 604
India
8
9
' 17
6
2
3
9
' 15
Japan
4
3
7
2
2
3
1
4
Turkey in Asia
3
3
4
3
7
19
12
31
Other Asia
16
3
19
4
1
5
4
2
Q
Total Asia.
10,549
91
10 640
8 657
357
9 014
9 296
364
9 660
Africa
10
6
16
12
6
18
10
2
12
Australia and New Zealand. .
Pacific islands, not specified.
767
2
145
912
2
508
98
606
704
3
109
813
3
British North American pos-
sessions
15 248
6 889
22 137
15 403
10 189
25 592
18 007
13 279
31 286
Central America. .. .
6
33
7
' 40
1
' 9
Mexico
349
""96
445
376
89
465
457
99
CCA
South America
61
26
87
65
23
88
50
19
69
West Indies, Including Ja-
maica
848
542
1 390
644
375
1 019
753
370
1 123
Countries not specified
15
12
27
9
6
15
27
9
36
Grand total
92,033
49, 824
141, 857
86, 259
52 210
138 469
111 882
65 944
177 826
86
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
f880.
1881.
1882.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
10,247
7,020
17, 267
16,299
11,636
27,935
18 690
10 460
29 150
Belgium . .
784
448
1,232
1,186
580
1 766
892
539
1 431
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
4 466
2,110
6 576
5 874
3 243
9 117
7 517
4 101
11 618
France.includingCorsica.
German Empire
2,802
52, 743
1,512
31,895
4,314
84,638
3,455
128, 399
1,772
82 086
5,227
210 485
3,893
148 466
2^111
102 164
6,004
250 630
Greece
19
4
23
17
2
19
125
1
126
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
Netherlands
8,695
1,932
3,659
1,408
12, 354
3,340
ll^Q
5,086
3,822
3,511
15,401
8,597
27, 488
5,620
4,671
3,897
32,159
9 517
Norway
13, 165
6,730
19, 895
14,511
8 194
22, 705
17 929
11 172
29 101
Poland
1,442
735
2,177
3,595
2,019
5,614
3,419
1,253
4 672
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
495
313
808
803
412
1,215
916
520
1 436
Roumania
g
3
11
19
11
30
44
21
65
Russian Empire. .
3,410
1,604
5,014
3,247
1 794
5,041
11 639
5 279
16 918
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden
305
26 862
84
12, 324
389
39 186
386
31 317
98
18 443
484
49 760
293
41 335
85
23 272
378
64 607
Switzerland
4,212
1,944
6,156
7,499
3,794
11,293
7,047
3,797
10 844
Turkey in Europe
18
6
24
54
18
72
52
17
69
United Kingdom-
England
37, 661
21,793
59, 454
40,401
24, 776
65, 177
51,575
30, 819
82 394
Ireland
38, 151
33, 452
71,603
37, 387
34 955
72,342
40 980
35 452
76 432
Scotland...
8,072
4,568
12, 640
9,503
5,665
15, Hi8
12, 108
6,829
18^ 937
Wales. .
730
443
1,173
650
377
1,027
1,097
559
1 656
Not specified
4
2
6
4
4
3
1
4
Other Europe
253
158
411
45
21
66
28
10
38
Total Europe
216,476
132,215
348, 691
321,316
207,229
528,545
401,156
247,030
648 186
Asia:
China
5,732
70
5,802
11,815
75
11,890
39,463
116
39 579
India
12
9
21
25
g
33
6
4
10
Japan
4
4
11
11
5
5
Turkey in Asia
1
3
4
5
5
Other Asia
g
g
30
13
43
30
5
35
Total Asia
5,757
82
5,839
11,886
96
11,982
39,504
125
39,629
Africa
14
4
18
21
12
33
' 39
21
60
Australia and New Zealand. .
Pacific islands, not specified
799
154
953
1
986
3
202
1,188
3
740
7
138
4
878
11
British North American pos-
sessions
63,165
36,579
99,744
74, 938
50,512
125,450
56, 152
42,214
98,366
Central America .
14
3
17
11
1
12
g
7
15
Mexico
405
87
492
247
78
325
292
74
366
South America.. .
64
24
88
86
24
110
61
30
91
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
892
459
1,351
1,164
516
1,680
810
481
1,291
Countries not specified
36
27
63
71
32
103
45
54
99
Grand total
287, 623
169,634
457,257
410,729
258, 702
669, 431
498, 814
290, 178
788, 992
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 87
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, EOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1883.
1884.
1885.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria- Hun gary
18,814
8,811
27,625
24, 381
12,190
36,571
16,695
10, 614
27,309
Belgium
957
493
1,450
1,059
517
1,576
1,007
646
1,653
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
6,228
4,091
10, 319
5,509
3,693
9,202
3,541
2,559
6,100
France, including Corsica .
German Empire
3,247
111,778
1,574
83,008
4,821
194, 786
2,293
103,663
1,315
76, 013
3,608
179, 676
2,271
68,426
1,224
56, 017
3,495
124, 443
Greece
58
15
73
34
3
37
154
18
172
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
28,222
3,570
31,792
12,657
3,853
16,510
9,864
3,778
13,642
Netherlands
3,122
2,127
5,249
2,569
1,629
4, 198
1,649
1,040
2,689
Norway . .
13,799
9,599
23,398
9,986
6,988
16, 974
7,054
5,302
12,356
Poland
1 465
546
2 Oil
3 384
1 152
4 536
2 139
946
3 085
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
1 048
525
1 573
1 225
702
1 927
1 323
701
2 024
Roumania
37
40
77
131
107
238
449
354
'803
Russian Empire
6,025
3,884
9,909
8,675
4,014
12,689
10,480
6,678
17, 158
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden. .
205
22,916
'57
15 361
262
38,277
236
15 459
64
11 093
300
26 552
271
12 491
79
9 757
350
22 248
Switzerland
8,165
4,586
12,751
5,835
3,551
9,386
3,680
2,215
5,895
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom-
England. ..
52
38,174
34
24,966
86
63, 140
138
33, 413
12
22 505
150
55 918
110
28 083
28
19 249
138
47 332
Ireland
41 495
39 991
81 486
31 280
32 064
63 344
25 187
26 608
51 795
Scotland. . .
7,007
4,852
11,859
5,294
3 766
9 060
5 617
3 609
9 226
Wales
987
610
1 597
508
393
901
668
459
1 127
Not specified
Other Europe . .
7
27
3
» 9
10
36
51
148
20
114
71
262
11
3
17
7
28
15
Total Europe. . .
313, 835
208 752
522, 587
267 928
185 758
453 686
201 178
151 °K)5
353 083
Asia:
China .
7,987
44
8 031
241
38
279
12
10
22
India
4
5
9
9
3
12
27
7
34
Japan . . .
19
8
27
19
1
20
42
7
49
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia.. .
37
9
46
168
31
199
81
12
93
Total Asia
8,047
66
8,113
437
73
510
162
36
198
Africa
36
31
67
43
16
59
85
27
112
Australia and New Zealand. .
Pacific islands, not specified.
British North American pos-
sessions .
428
113
40 284
126
80
29 990
554
193
70 274
339
295
37 642
163
103
22 984
502
398
60 626
305
163
22 601
144
67
15 735
449
230
38 336
Central America
6
6
7
' 3
10
20
3
23
Mexico .
377
92
469
290
140
430
238
85
323
South America
55
22
77
40
25
65
35
9
44
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
644
259
903
1 430
778
2 208
1 564
913
2 477
Countries not specified
38
41
79
58
40
98
31
40
71
Grand total
363,863
239,459
603,322
308 509
210 083
518 592
226 382
168 964
395 346
88
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN V^ND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1886.
1887.
1888.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary. . .
19, 554
9,126
28,680
2fi '898
13 367
40 265
32, 226
13,585
45, 811
Belgium
845
455
1 300
1 670
883
2 553
2,050
1,165
3,215
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
3,875
2,350
6,225
5,448
3,076
8 524
5,649
3,313
8,962
France,including Corsica .
German Empire
2, 169
46, 738
1,149
37 665
3,318
84 403
3,212
61 097
1,822
45 768
5,034
106 865
4,354
61,924
2,100
47, 793
6, 454
109, 717
Greece
95
9
104
305
8
313
768
14
782
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
15,340
5 975
21,315
37 442
10 180
47 62°
42,206
9,352
51,558
Netherlands
1,492
822
2,314
2,708
1,798
4 506
3,487
2,358
5,845
Norway
7,890
4,869
12, 759
10 523
5 746
16 269
11,888
6,376
18, 264
Poland
2,852
1,087
3,939
4,150
1,978
6'l28
4,133
1,693
5,826
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
821
373
1 194
869
491
1 360
1,131
494
1,625
Roumania
314
180
494
1 087
958
2 045
683
503
1,186
Russian Empire
11,555
6,245
17,800
20, 070
10, 696
30 766
22, 425
11,062
33, 487
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands.. .
Sweden
261
17, 019
83
10, 732
344
27, 751
341
27,359
95
15, 477
436
42 836
411
34, 762
115
19,936
526
54,698
Switzerland
2,902
1,903
4,805
3 283
1 931
5 214
5,040
2,697
7,737
Turkey in Europe
132
44
176
157
49
206
161
46
207
United Kingdom-
England
30 913
18 854
49, 767
45 979
26 876
72 855
50, 941
31,633
82, 574
Ireland
24, 425
25, 194
49, 619
35, 449
32, 921
68 370
38, 459
35,054
73, 513
Scotland
7,584
4,542
12, 126
12 133
6 566
18 699
15, 475
8,982
24, 457
Wales
614
413
1,027
1,211
609
1 820
1,037
617
1,654
Not specified .
6
3
9
3
1
4
2
7
Other Europe
33
27
60
69
70
139
18
8
26
Total Europe
197 429
132 100
329, 529
301,463
181 366
482 829
339, 233
198, 898
538, 131
Asia:
China ..
25
15
40
8
10
21
.
26
India
10
17
20
12
32
15
5
20
Japan
160
34
194
218
11
229
366
38
4&4
Turkey in Asia
14
1
15
184
24
208
230
43
273
Other Asia
51
51
133
3
136
99
21
120
Total Asia
260
57
317
563
52
615
731
112
843
Africa
79
43
122
34
6
40
51
14
65
Australia and New Zealand. .
Pacific islands, not specified..
British North American pos-
sessions
360
393
o 15
162
221
a 2
522
614
a 17
394
445
«9
134
309
(o)
528
754
a 9
485
1,010
a 12
212
680
a3
697
1,690
a 15
Central America
23
h
29
13
6
19
54
13
07
Mexico
(6)
(6)
(b)
(&)
(6)
(6)
(b)
(b)
(6)
South America
180
66
246
259
107
366
336
104
440
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
1 927
807
2 734
3.447
1,429
4 876
3,428
1,452
4,880
Countries not specified
' 38
35
73
31
42
73
35
2b
61
Grand total...
200 704
133 499
334, 203
306, 658
183, 451
490 109
345, 375
201,514
546, 889
o Including only Bermudas and British Honduras,
possessions.
& No records.
No records for other British North American
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
89
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1889.
1890.
1891.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
TotaL
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
22,890
11,284
34,174
40,017
16,182
56,199
48,823
22,219
71,042
Belgium
1,639
923
2,562
1,719
952
2,671
2,041
996
3,037
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Denmark.
5,301
3,398
8,699
5,713
3,653
9,366
6,455
4,204
10,659
France, including Corsica
German Empire
3,789
54.876
2,129
44,662
5,918
99,538
3,863
50,923
2,722
41,504
6,585
92,427
4,087
63,406
2,683
50,148
6,770
113,554
Greece
149
9
158
464
60
524
1,040
65
1,105
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
18,273
7,034
25,307
40,852
11,151
52,003
60,775
15,280
76,055
Netherlands
3,794
2,666
6,460
2,655
1,671
4,326
3,184
2,022
5,206
Norway
7,572
5,818
13,390
6,601
4,769
11,370
7,644
4,924
12,568
Poland
3,191
1,731
4,922
7,613
3,460
11,073
18,064
9,433
27,497
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
1,287
737
2,024
1,669
931
2,600
1,843
1,156
2,999
Roumania
443
450
893
260
257
517
472
485
957
Russian Empire
21,661
12,255
33,916
22,763
12,835
35,598
30,626
16,800
47,426
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. 7
Sweden
411
19,919
115
15,496
526
35,415
619
16,532
194
13,100
813
29,632
690
21,746
215
15,134
905
36,880
Switzerland
4,525
2,545
7,070
4,406
2,587
6,993
4,275
2,536
6,811
Turkey in Europe
202
50
252
171
35
206
224
41
265
United Kingdom-
England.
41 , 549
26,954
68,503
34,245
22,775
57,020
32,279
21,321
53,600
Ireland
33,223
32,334
65,557
26,344
26,680
53, 024
27,936
27,770
55,706
Scotland
10,698
7,598
18,296
6,833
5,208
12,041
7,318
5,239
12,557
Wales
732
449
1,181
384
266
650
278
146
424
Not specified
g
4
12
12
7
19
18
6
24
Other Europe
7
10
17
12
11
23
22
16
38
Total Europe
256, 139
178/651
434, 790
274, 670
171,010
445, 680
343, 246
202, 839
546, 085
Asia:
China
90
28
118
1 401
315
1 716
2 608
298
2 836
India
50
9
59
' 34
9
43
33
9
' 42
Japan
558
82
640
601
90
691
1,023
113
1 136
Turkey in Asia
499
94
593
841
285
1 126
1 774
714
2 488
Other Asia
278
37
315
770
102
872
1,024
152
1,176
Total Asia
1,475
250
1,725
3,647
801
4,448
6,462
1,216
7,678
Africa
149
38
187
88
24
112
82
21
103
Australia and New Zealand . .
Pacific islands, not specified.
British North American pos-
sessions . .
648
731
o22
352
465
06
1,000
1,196
a 28
485
310
a 111
214
158
a 72
699
468
a 183
503
344
a 138
274
180
a 96
777
524
a 234
Central America
62
19
81
110
32
142
185
93
278
Mexico. . .
(6)
fb)
(6)
(6>
(6)
(b)
(6)
(b)
(b)
South America
337
90
427
345
93
438
467
197
664
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
3 422
1 501
4 923
2 052
1 018
3 070
2 592
1 314
3 906
Countries not specified
39
31
70
35
27
62
40
' 30
70
Grand total...
263 024
181 403
444 427
281 853
173 449
455 302
354 059
206 260
560 319
a Including only Bermudas and British Honduras.
possessions.
6 No records.
72289°— VOL 1—11 - 7
No records for other British North American
90
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1892.
1893. a
1894. a
Country.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
53 814
23 123
76 937
57, 420
38 638
Belgium
2,656
1,370
4,026
3,324
1,709
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
6,230
3,895
10, 125
7,720
5,003
France including Corsica
2 874
1,804
4,678
3,621
3 080
German Empire
66 897
52 271
119 168
78 75(
53 989
Greece
604
56
660
1,072
1,356
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
47 399
14 232
61 631
72 145
42 977
Netherlands
3,834
2,507
6,141
6,199
1,820
Norway
8 910
5,415
14,325
15,515
9 111
Poland
26 514
14 022
40 536
16 374
1 941
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
2 094
1 306
3 400
4 816
2 196
Roumania
729
Russian Empire.
48,807
32 704
81,511
42,310
39 278
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
3,063
1,015
4,078
206
925
Sweden
24 684
17 161
41 845
35 710
IS 286
Switzerland
4,359
2,527
6,886
4,744
2, 905
Turkey in Europe
1,248
83
1,331
625
298
United Kingdom-
England
21,213
13,096
34,309
27, 931
17,747
Ireland
25,699
25,684
51,383
43, 578
30 1J3l
Scotland
4 266
2,911
7 177
6 215
3 772
Wales
466
263
729
1,043
1,001
Not specified
Other Europe
60
Total Europe
355 431
215 445
570 876
429 324
277 052
Asia:
China
472
1,170
India
Japan
1 380
1 031
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
540
1 589
Total Asia
2,392
4 (190
Africa
24
Australia and New Zealand. .
171
96
267
248
6244
Pacific islands not specified
British North American pos-
sessions
104
Central America
32
Mexico
109
South America
•
39
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
2 593
3 177
Countries not specified
6,262
2,258
8,520
5,173
70
Grand total
361,864
217 799
579 663
280 344
159 386
439 730
169 274
116 357
285 631
a Sex not reported.
i> Including Pacific islands.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
91
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1895.a
1896.
1897.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
33, 401
1,058
43, 125
793
21,978
468
65, 103
1,261
18,773
490
14,258
270
33,031
760
Belgium
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
3,910
2,628
32, 173
597
35, 427
1,388
7,581
790
1,452
523
35, 907
501
15, 361
2,239
245
23, 443
46, 304
3,788
1,602
1,749
1,381
16, 942
2,124
51, 067
929
5,581
409
1,410
453
32, 163
293
10, 968
1,401
118
11, 178
17, 625
2,000
915
4
1,418
1,082
14, 943
51
16,993
654
3,274
282
1,356
332
19, 282
58
10,209
903
51
8,314
22,637
1,483
666
5
3,167
2,463
31,885
2,175
68, 060
1,583
8,855
691
2,766
785
51, 445
351
21, 177
2,304
169
19, 492
40, 262
3,483
1,581
9
1,212
1,209
11, 899
546
41,446
558
3,535
2,654
962
413
13,894
407
6,231
975
110
5,998
11,549
1.054
539
18
873
898
10,634
25
17, 985
332
2,307
1,511
912
378
11, 922
41
6,931
591
42
3,976
16,872
829
331
7
2,085
2,107
22,533
571
59,431
890
5,84.2
4,165
1,874
791
25,816
448
13, 162
1,566
152
9,974
28,421
1,883
870
25
France, including Corsica
German Empire
Greece
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia . . .
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
Roumania
Russian Empire
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands
Sweden
Switzerland .
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom-
England
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
Not specified
Other Europe
24
Total Europe .
250,342
539
202, 628
•••—-•—-
1,382
126, 439
329, 067
1,441
124, 472
3,334
91,925
29
216,397
3,363
Asia:
China
=====
==
59
India
Japan
1,150
2,767
39
4,495
36
6155
1,007
2,915
60
103
1,224
14
1,110
4,139
74
1,420
3,203
40
106
1,529
1.526
4,732
41
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
Total Asia
5,364
15
59
11
200
6
64
28
4,091
1,400
6
28
14
78
6
86
7
2,737
6,764
7,997
1,665
13
74
28
110
9,662
37
139
60
291
5
91
49
4,101
Africa...
=====
21
87
25
278
12
150
35
6,828
24
65
32
181
5
42
28
2,261
Australia and New Zealand. .
Pacific islands, not specified
British North American pos-
sessions
244
16
116
36
3,096
Central America
Mexico
49
21
1,840
South America
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
Countries not specified
Grand total
135, 107
149,016
109, 520
258,536
212, 466
130,801
343,267
95, 725
230,832'
a Sex not reported.
b Including Pacific islands.
92
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1898.
1899.0
1900.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
23,086
16,711
39, 797
62, 491
80, 193
34, 654
114,847
425
270
695
1,101
778
418
1 196
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
52
102
6
108
Denmark
1,204
742
1,946
2,690
1,906
1,020
2,926
1 233
757
1 990
1,694
1 084
655
1 739
German Empire
9,105
8,006
17,111
17, 476
10, 737
7,770
18,507
2 246
93
2 339
2,333
3,634
137
3 771
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
40 248
18,365
58,613
77, 419
76, 088
24,047
100,135
500
267
767
1,029
1,116
619
1 735
Norway
3,007
1,931
4,938
6,705
6,456
3,119
9,575
Poland
2 998
1,728
4,726
(6)
(6)
(6)
(*>)
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
857
860
1,717
2,054
2,389
1 845
4 234
519
381
900
1 606
3 760
2 699
6 459
Russian Empire
17, 104
12, 724
29, 828
60, 982
59, 951
30,836
90, 787
Spain, including Canary
511
66
577
385
280
75
355
Sweden
5,442
6,956
12,398
12, 797
10, 262
8,388
18 650
Switzerland
824
422
1 246
1,326
763
389
1 152
Turkey in Europe
139
37
176
80
268
17
285
United Kingdom-
England.
Ireland
5,943
9,952
3,934
15,176
9,877
25, 128
10,402
31,673
5,945
16, 672
4,006
19, 058
9,951
35, 730
Scotland...
1,100
697
1,797
1,724
1,083
709
1,792
Wales
758
461
1,219
1 324
433
331
764
Not specified
I
1
2
2
Other Europe. .
Total Europe
127, 202
90,584
217, 786
297 349
283,900
140, 800
424, 700
Asia:
China
2,061
10
2,071
1 660
1,235
12
1,247
India ...
17
8
1
9
Japan
2 115
115
2 230
2 844
12 265
370
12 635
Turkey in Asia
2,651
1,624
4,275
4 436
2 528
1 434
3 9f>2
Other Asia
51
10
61
15
88
5
93
Total Asia
6,878
1,759
8,637
8,972
16, 124
1,822
17,946
Ainja
38
10
48
51
29
1
30
Australia and New Zealand. .
115
38
153
456
161
53
214
Pacific islands, not specified
32
16
48
354
165
49
214
British North American pos-
sessions
294
58
352
1 322
311
85
396
Central America. . .
5
cl59
22
20
42
Mexico
39
68
107
161
137
100
237
South America
30
g
39
89
94
30
124
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
1,142
982
2 124
2 585
3 197
1 459
4 656
Countries not specified
217
8
5
13
Grand total ..
135, 775
93 524
229 299
195 277
116 438
311 715
304 148
144 424
448 572
a Sex not reported.
b Included under Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Russian Empire.
c Including British Honduras.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
93
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1901.
1902.
1903.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Mala
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
78,725
34,665
113,390
127, 136
44,853
171,989
147, 984
58,027
206,011
Belgium
1,040
539
1,579
1,759
818
2,577
2,308
1,142
3,450
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro _
551
106
657
765
86
851
1,699
62
1,761
Denmark
2,148
1,507
3,655
3,681
1,979
5,660
4,554
2,604
7,158
France,including Corsica.
German Empire
1,996
12,673
1,154
8,978
3,150
21,651
2,007
18,018
1,110
10,286
3,117
28,304
3,513
24, 861
2,065
15,225
5,578
40,086
Greece...
5,742
168
5,910
7,867
237
8,104
13,634
456
14,090
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
106, 306
29,690
135, 996
145, 732
32,643
178,375
186,966
43,656
230,622
Netherlands
1,617
732
2,349
1,471
813
2,284
2,499
1,499
3,998
Norway
7 899
4,349
12, 248
12, 348
5,136
17,484
16,249
8,212
24, 461
Poland
(a)
(a)
(a)
(0)
(2)
(°)
(0)
(•)
(0)
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
2 231
1,934
4,165
3,123
2,184
5,307
5,829
3,488
9,317
Roumania.
3,981
3,174
7,155
3,656
3,540
7,196
5,313
3,997
9,310
Russian Empire v. . .
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden
54,070
50«
12, 875
31,187
84
10, 456
85,257
592
23,331
71,864
869
19, 424
35,483
106
11,470
107,347
975
30, 894
92,935
1,733
29,808
43, 158
347
16,220
136,093
2,080
46,028
Switzerland
1,572
629
2,201
1,656
688
2,344
2,796
1,187
3,983
Turkey in Europe.
341
46
387
157
30
187
1,453
76
1,529
United Kingdom —
England
7,336
4,878
12,214
8,107
5,468
13,575
15, 593
10, 626
26,219
Ireland
12, 894
17, 667
30, 561
12,936
16,202
29, 138
15, 966
19,344
35,310
Scotland...
1,237
833
2,070
1,582
978
2,560
3,953
2,190
6,143
Wales
411
290
701
471
292
763
835
440
1,275
Not specified
7
11
18
36
1
37
3
2
' 5
Other Europe
1
Total Europe
316, 160
153, 077
469, 237
444, 665
174, 403
619,068
580,484
234,023
814,507
Asia:
China
2 417
42
2,459
1,596
53
1,649
2,167
42
2,209
India
20
2
22
87
6
93
79
15
94
Japan
4 902
367
5,269
10,414
3,856
14,270
15,909
4,059
19,968
Turkey in Asia.
4,070
1,712
5,782
4,209
2,014
6,223
5,114
2,004
7,118
Other Asia
58
3
61
33
3
36
507
70
577
Total Asia
11,467
2,126
13, 593
16, 339
5,932
22,271
23,776
6,190
29,966
Africa
154
19
173
32
5
37
121
55
176
Australia and New Zealand..
Pacific islands, not specified .
British North American pos-
sessions
232
133
364
93
40
196
325
173
560
231
170
489
153
12
198
384
182
687
796
181
782
354
18
357
1,150
199
1,139
Central America
89
41
130
182
72
254
423
174
597
Mexico.
215
132
347
531
178
709
416
112
528
South America...
150
53
203
235
102
337
405
184
589
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
2 090
1 086
3 176
3 397
1 314
4 711
5 743
2 427
8,170
Countries not specified
1
1
98
103
19
6
25
Grand total
331, 055
156, 863
487, 918
466, 369
182, 374
648, 743
613, 146
243, 900
857,046
a Included under Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Russian Empire.
N \
94
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
118,121
2,589
1,234
5,503
5,401
26,366
10,860
149,363
3,181
15, 184
(•)
4,182
3,623
95, 103
3,399
14,813
3,303
4,157
23.483
16, 127
6,758
1,139
59,035
1,387
91
3,022
4,005
20,014
483
43,933
1,735
8,624
(a)
2,533
3,464
50,038
597
12,950
1,720
187
15, 143
20, 015
4,334
591
177, 156
3,976
1,325
8,525
9,406
46,380
11,343
193,296
4,916
23,808
(a)
6,715
7,087
145, 141
3,996
27,763
5,023
4,344
38, 626
36,142
11,092
1,730
197, 557
3,554
1,990
5,689
6,007
23,348
10,016
182,718
3,219
15, 852
(a)
3, 151
2,264
127,871
2,156
14,411
2,694
4,400
41,276
23,841
11,047
1,550
78, 136
1,748
53
3,281
4,161
17,226
499
38,761
1,735
9,212
(«)
1,877
2,173
57^026
444
12, 180
1,575
142
23, 433
29, 104
5,930
953
275,693
5,302
2, 043
8,970
10, 168
40, 574
10, 515
221, 479
4,954
25,064
(a)
5,028
4,437
184, 897
2,600
26, 591
4,269
4,542
64,709
52,945
16,977
2,503
189, 444
3,520
4,561
5,068
5,591
21,747
18,563
216,115
3,042
14,131
(a)
5,012
2,298
127,253
1,571
13, 835
2,460
9,130
30, 983
18, 234
10,500
1,305
75, 694
1,579
105
2,673
3,795
15,817
926
57,005
1,904
7,599
(°)
3,505
2,178
88,412
350
9,475
1,386
380
18,508
16, 761
5,366
536
265, 138
5,099
4,666
7,741
9,386
37,564
19, 489
273, 120
4,946
21,730
(0)
8,517
4,476
215, 665
1.921
23,310
3,846
9,510
49, 491
34, 995
15,866
1,841
Belgium
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
France, including Corsica.
German Empire
Greece..
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia
Netherlands . ....
Norway
Poland . .
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores Is-
lands
Roumania
Russian Empire
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands.. .
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey in Eurooe
United Kingdom-
England
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
Not specified
Other Europe
78
65
143
c
4
13
35
13
48
Total Europe
513,967
4,198
243
12,613
3,799
1,891
253,966
111
18
1,651
1,430
226
767,933
4,309
261
14,264
5,235
2,117
684,620
2,021
155
9,105
4,235
4,632
289,653
145
35
1,226
1,922
449
974,273
704,398
1,404
187
12,344
4, 538
306
313,967
140
29
1,491
1,816
45
1,018,365
1,544
216
13,835
6,354
351
Asia:
China
2,166
190
10,331
6,157
5,081
India
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
Total Asia
22,744
609
966
68
1,750
406
801
1,190
6,546
53
3,442
77
495
26
1,196
199
208
477
3,647
37
26, 186
20,148
3,777
23,925
757
2,091
75
2,291
1,072
2,637
2,576
16, 641
161
18,779
562
1,165
36
4,429
795
1,643
1,942
11,101
19,613
3,521
22,300
Africa
686
1,461
94
2,946
605
1,009
1,667
10, 193
90
812,870
601
1,425
64
1,894
751
2,178
1,866
11,264
103
724,914
156
666
11
397
321
459
710
5,377
58
301,585
150
517
15
714
265
354
815
2,555
13,399
712
1,682
51
5,143
1,060
1,997
2,757
13,656
633,012
Australia and New Zealand..
Pacific islands, not specified .
British North American pos-
sessions
Central America .
Mexico
South America
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
Countries not specified
Grand total
549, 100
263, 770
1,026,499
764, 463
336,272
1,100,735
olncluded under Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Russian Empire.
b This includes 32,897 persons returning to their homes in the United States. This year was the
first in which persons entering the United Slates were recorded by country of last permanent residence
instead of country whence they came, and since this year persons reporting their residence as the United
States have not been included in immigration statistics.
;
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
95
TABLE 9. — Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910 — Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
Country.
1907.
1908.
1909.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
246,237
4,383
11, 165
4,690
5,848
22,000
35, 151
224,598
4,220
14,376
(0)
5,788
2,299
92,215
2,013
194
2,553
3,883
15,807
1,429
61, 133
2,417
7,757
0)
3,820
2,085
89, 157
1,652
8,278
1,319
594
21,188
15, 503
6,990
913
338, 45.2
6,396
11,359
7,243
9,731
37,807
36, 580
285, 731
6,637
22, 133
(0)
9,608
4,384
258, 943
5,784
20, 589
3,748
20, 767
56,637
34, 530
19,740
2,660
107, 741
2,513
10,560
2,913
5,031
18,239
20,000
85, 351
3,523
6,654
(•)
4,449
2,836
96,266
3,147
6,771
1,925
10, 786
26,964
14,021
7,349
1,434
60,768
1,649
267
2,041
3,757
14,070
1,489
43, 152
2,423
5,758
(a)
2,858
2,392
60,445
752
6,038
1,356
504
20,067
16,535
6,157
853
168, 509
4,162
10, 827
4,954
8,788
32,309
21, 489
128,503
5,946
12, 412
(a)
7,307-
5,228
156, 711
3,899
12,809
3,281
11,290
47,031
30,556
13,506
2,287
113,588
2,424
966
2,796
3,760
14, 948
12, 802
147, 583
2,818
8,601
(a)
3.183
778
77, 997
2,031
8,967
1,716
8,680
19,080
11, 962
7,611
968
56,603
1,268
88
1,599
2,912
10,592
1,309
35,635
1,880
5,026
(a)
1,773
812
42,463
585
5,507
978
335
13, 729
13, 071
4,789
616
170, 191
3,692
1,054
4,395
- 6, 672
25,540
14,111
183,218
4,698
13,627
(0)
4,956
1,590
120, 460
2,616
14, 474
2,694
9,015
32,809
25,033
12,400
1,584
Belgium.
Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro
Denmark
France, including Corsica.
German Empire.
Greece
Italy, including Sicily
and Sardinia...
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal, including Cape
Verde and Azores is-
lands
Roumania.
Russian Empire
169, 786
4,132
12,311
2,429
20, 173
35, 449
19,027
12, 750
1,747
Spain, including Canary
and Balearic Islands. . .
Sweden • .
Switzerland
Turkey in Europe
United Kingdom —
England
Ireland . .
Scotland
Wales
Not specified
Other Europe
75
32
107
74
23
97
38
8
46
Total Europe
858, 634
340,932
1,199,566
438, 547
253,354
691,901
453, 297
201,578
654,875
Asia:
China
864
869
27, 240
6,132
324
97
29
2,986
1,921
62
961
898
30, 226
8,053
386
1,264
1,016
11,660
7,174
298
133
24
4,143
2,579
74
1,397
1,040
15,803
9,753
372
28, 365
1,411
1,098
81
38,552
1,175
6,067
2,315
11,888
17
"782,870
1,773
164
1,291
5,792
112
170
39
1,820
1,714
29
1,943
203
3,111
7, 506
141
India
Japan
Turkey in Asia
Other Asia
Total Asia
35, 429
1,239
1,562
27
17, 708
728
1,229
2,074
11. 328
18
"929,97,6
5,095
247
385
15
2,245
207
177
705
5,361
4
355,373
40, 524
1,486
1,947
42
19, 953
935
1,406
2,779
16,689
22
1,285,349
21,412
6,953
358
381
19
8,183
242
1,799
621
4, 043
5
"275,958
9,132
591
541
40
36,226
660
10,638
1,395
7,420
29
3,772
267
298
13
15, 757
228
5, 613
511
3'7i§
12,904
858
839
53
51, 983
888
16,251
1,906
11,180
49
Africa
1,053
717
62
30, 369
933
4,268
1,694
7,845
12
Australia and Nfew Zealand..
Pacific islands, not specified.
British North American pos-
sessions
Central America. .
Mexico..
South America
West Indies, including Ja-
maica
Countries not specified
Grand total
506,912
519,969
231,817
751, 786
Included under Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Russian Empire.
96
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9.— Immigration to the United States, 1820 to 1910— Continued.
PART 2: BY COUNTRY OP ORIGIN AND BY SEX, FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1869
TO 1910, INCLUSIVE — continued.
1910.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Europe:
Austria-Hungary
184, 998
73, 739
258, 737
3,172 461
Belgium
3,750
1,652
5,402
103 796
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro
4,545
192
4,737
39,440
T)«nmfvrlr
4,582
2,402
6,984
258 053
France including Corsica
4,220
3,163
7 383
470 868
German Empire
18, 577
12,706
31,283
5,351,746
Greece . . .
23, 594
2,294
25,888
186 204
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia
168,264
47, 273
215, 537
3, 086, 356
Netherlands
4 831
2 703
7 534
175 943
Norway .........
11,544
5,994
17, 538
o665 189
Poland
(b)
(6)
(b)
ciG5 182
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores Islands . .
Roumania. . . .
5,385
1,160
2,844
985
Sj;229
2 145
132, 989
72 117
Russian Empire
124 815
61 977
186 792
2 359 048
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands
2,804
668
3,472
69 296
Sweden . . *. .". , . ".
16, 169
7,576
23, 745
d 1,021, 165
Switzerland .
2,253
1,280
3,533
237, 401
Turkey in Europe
17,480
925
18,405
85 800
United Kingdom —
England
28 078
18 628
46 706
2 212 071
Ireland
15, 667
14,188
29 855
4 212 169
Scotland
12 596
7 519
20 115
488 749
Wales
1,400
720
2,120
59 540
Not specified
793 801
Other Europe
135
16
151
2 545
Total Europe
656 847
269 444
926 291
25 421 929
Asia:
China
1 749
219
1 968
326 060
India
1,651
45
1 696
5 409
Japan
828
1 892
2 720
158 344
Turkey in Asia
12 239
2 973
15 212
106 481
Other Asia
1,356
581
1 937
16 942
Total Asia. .
17 823
5 710
23 533
613 236
Africa
735
337
1 072
9 581
Australia and New Zealand
662
336
998
31 654
Pacific islands, not specified .
84
15
99
8 859
British North American possessions
38 007
18 571
56 578
1 231 107
Central America
648
222
870
9 759
Mexico
12 320
6 371
18 691
77 645
South America
1 611
540
2 151
29 385
West Indies, including Jamaica
7 267
3 977
11 244
233 146
Countries not specified ... .
34
9
43
252 691
Grand total
736 038
305 532
1 041 570
27 918 992
a Including natives of Sweden who arrived 1820 to 1868.
b Included under Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Russian Empire.
c Not including natives of Poland who arrived 1899 to 1910 and were included under Austria-Hungary
German Empire, and Russian Empire.
d Not including natives of Sweden who arrived 1820 to 1868 and were included under Norway.
!
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
97
SEX AND RACE OF IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910.
Since 1899 the Bureau of Immigration has compiled data relative
to immigrants by race or people as well as by country of birth or
origin. As explained elsewhere" this departure was necessitated by
the fact that among immigrants from southern and eastern European
countries, as well as from Canada and other sources of immigration,
the country of birth does not afford a satisfactory clue to the actual
racial or ethnical status of such immigrants. In the meantime data
concerning immigrants have been recorded in greater detail, and
recent statistics and discussions have more and more centered around
the racial basis. A number of tables which follow summarize , the
statistics by race or people. The first table shows for each race or
people the total number of immigrants of each sex coming to the
United States during the period from 1899 to 1910.
TABLE 10. — Immigration to the United States, by sex and by race or people, during the
fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Total
number of
immigrants.
Number.
Per cent.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
African (black)
33,630
26, 498
100, 189
97,391
22,590
335,543
44,211
31,696
87,658
5,786
408,614
151,774
115,783
754,375
216,962
1,074,442
439,724
372,668
1,911,933
148,729
7,790
175,258
338, 151
41,914
357
949,064
72,897
82,704
83,574
147, 375
586,306
136, 842
377,527
51,051
10,669
56,909
12,954
20,752
11,569
11,735
77
20,924
20,282
57,111
93,200
21,696
284,866
30,284
29,252
57,631
5,673
251,421
100,289
67,217
448,054
206,306
607,822
210,686
291,877
1,502,968
124,670
7,072
123,777
244,221
27,676
280
659,267
43,402
75,238
71,022
109,614
362,467
86,938
266,262
42,292
7,454
38,635
12,476
13,500
6,690
10,796
59
12,706
6,216
43,078
4,191
894
50,677
13,927
2,444
30,027
113
157, 193
51,485
48,566
306,321
10,656
466,620
229,038
80,791
408,965
24,059
718
51,481
93,930
14,238
77
289,797
29,495
7,466
12,552
37,761
223,839
49,904
111,265
8,759
3,215
18,274
478
7,252
4,879
939
18
62.2
76.5
57.0
95.7
96.0
84.9
68.5
92.3
65.7
98.0
61.5
66.1
58.1
59.4
95.1
56.6
47.9
78.3
78.6
83.8
90.8
70.6
72.2
66.0
78.4
69.5
59.5
91.0
85.0
74.4
61.8
63.5
70.5
82.8
69.9
67.9
96.3
65.1
57.8
92.0
76.6
37.8
23.5
43.0
4.3
4.0
15.1
31.5
7.7
34.3
2.0
38.5
33.9
41.9
40.6
4.9
43.4
52.1
21.7
21.4
16.2
9.2
29.4
27.8
34.0
21.6
30.5
40.5
9.0
15.0
25.6
38.2
36.5
29.5
17.2
30.1
32.1
3.7
34.9
42.2
8.0
23.4
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian ...
Bulgarian Servian and Montenegrin
Chinese
Croatian and Slovenian
Cuban
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian
Dutch and Flemish
East Indian
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew . . .
Irish...
Italian, North
Italian, South... .
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican...
Pacific Islander...
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian (Russniak) .
Scandinavian. .
Scotch...
Slovak
Spanish...
Spanish- American.
Syrian...,
Turkish..
Welsh " "
West Indian (except Cuban). .
Other peoples...
Not specified
Total
b 9, 555, 673
6,641,367
62,914,306
69.5
30.5
a See pp. 209 and 210.
& Details by country 2 less than total.
98
The Immigration Commission.
The statistics cover a period of twelve years. Of the immigrants
coming during that time, 69.5 per cent were males and 30.5 per cent
were females. Races with particularly high proportions of males are :
Per cent males.
East Indian 98. 0
Turkish 96.3
Chinese 96. 0
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montene-
grin 95. 7
Greek 95.1
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herze-
govinian 92.3
Roumanian.., . 91.0
Per cent males.
Korean 90. 8
Russian 85. 0
Croatian and Slovenian 84. 9
Japanese 83. 8
Spanish 82. 8
South Italian 78. 6
Pacific Islander 78.4
North Italian 78. 3
Armenian. . .76.5
Among seven races the proportion of males is less than 60 per
cent. The races are —
Per cent males.
Irish 47. 9
Hebrew 56. 6
West Indian (except Cuban) 57. 8
Bohemian and Moravian . 57. 0
Per cent males.
French : . 58. 1
German 59. 4
Portuguese 59. 5
During the twelve-year period, 2,550,054 of the immigrants were
of the races of older immigration, largely from Europe, and 58.7
per cent of these were males; 6,666,562 were of the races of recent
immigration, largely from Europe, and 73.2 per cent of these were
males; and 339,057 were of other races, and of these 77.6 per cent
were males.
ILLITERACY, 1899 TO 1910.
More than one-fourth of the immigrants 14 years of age or over
admitted into the United States during the past twelve years could
neither read nor write. Immigrants when seeking admission to the
United States are not tested as to their ability to read and write, and
the data upon this point represent the statements of such immigrants
in answer to the inquiries, "Can you read?" and "Can you write?"
The assurance of the immigrant that he is able to read or write in
some language or dialect is accepted as proof of literacy. Of course,
data secured by this method are not absolutely conclusive, but as
the inquiries quoted are simple in character, and as the immigrant's
educational status in no way affects his right to admission, it may
be assumed that the information obtained is substantially accurate.
The table which follows shows for each race or people the number
and per cent of immigrants admitted into the United States who were
14 years of age or over, and the number and per cent of these who
could neither read nor write.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910.
99
TABLE 11. — Number and per cent of immigrants admitted to the United States who were
14 years of age or over and who could neither read nor write, during the fiscal years
1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Number 14
or over ad-
mitted.
Persons 14 years of age or
over who could nei-
ther read nor write.
Number.
Per cent.
African (black) .
30, 177
23,523
79, 721
95, 596
21,584
320, 977
36,431
30, 861
G8,907
5,724
347, 458
137,916
97,638
625,793
208, 608
806,786
416, 640
339,301
1, 690, 376
146. 172
7,259
161,441
a 307, 082
32, 721
336
861,303
55, 930
80,839
77,479
140, 775
530, 634
115, 788
342,583
46, 418
9,008
47,834
12, 670
17, 076
9,983
11,209
67
5,733
5,624
1,322
39,903
1,516
115, 785
2,282
12,653
3,043
2,703
3,647
1,745
6,145
32,236
55,089
209,507
10,721
38,897
911,566
35,956
2,763
79,001
635,004
18, 717
83
304, 675
38,122
28,266
29,777
75, 165
2,221
767
82,216
6,724
547
25,496
7,536
322
320
5,001
5
19.0
23.9
1.7
41.7
7.0
36.1
6.3
. 41.0
4.4
47.2
1.0
1.3
6.3
5.2
26.4
26.0
2.6
11.5
53.9
24.6
38.1
48.9
11.4
57.2
24.7
35.4
68.2
35.0
38.4
53.4
.4
.7
24.0
14.5
6.1
53.3
59.5
1.9
3.2
44.6
7.5
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian. Servian, and Montenegrin
Chinese
Croatian and Slovenian.
Cuban
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian
Dutch and Flemish
East Indian
English...
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew ....
Irish
Italian, North.
Italian, South
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Pacific Islander .
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian (Russniak)
Scandinavian
Scotch..
Slovak
Spanish
Spanish- American
Syrian..
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (except Cuban)
Other peoples
Not specified
Total
8,398,624
2, 238, 801
26.7
a Including 693 "Hungarians" in 1899.
b Including 35 " Hungarians " in 1899.
During the twelve-year period from 1899 to 1910, 8,398,624 immi-
grants 14 years of age or over were admitted into the United States,
and 2,238,801, or 26.7 per cent, of these could neither read nor write.
The Portuguese had the greatest proportion of illiterates, 68.2 per
cent, and the Scandinavians had the lowest proportion, 0.4 per cent.
Several of the races show more than 40 per cent illiterate among
persons 14 years of age or over admitted. These races are:
Per cent who
could neither
read nor write.
Portuguese 68. 2
Turkish • 59. 5
Mexican 57. 2
South Italian 53. 9
Ruthenian 53. 4
Syrian . 53.3
Per cent who
could neither
read nor write.
Lithuanian 48. 9
East Indian 47. 2
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montene-
grin. 41. 7
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herze-
govinian 41. 0
100
The Immigration Commission.
Almost an equal number of races had less than 5 per cent illiterate
among persons 14 years of age or over, as follows:
Per cent who
could neither
read nor write.
Scandinavian.. . 0.4
Scotch 7
English 1.0
Finnish 1.3
Welsh.. . 1.9
Per cent who
could neither
read nor write.
Bohemian and Moravian 1. 7
Irish 2. 6
West Indian (except Cuban) 3. 2
Dutch and Flemish... . 4.4
OCCUPATION, 1899 TO 1910.
The table which follows shows, by race or people, the number of
immigrants reporting each specified occupation during the twelve
years 1899 to 1910.
The United States Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization does
not separate males and females in the occupation statistics.
TABLE 12 . — Number of immigrants admitted to the United States reporting each specified
occupation, fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Total
number
of immi-
grants.
Number who were—
In profes-
sional
occupa-
tions.
In
skilled
occupa-
tions.
Farm
laborers.
Laborers.
In
other
occupa-
tions.
Without
occupa-
tion (in-
cluding
women
and
children).
African (black)
33,630
26,498
100, 189
97,391
22,590
335,543
44,211
31,696
87,658
5,786
408, 614
151,774
115,783
754,375
216,962
1,074,442
439,724
372, 668
1,911,933
148,729
7,790
175,258
338, 151
41,914
357
949,064
72,897
82,704
83,574
147,375
586,306
136,842
377,527
51,051
10,669
56,909
12,954
20,752
11,569
oll,735
77
745
435
808
124
862
253
1,767
35
2,019
359
22,552
370
6,532
16,234
678
7,455
4,868
3,324
6,012
3,458
49
165
1,367
440
96
1,332
212
160
969
109
5,678
5,088
194
1,676
1,103
441
133
679
570
386
9,890
7,281
24,665
3,009
218
14,893
15,097
2,709
15,295
93
121,840
7,341
24, 137
137,539
15,289
395,823
47,255
60,396
215,510
6,954
102
9,414
22,325
3,918
141
47,462
3,295
2,069
6,363
2,595
97,207
51,660
12,802
16,828
1,246
8,349
865
7,278
3,217
1,139
16
3,560
4,353
9,619
43,364
92
97,882
51
10,267
9,715
636
6,253
6,39V
6,302
82,060
38,305
11,460
17,484
55,541
507,659
61,561
6,233
41,686
106,929
641
~"228,'508'
3,629
44,860
27,593
55,693
36,237
2,845
102,414
2,995
63
10,901
3,899
517
196
2,554
1
4,511
3,308
7,598
40,326
4,831
159,797
626
13,663
11,684
3,649
29,006
76,243
11, 926
90,648
132,059
69,444
114,967
141, 667
626, 144
10,933
46
65,956
94,016
15,763
8
335,617
22,550
25,972
30,334
47,746
172, 194
7,895
129,817
7,869
156
7,744
5,393
1,432
437
4,464
3
7,182
3,166
17,799
4,168
14, 143
25,499
4,955
1,591
11,139
728
70,287
32,657
21,141
131,812
11,387
106,085
191, 694
35,694
116,334
34,413
272
24,319
34,639
2,095
65
135,511
18,772
2,470
4,727
22,317
163,778
21,720
45,020
8,788
2,792
9,287
1,351
2,887
2,453
1,171
26
7,742
7,955
39,700
6,400
2,444
37,219
21,715
3,431
37,806
321
158, 616
28,766
45,745
296 082
19,244
484, 175
63,456
76,046
440,274
31,410
1.088
33,718
78,875
19, 157
47
200,634
24,439
7,173
13,588
18,915
111,212
47,634
87,280
12,895
5,309
20, 187
1,313
7.959
4', 696
2,016
31
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian, Servian, and Mon-
tenegrin
Chinese
Croatian and Slovenian
Cuban
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and
Herzegovinian
Dutch and Flemish . . ...
East Indian
English ..
Finnish
French .
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North . .
Italian South
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian. .."
Magyar
Mexican
Pacific Islander..
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
Scandinavian
Scotch. . *
Slovak .
Spanish
Spanish- American
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (except Cuban) . .
Other peoples
Not specified
Total
69,555,673
99,737
1,423,525
1,650,855
2,528,502
1,346,334
2,506,713
a Details by occupation 5 less than total.
6 Details by race or people 2 less than total, and details by occupation 7 leas than total.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 101
The foregoing tableshows that of the 9, 555,673 immigrants, 2,506,713,
or more than one-fourth, were without occupation. The number
reported " without occupation" includes women and children. The
next table shows for those reporting an occupation the per cent with
each specified occupation. Immigrants without occupation, shown
in the previous table, are eliminated from this percentage table.
TABLE 13 . — Per cent of immigrants admitted to the United States reporting each specified
occupation, fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Perc
ent who w
ere—
Race or people.
reporting
employ-
ment.
In pro-
fessional
ocsupa-
tions.
In skilled
occupa-
tions.
Farm
laborers.
Laborers.
In other
occupa-
tions.
African (black)
25,888
2.9
38.2
13.8
17.4
27.7
Armenian
18,543
2.3
39.3
23.5
17.8
17.1
Bohemian and Moravian
60,489
1.3
40.8
15.9
12.6
29.4
Bulgarian. Servian, and Montenegrin...
Chinese
90,991
20, 146
.1
4.3
3.3
1.1
47.7
.5
44.3
24.0
4.6
70.2
Croatian and Slovenian
298,324
.1
5.0
32.8
53.6
8.5
Cuban
22, 496
7.8
67.1
.2
2.8
22.0
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian.
Dutch and Flemish
28, 265
49, 852
.1
4.0
9.6
30.7
36.3
19.5
48.3
23.4
5.6
22.3
East Indian
5,465
6.6
1.7
11.6
66.8
13.3
English
249, 998
9.0
48.7
2.5
11.6
28.1
Finnish . .
123, 008
.3
6.0
5.2
62.0
26.5
French
70 038
9 3
34 5
9 0
17 0
30.2
German. .
458,293
3.5
30.0
17.9
19.8
28.8
Greek
197 718
.3
7 7
19 4
66 8
5.8
Hebrew . .
590, 267
1.3
67.1
1.9
11.8
18.0
Irish
376 268
1.3
12 6
4 6
30 6
50.9
Italian, North
296, 622
1.1
20.4
18.7
47.8
12.0
Italian, South
1,471,659
.4
14.6
34.5
42.5
7.9
Japanese
117,319
2.9
5.9
52.5
9.3
29.3
Korean
6,702
.7
1.5
93.0
.7
4.1
Lithuanian
141,640
.1
6.7
29.5
46.6
17.2
Magyar
259, 276
.5
8.6
41.2
13.4
Mexican
22, 757
1.9
17.2
2.4
69.3
9.2
Pacific Islander
310
31.0
45.5
.0
2.6
21.0
Polish
748, 430
.2
6.3
30.5
44.8
18.1
Portuguese
48, 458
.4
6.8
7.5
46.5
38.7
Roumanian
75,531
.2
2.7
59.4
34.4
3.3
Russian. .
69, 986
1.4
9.1
39.4
43.3
6.8
Ruthenian (Russniak)
128, 460
.1
2.0
43.4
37.2
17.4
Scandinavian
475, 094
1.2
20.5
7.6
36.2
34.5
Scotch
89 208
5 7
57 9
3 2
8 9
24 3
Slovak
290, 247
.1
4.4
35.3
44.7
15.5
Spanish
38 156
4 4
44 1
7 8
20 6
23 0
Spanish- American
5,360
20.6
23.2
1.2
2.9
52.1
Syrian .
36, 722
1 2
22 7
29 7
21 1
25.3
Turkish. . .
11,641
1.1
7.4
33.5
46.3
11.6
Welsh
12, 793
5 3
56 9
4 0
11 2
22.6
West Indian (except Cuba) . .
6,873
8.3
46.8
2.9
6.4
35.7
Other peoples
9,714
4.0
11.7
26 3
46.0
12.1
Not specified
46
.0
34.8
2.2
6.5
56.5
Total
7 048 953
1 4
20 2
23 4
35 9
19 1
From this table it is seen that of the 7,048,953 immigrants admitted
during the twelve years from 1899 to 1910 and reporting an occupa-
tion, 35.9 per cent were laborers, 23.4 per cent were farm laborers,
20.2 per cent were in skilled occupations, 1.4 per cent were in pro-
fessional occupations, and 19.1 per cent were in "other" occupations.
The rac'es with more than one-half of the immigrants reported as
laborers are the following:
Per cent
laborers.
Mexican 69. 3
East Indian 66. 8
Greek . 66.8
Per cent
laborers.
Finnish 62. 0
Croatian and Slovenian . . . 53. 6
102 The Immigration Commission.
Of the 7,048,953 immigrants reporting an occupation, 59.3 per cent
were either laborers or farm laborers. Among a number of races
more than three-fourths of the immigrants were reported either as
laborers or as farm laborers. These races are the following:
Per cent either laborers Per cent either laborers
or farm laborers. or farm laborers.
Roumanian.. . 93.8
Korean 93. 7
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montene-
grin 92.0
Croatian and Slovenian 86. 4
Greek.. 86.2
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herze-
govinian , 84. 6
Russian.. . 82.7
Ruthenian (Russniak) 80. 6
Slovak 80,0
Turkish 79. 8
East Indian 78. 4
Magyar 77. 5
Italian, South 77. 0
Lithuanian 76. 1
Polish . 75.3
Slightly more than one-fifth (20.2 per cent) of the total number of
immigrants were reported as in skilled occupations. The races with
more than 40 per cent of the immigrants reported in skilled occupa-
tions are the following:
Per cent in skilled Per cent in skilled
occupations. occupations.
West Indian (except Cuban) 46. 8
Pacific Islander 45. 5
Spanish 44. 1
Bohemian and Moravian . . . 40. 8
Cuban 67.1
Hebrew 67.1
Scotch 57. 9
Welsh 56. 9
English 48. 7
FINANCIAL CONDITION OF IMMIGRANTS, 1899 to 1910.
Data are not available to show the amount of money or the value
of property brought into the United States by immigrants. The
immigration law of 1893 provided that steamship lists or manifests
should state whether each alien possessed $30, and if less, how much.
The law of 1903 retained this provision but changed the amount
to $50, and the latter provision0 is contained in the immigration act
of 1907, which is the present law. The law does not require that
aliens shall have a specified amount of money as a requisite to admis-
sion into the United States, but the financial resources of an immigrant
frequently have an important bearing on his admissibility under
the terms of section 2 of the act of 1 907 b which providef or the exclusion
of persons likely to become a public charge.
Under the Canadian immigration law immigrants are required to
possess a certain amount of money, which amount varies according
to the season of the year,c and a somewhat similar practice has
recently been inaugurated by the commissioner of immigration at
the port of New York, but, as above stated, no specific financial
requirement of this nature has been written into the United States law.
Previous to 1899 data relative to the financial condition of immi-
grants, in common with all immigration statistics, were recorded
by the country of birth or origin, but for 1899 and the years following
they are recorded by race or people. The table next presented
indicates the total amount of money shown by immigrants of each
race or people during the fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, and
the proportion showing $30 or over from 1899 to 1903, and $50 or
over from 1904 to 1910.
"See Vol. II, p. 735. &See Vol. II, p. 732. cSee Vol. II, p. 622.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 103
TABLE 14. — Financial condition of immigrant aliens admitted to the United States dur-
ing the Jiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Total
number of
immigrants
admitted.
Total
number of
immigrants
showing
money.
Total amount
of money
shown.
Average amount
of money shown
per capita —
Per cent
of num-
ber show-
ing
money
who
showed
$30 or
over,
1899-1903.
Per cent
of num-
ber show-
ing
money
who
showed
$50 or
over,
1904-1910.
Based on
number
admit-
ted.
Based on
number
showing
money.
African (black)
33,630
26, 498
100, 189
97,391
22,590
335,543
44,211
31,696
87,658
' 5, 786
408,614
151,774
115, 783
754, 375
216, 962
1,074,442
439,724
372, 668
1,911,933
148, 729
7,790
175, 258
338, 151
41,914
357
949,064
72,897
82, 704
83,574
147,375
586, 306
136,842
377, 527
51,051
10, 669
.56,909
12, 954
26,248
19,389
65, 733
91,881
17,791
304,292
20,813
28,062
51, 490
5,099
283,119
128,059
73,389
497, 669
198, 684
474,609
352,609
305,149
1,487,975
141,787
1,407
138, 750
271,858
19, 055
214
763, 257
47, 963
76, 694
68,103
131,629
468, 875
96, 511
321,413
42, 274
8,021
38,282
12,083
14,023
8,812
9,924
$735,300
613,969
2,698,955
1,767,003
604, 470
4,911,324
1, 407, 704
632,969
3,563,548
350, 160
22,103,225
2,903,872
6,324,527
29,299,412
4,788,938
13,804,045
10,729,952
9,384,881
25,505,551
6,140,619
67, 230
1,949,766
5,037,769
464, 964
23, 989
11,267,033
1,068.623
1,289^858
1,601,384
1,894,679
13,465,513
6,709,127
5,317,294
2,493,026
1,113,320
1,738,872
394,871
959, 788
633, 399
383,809
$21. 86
23.17
26.94
18.14
26.76
14. 64
31.84
19.99
40.64
60.52
54.09
19.13
54.62
38.84
22.07
12.85
24.40
25:18
13.34
41.29
8.63
11.13
14.90
11.09
67. 19 '
11.87
14. 66
15. 60
19.16
12.86
22.97
49.03
14.08
48.83
10.43
30.56
30.48
46.25
54.75
32.49
$28. 89
31.67
41.06
19.23
33.98
16.14
67.64
22.56
69.21
68.67
78.07
22.68
86.18
58.87
24.10
29.09
30. 43
30.76
17.14
43. 31
47.78
14.05
18.53
24.40
112. 09
14.76
22.28
16.82
" 23.51
14.39
28.72
69.52
16.54
58.97
13.88
45.42
32.68
68.44
71.88
38.67
9.3
14.2
19.9
8.6
13.8
10.0
18.0
30.8
38.2
74.6
59.3
13.1
56.7
31.5
12.4
12.9
15.9
36.8
6.9
96.2
90.8
5.5
5.8
69.7
65.4
5.1
11.6
3.0
14.2
3.7
19.8
57.2
7.5
46.3
80.4
23.8
27.7
56.3
58.7
64.2
17.0
11.2
15.8
3.4
30.0
3.4
52.0
6.4
37.9
27.9
55.3
9.2
53.0
31.1
6.9
11.8
17.2
14.1
5.4
34.5
50.5
3.5
4.9
11.8
70.5
2.8
11.4
2.4
7.2
1.4
13.8
48.2
3.0
38.8
86.7
24.0
7.4
50.1
55.2
10.9
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian, Servian,
and Montenegrin
Chinese
Croatian and Slovenian .
Cuban
Dalmatian, Bosnian,
and Herzegovinian . . .
Dutch and Flemish
East Indian
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North..
Italian, South
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Pacific Islander
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian . .
Ruthenian
Scandinavian
Scotch
Slovak...
Spanish
Spanish-American
Syrian
Turkish. . .
Welsh
20,752
11,569
11,812
West Indian (except
Cuban)
Other peoples . . .
Grand total
9,555,673
7,121,335
206, 145, 738
21.57
28.95
17.6
13.9
It should be remembered that the above data^do not represent the
actual amount of money possessed by immigrants, but only the
amount shown to immigrant inspectors at ports of arrival. It seems
probable, however, that the figures fairly represent the amount pos-
sessed in most cases where the money shown is less than the amount
specified in the immigration law. On this basis only 17.6 per cent of
all immigrants showing money in 1899-1903 had $30 or more, and
only 13.9 in 1904-1910 had $50 or more. The total amount of money
shown by all immigrants during the twelve years considered was
$206,145,738, or $21.57 per capita, while it is estimated that
$275 000,000 was sent out of the country by immigrants in the year
1907aloAe.«
a See Vol. II, p. 427.
104
The Immigration Commission.
IMMIGRANTS WHO HAVE BEEN IN THE UNITED STATES PREVIOUSLY,
1899 to 1910.
There is a somewhat prevalent belief that the present tide of immi-
gration to the United States is largely composed of persons who have
been in the United States before and whose coming and going is
regulated by the demand for laborers in this country. To a consider-
able degree this is true of the movement from Canada, Mexico, Cuba,
and the West Indies, but immigration statistics show that of the
9,555,673 immigrants admitted to the United States during the twelve
fiscal vears ending June 30, 1910, all but 1,189,283, or 12.4 per cent of
the whole, entered the country for the first time. As stated elsewhere,
these figures indicate that a large proportion of the aliens who leave
the United States do so permanently and that the movement to this
country is very largely a new one. The number of immigrants of each
race or people admitted to the country during the twelve years men-
tioned and the number and per cent who had been in the country pre-
viously are shown in the following table:
TABLE 15. — Number and per cent of immigrants admitted to the United States, 1899 to
1910, inclusive, ivho had been in the United States previously, by race or peopled
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration and records of the
Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization.]
Race or people.
Number
of immi-
grants
admitted.
In United States
previously.
Number.
Percent.
African (black) ;
33, 630
26,498
100, 189
97,391
22,590
335, 543
44,211
31,696
87, 658
5,786
408,614
151,774
115,783
754,375
216,962
1,074,442
439,724
372,668
1,911,933
148,729
7,790
175,258
338,151
41,914
357
949,064
72,897
82, 704
83,574
147,375
586,306
136,842
377, 527
51,051
10, 669
56, 909
12, 954
20,752
11,569
11,812
9,446
1,533
4,066
7,761
13, 791
43, 037
25,937
2,392
9,548
318
103, 828
17, 189
33,859
86,458
12,283
22,914
80,636
56,738
262. 508
12,897
83
6,186
39,861
8,902
31
65, 155
8,966
8,984
3,451
18,492
86,700
27,684
71,889
14,797
3,942
6,220
861
4,232
3,941
1,767
28.1
5.8
4.1
8.0
64.0
12.8
58.7
7.5
10.9
5.5
25.4
11.3
29.2
11.5
5.7
2.1
18.3
15.2
13.7
8.7
1.1
3.5
11.8
21.2
8.7
6.9
12.3
10.9
4.1
12.5
14.8
20.2
19.0
29.0
36.9
10.9
6.6
20.4
34.1
15.0
Chinese
Dutch and Flemish
Finnish
French
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North
Italian South
Korean
Mexican
Pacific Islander
Polish
Russian
Scotch
Slovak
Spanish
Welsh
Other peoples
Grand total
9,555,673
1,189,283
12.4
a Figures for 1908, 1909, and 1910 are for "immigrant aliens" only.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 105
DESTINATION OF IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1899 TO 1910.
1 Immigrants admitted into the United States and the insular
possessions during the twelve fiscal years ending June 30, 1910,
reported their final destination as follows :
Alabama 10, 852
Alaska 1, 867
Arizona 13, 414
Arkansas 3,802
California 237,795
Colorado 55,133
Connecticut 245, 636
Delaware
District of Columbia.
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho..
Nebraska 43, 712
Nevada 7, 926
New Hampshire 34, 532
New Jersey 489, 533
New Mexico 4,450
New York 2,994,358
North Carolina.
North Dakota..
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon.
13, 063
13, 947
66, 612
5,328
98, 102
8,286
Illinois 722,059
Indiana 66,590
Indian Territory 3, 395
Iowa 61,221
Kansas 30,760
Kentucky 6, 225
Louisiana 49, 744
Maine 27,834
Maryland 71, 265
Massachusetts 719, 887
Michigan 233,824
Minnesota 182,558
Mississippi 5, 478
Missouri 123, 045
Montana 28,500
The States receiving 1 per cent or more of the immigrants admitted
during the period are shown in the following table:
TABLE 16. — Destination reported by immigrants admitted to the United States during the
fiscal years 1899 to 1910, inclusive.
2,203
60, 674
407, 285
5,548
28, 936
Pennsylvania 1, 737, 059
Philippine Islands ! . . . 61
Porto Rico 11,979
Rhode Island 98, 635
South Carolina 2, 567
South Dakota 34,437
Tennessee 6, 575
Texas 75, 808
Utah 25, 689
Vermont 20, 769
Virginia 15, 013
Washington Ill, 814
West Virginia 64, 938
Wisconsin 150, 162
Wyoming 10, 881
Tourists 3, 907
Destination.
Number of
immigrants.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
2,994 358
31 3
Pennsylvania
1. 737, 059
18.2
Illinois
722 059
7 6
Massachusetts .
719, 887
7.5
New Jersey
489 533
5 1
Ohio
407, 285
4.3
Connecticut
245 636
2 6
California
237, 795
2.5
Michigan
233 824
2 4
Minnesota -
182, 558
1.9
Wisconsin
150 162
1 6
Missouri ..
123, 045
1.3
Washington
111 814
1 2
Rhode Island
98, 635
1.0
Hawaii
98 102
1 0
All others
1,003,921
10.5
Total
9 555 673
100 0
The destinations of immigrants admitted during the twelve years
under consideration, by States, Territories, and the insular posses-
sions, are shown in the table next presented.
i2289° — VOL l — 11-
106
The Immigration Commission.
rHCOlOlM^-^r-ICO-
<N<NCOCO rHI
T-l . . >C Tf O CO IO IM i-l t^ ^H • t^ i-H Tfl r^ N.
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ian
ples
fied
'—sag.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 107
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rsTiirs!
r-i fl — i iM
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a
108
The immigration Commission.
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Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 109
t-— C<l t— ( -^ C- OCO COCOCCC^OSsOOC^OC^
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110 The Immigration Commission.
ALIENS DEBARRED AT UNITED STATES PORTS, 1892 TO 1910.
The first United States immigration law to specifically exclude
any classes of aliens from the country was the act of March 3, 1875.
By the terms of that act criminals and women imported for the pur-
pose of prostitution were denied admission at United States ports.
The law Nf 1875, however, was enacted chiefly for the purpose of
controlling Chinese immigration to the Pacific coast and, particularly
at Atlantic ports, was indifferently enforced. The immigration act
of August 3, 1882,° which was the first serious attempt on the part of
the Federal Government to control the immigration movement, pro-
hibited the landing at United States ports of convicts, lunatics,
idiots, and persons unable to care for themselves without becoming
public charges. The administration of this law was delegated to the
various States at whose ports immigrants entered and the number
debarred for the causes specified was not large. The first contract-
labor law was approved February 26, 1885,a and under its terms
aliens under contract to labor in this country were added to the class
of excluded immigrants.
The first really comprehensive immigration law, however, was the
act of March 3, 189 1.6 This provided for the direct control of immi-
gration by the Federal Government rather than through the agency
of the States. A careful inspection of immigrants at United States
ports was inaugurated and the following classes were excluded from
the United States: Idiots, insane persons, paupers, or persons likely
to become a public charge, persons suffering from a loathsome or a
dangerous contagious disease, criminals, polygamists, and certain
classes of assisted immigrants. The act of 1891 further provided
that rejected immigrants should, if practicable, be immediately sent
back on the vessel bringing them, the cost of their maintenance while
awaiting deportation and the expense of their return to be borne by
the owners of the vessel. This legislation marked the real beginning
of the systematic examination of immigrants at United States ports,
and the statistics of rejections shown in the table which follows date
from the time the act of 1891 became effective. The various immi-
gration laws enacted since 1891 have contained many additions to
the excluded classes above enumerated, and with increased immigra-
tion and a stricter interpretation and enforcement of the law the
number of debarments has multiplied in recent years.
It will be noted by the table which follows that the number of
rejections on account of loathsome or dangerous contagious diseases
increased greatly following the year 1897. This increase was due to
the fact that in that year trachoma c was classed by the United States
Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service as a dangerous contagious
disease within the meaning of the immigration law of 1891. By far
the greater part of rejections under the head of " loathsome or dan-
gerous contagious diseases" since 1898 have been on account of
trachoma. Moreover, this decision of the Public Health and Marine-
Hospital Service resulted in a more careful medical inspection of
intending emigrants at foreign ports of embarkation and a con-
sequent rejection of many thousands at such ports annually.**
a See Vol. II, p. 569.
& See Vol. II, p. 571.
c Granulation of the conjunctiva of the eyelids, attended by inflammation.—
Webster.
d See pp. 199 and 200.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. Ill
As will be noted from the table which follows, the number of immi-
grants debarred as paupers or persons likely to become public
charges is larger than for any other class, and in the fiscal year 1910 it
reached the large total of 15,918. The somewhat remarkable fluctua-
tion in the number debarred for this cause is largely due to adminis-
trative interpretation of the law.
The following table shows the number and cause of debarments
at all United States ports during the period July 1, 1891 -June 30, 1910:
TABLE 18. — Aliens debarred at all United States ports during the fiscal years 1892 to
1910, inclusive, by cause.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Year.
Total
number
debarred.
Number debarred for each specified cause.
Loathsome
or
dangerous
contagious
diseases.
Other
physical
or mental
diseases
or defects.
Paupers
or persons
likely to
become
public
charges.
Contract
laborers.
All other
causes.
1892...
2,164
1.053
1,389
2,419
2,799
1,617
3,030
3,798
4,246
3,516
4,974
8,769
7,994
11,874
12,432
13,064
10, 902
10,411
24,270
80
81
15
21
11
9
6
11
7
13
20
33
22
34
24
49
130
231
218
1,246
726
696
1.002
431
802
1,714
2,010
1,277
2,261
2,599
2,974
2,798
3,944
5,812
4,798
7,898
7,069
6,866
3,710
4,402
15,918
932
518
553
694
776
328
417
741
833
327
275
1,086
1,501
1,164
2,314
1,434
1,932
1,172
1,786
129
12
10
5
1893.
1894
1895
1896
2
1
258
348
393
309
709
1,773
1,560
2,198
2,273
3,822
2,900
2,382
3,123
1897.
4
81
90
13
60
12
74
86
484
545
724
1,114
1,729
2,747
1898
1899.
1900
1901.
1902
1903.
1904
1905.
1906
1907.
1908
1909. .
1910
Year.
Per cent debarred for each specified cause.
Loathsome
or
dangerous
contagious
diseases.
Other
physical
or mental
diseases
or defects.
Paupers
or persons
likely to
become
public
charges.
Contract
laborers.
All other
causes.
1892
3.7
7.7
1.1
1.0
1.0
.6
.2
.4
.4
.4
.5
.8
.6
.7
.3
.6
1.1
1.9
1.7
11.4
7.0
2.8
46.3
40.9
57.7
70.9
71.8
79.0
74.6
68.4
70.0
79.6
79.3
66.3
60.0
66.5
56.9
52.6
34.0
42.3
65.6
43.1
49.2
39.8
28.7
27.7
20.3
13.8
19.5
19.6
9.3
5.5
12.4
18.8
9.8
18.6
11.0
17.7
11.3
7.4
6.0
1.1
.7
.2
1893..
1894
1895
1896
.1
.1
8.5
9.2
9.3
8.8
14.3
20.2
19.5
18.5
18.3
29.3
26.6
22.9
12.9
1897...
.2
2.7
2.4
.3
1.7
.2
.8
1.1
4,1
4.4
5.5
10.2
16.6
11.3
1898
1899...
1900...
1901
1902...
1903..
1904...
1905
1906
1907...
1908..
1909....
1910
112
The Immigration Commission.
ALIENS LEAVING THE UNITED STATES, 1908 TO 1910.
The immigration law of February 20, 1907, provided that after
July 1 of that year certain data respecting aliens leaving the United
States should be recorded.0 Previous to that time no official record
of the outward movement of aliens was kept, and consequently few
data are available. It is known, however, that for a considerable
Eeriod of years the outward movement, or emigration of aliens, has
een approximately one-third as great as the immigration movement
to this country. The records of the Trans- Atlantic Passenger Asso-
ciation for tne period 1899-1910 show that during that time 37
steerage passengers were carried from United States ports to Euro-
pean ports for every 100 such passengers brought from Europe to
the United States.6 Similar data from other sources show substan-
tially the same result.
The movement from the United States during the three fiscal
years ending June 30, 1910, is shown by the following table:
TABLE 19. — Emigrant aliens departed from the United States in fiscal years 1908, 1909,
and 1910, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
1908.
1909.
1910.
Total.
African (black) .... .
889
234
1,051
5,965
3,898
28.589
2,089
1,046
1,198
124
5,320
3,463
3,063
14,418
6,763
7,702
2,441
19, 507
147, 828
5,323
188
3,388
29,276
173
7
46, 727
898
5,264
7,507
3,310
5,801
1,596
23,573
1,977
333
1,700
1,276
163
375
630
1,104
561
746
2,422
3,397
9,014
1,243
515
903
48
5,061
1,427
2,862
13,541
6,275
6,105
2,059
16,658
69, 781
3,903
114
1,990
11,507
158
4
19,290
816
1,352
5,125
1,672
7,257
1,618
8,894
1,834
305
1,204
725
171
394
1,874
11,873
926
521
943
2,720
2,383
7,133
1,556
432
1,192
80
6,508
1,276
4,029
13,303
8,814
5,689
2,472
13,431
41, 772
4,377
137
1,812
10,533
210
1
16,884
906
1,834
5,682
1,719
5,032
1,992
9,259
2,323
387
1,077
1,058
195
388
806
20,644
2,919
1,316
2,740
11,107
9,678
44, 736
4,888
1,993
3,293
252
16,889
6,166
9,954
41,262
21,852
19,496
6,972
49,596
259, 381
13,603
439
7,190
51,316
541
12
82, 901
2,620
8,450
18,314
6,701
18, 090
5,206
41,726
6,134
1,025
3,981
3,059
529
1,157
3,310
32, 517
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian . . . .
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin
Chinese
Croatian and Slovenian
Cuban
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian
Dutch and Flemish
East Indian. . .
English
Finnish. ..
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North
Italian, South
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian . . .
Magyar
Mexican
Pacific Islander .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian . .
Russian
Ruthenian
Scandinavian
Scotch
Slovak
Spanish
Spanish-American
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (other than Cuban)
Other peoples .
Not specified
Total :
395,073
225, 802
202,436
823,311
a See Vol. II, p. 735.
b See p. 183.
5
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 113
The number of aliens (823,311) departing from the United States
in the three years considered in the preceding table is larger than the
total immigration to the United States in any year previous to 1903,
considerably exceeds the total number of immigrants admitted to the
country from 1820 to 1840, and approximates the combined popu-
lation of the States of Delaware, Idaho, Nevada, Vermont, and Wyo-
ming, according to the census of 1900. The exodus in the fiscal
year 1908 followed the financial depression of the fall and winter
of 1907-8 and to a considerable degree was abnormal, but the exodus
of 1909 and 1910 was more nearly normal.
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION CONTRASTED.
In the following table is shown, by race or people, the number of
emigrant aliens leaving the United States for every 100 immigrant
aliens admitted, during the fiscal years 1908 to 1910, inclusive:
TABLE 20. — Immigrant aliens admitted to the United States, emigrant aliens de\
and number departed for every 100 admitted, fiscal years 1908, 1909, and 1910, /
or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
irted,
Race or people.
Immigrant
aliens
admitted.
Emigrant
aliens
departed.
Number
departed
for every
100
admitted.
African (black) . .
13, 899
2,919
21
Armenian
11 915
1 316
11
Bohemian and Moravian
25, 476
• 2,740
11
Bulgarian, Servian and Montenegrin
39 590
11 107
28
Chinese
4,874
9,678
199
Croatian and Slovenian
80, 215
44,736
56
Cuban
10, 034
4,888
49
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegoviniari
10, 546
1,993
19
Dutch and Flemish
30, 652
3,293
11
East Indian
3 829
252
7
English. . .
141,575
16, 889
12
Finnish.
34 169
6 166
18
French
53,411
9,954
19
German..
202 952
41 262
°0
Greek
88 205
21 852
25
Hebrew. . .
245 198
19 496
8
Irish
105 994
6 972
7
Italian, North..
80 ' 630
49' 596
62
Italian, South
468 468
259 381
55
Japanese
22' 491
13' 603
60
Korean
56
439
784
Lithuanian...
51 688
7 190
14
Magyar
80 384
51 316
64
Mexican
39 033
541
1
Pacific Islander
70
12
17
Polish
274,018
82,901
30
Portuguese
19 072
2 620
14
Roumanian
31,869
8,450
27
Russian . .
44 443
18 314
41
Ruthenian
56, 076
6,701
12
Scandinavian
119 822
18 090
15
Scotch
58,072
5,206
9
Slovak
71 172
41 726
59
Spanish
17,412
6,134
35
Spanish- American
2 853
1 025
36
Syrian
15,505
3,981
26
Turkish...
4 430
3 059
69
Welsh
6,447
529-
8
West Indian (other than Cuban)
3 284
1,157
35
Other peoples
6,397
3,310
52
Not specified
32, 517
Total .. .
2 576 226
823,311
32
114 The Immigration Commission.
It will be noted from the preceding table that in the case of sev-
eral races the number of persons leaving the country during the
three years considered was more than one-half as great as the num-
ber admitted to the United States. These races are as follows: Ko-
rean, Chinese, Turkish, Magyar, North Italian, Japanese, Slovak,
Croatian and Slovenian, and South Italian.
Among the races showing relatively a small number of emigrants
are the following: Irish, East Indian, Hebrew, Welsh, Scotch, Ar-
menian, Bohemian and Moravian, Dutch and Flemish, English, Ruthe-
nian, Portuguese, Lithuanian, and Scandinavian.
SEX, AGE, PERIOD OF RESIDENCE, AND OCCUPATION OF EMIGRANT ALIENS.
In the series of tables which follows are presented statistical data,
compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General
of Immigration, respecting the sex and age, length of continuous
residence in the United States, and the occupations, of aliens leaving
the United States during the fiscal years 1908 to 1910, inclusive.
It will be noted from Table 20 that the outward movement is very
largely one of males, and that 85.6 per cent of the emigrants are from
14 to 44 years of age, while only 4.7 per cent are children under 14
years old. These data show conclusively that the movement is essen-
tially one of individuals rather than families, and that the individuals
are for the most part of the working age.
That the alien emigration movement from the United States
during the three years considered was composed for the most part of
recent immigrants is clearly shown by Table 21. More than 81 per
cent of the total number leaving the country and reporting length of
residence had been here not over five years, while 96.2 per cent had
resided here not over ten years.
The occupational status was reported for 759,560 of 823,311 aliens
who left the United States during the three years under considera-
tion. As indicated by Table 22, 32,517 emigrant aliens left the United
States via Canada, and concerning these and 31,234 others who left by
United States ports, no information respecting occupations is avail-
able. Data relating to departing aliens are recorded by the steam-
ship companies and by them reported to the Bureau of Immigration
and Naturalization. It is not entirely clear whether the occupations
reported represent those followed by the aliens in the United States,
but it is presumed that such is the case. In this connection it is
interesting to compare the occupational status of outgoing aliens
with that of immigrants admitted to the United States, as shown
by the tables on pages 100 and 101 of this volume.
It will be noted from Table 23 that common laborers predomi-
nate among the outgoing aliens, 64.2 per cent of the total num-
ber reporting occupation being of that class. Persons in skilled
occupations rank second among those having an occupational status,
and servants are third in number. Considering the fact that a large
proportion of all immigrants admitted to the United States are farm
laborers,0 the number rated as such among outgoing aliens is remark-
ably small. While this may be due in small part to a greater
tendency toward permanency of residence among immigrants who go
to the farms, it no doubt is accounted for chiefly by the fact that most
aliens rated as farm laborers when they come to the United States
engage in other pursuits in this country.
a See tables on pp. 100 and 101.
Statistical Review of Immigration, 1820 to 1910. 115
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ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
DISTRIBUTION OF IMMIGRANTS, 1850 TO 1900.
For the complete report on the distribution of immigrants, 1850 to 1900,
see Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 3.
119
CONTENTS.
Page.
Growth of foreign-born population 123
Concentration in cities 139
Age 146
Voting age and citizenship 148
Illiteracy and ability to speak English 156
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. Foreign-born population of continental United States, by census
year: 1820 to 1900 123
2. Immigration and increase of foreign-born population, by decade: 1850
to 1900 124
3. Distribution of foreign-born population, by period of immigration:
1900 124
4. Number and per cent of foreign-born in the population of each State
and geographic division of continental United States: 1850 to
1900 1 126-129
5. Per cent distribution of the foreign-born population of continental
United States, by geographic division: 1850 to 1900 130
6. Per cent distribution of increase in foreign-born population in each
decade, by geographic division: 1850 to 1900 131
7. Per cent distribution of increase of foreign-born population in each
decade, in Atlantic, Central, and Western belts: 1850 to 1900 131
8. Native and foreign born population of continental United States, by
census year, and number and per cent of increase, by decade: 1850
to 1900 132
9. Per cent distribution of increase in native and foreign born popula-
tion, by decade: 1850 to 1900 , 132
10. Foreign-born population of continental United States, by country of
birth: 1850 to 1900 134
11. Increase in foreign-born population, by census decade and country of
birth: 1850 to 1900 , 135,136
12. Per cent of increase in foreign-born population, by census decade
and country of birth: 1850 to 1900 137
13. Distribution of foreign-born population of continental United States,
by class of place 01 residence: 1900 139
14. Per cent distribution of native and foreign born population of conti-
nental United States, by class of place of residence: 1900 139
15. Total population and number and per cent of foreign-born, in conti-
nental United States, by class of place of residence: 1900 140
16. White population in cities of continental United States, by nativity:
1900 140
17. Number and per cent distribution of native and foreign born popu-
lation, and number and per cent of increase, by class of place of
residence: 1890 and 1900 141
18. Number and per cent distribution of white population, and number
and per cent of increase, by class of place of residence: 1890 and
1900 ;. 143
19. Number and per cent of total population of continental United States
in cities having in 1890 a population of 25,000 or over, by country
of birth: 1900 145
20. Per cent distribution of each age group, in continental United States,
by nativity: 1900 146
21 . Population and per cent distribution, in continental United States, by
nativity and age group : 1900 147
22. Per cent increase of males of voting age, by nativity: 1890 to 1900. . 148
23. Per cent of foreign-born in the total male population 21 years of age
or over of specified States: 1890 and 1900 149
72289°— VOL 1—11 9 121
122
The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 24. Per cent naturalized and per cent having first papers in the foreign-
born male population 21 years of age or over of specified States:
1890 and 1900 150
25. Per cent of foreign-born in the male population 21 years of age or
over of specified States and cities: 1890 and 1900 151
26. Per cent naturalized and per cent having first papers in the foreign-
born male population 21 years of age or over of specified States
and cities: 1890 and 1900 152, 153
27. Citizenship of foreign-born white males 21 years of age or over who
have been in the United States five years or over, by geographic
division: 1900
28. Per cent foreign-born of the total white male population 21 years of
age or over, and country of birth of the three ranking foreign
nationalities, in specified States: 1900 155
29. Nationalities ranking first, second, and third in number of males of
voting age in .States specified in the preceding table, by country
of birth:' 1900
30. Per cent illiterate in the population 10 years of age or over of conti-
nental United States, by geographic division and nativity: 1900.
31. Per cent illiterate in the population 10 years of age or over in cities
and in country districts, by geographic division and nativity: 1900.
32. Per cent illiterate in the male population 21 years of age or over in
cities and in country districts, by nativity and citizenship: 1900.
33. Per cent unable to speak English in the foreign-born white population
10 years of age or over, by geographic division: 1890 and 1900
156
157
158
159
1GO
DISTRIBUTION OF IMMIGRANTS, 1850 TO 1900,
GROWTH OF FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION.
Prior to the Fourth Census, taken in 1820, the returns made no
distinction between alien, foreign-born, and native population. In
1820, for the first time, provision was made to return aliens, that is,
foreigners not naturalized. This provision was repeated in 1830, but
not in 1840. In 1850 the census schedule asked for place of birth,
thereby securing information as to the nativity of every inhabitant.
The same information has been secured at each succeeding census.
In addition it was ascertained in 1870 whether or not the parents of
an inhabitant were of foreign birth, and since 1880 the places of birth
of father and mother have been returned.
The following table gives the foreign-born population of continental
United States by census years since 1820, and the decennial increase
and percentage of increase since 1850.
TABLE 1. — Foreign-born population of continental United States, by census year: 1820
to 1900.
Census year.
Foreign-born
population.
Increase since pre-
ceding census.
Number.
Per cent.
1900...
10,341.276
9,249,560
6,679,943
5,567,229
04,138,697
o2,244 602
1,091,716
2,569,617
1,112,714
1,428,532
1,894,095
11.8
38.5
20.0
34.5
84.4
1890
1880
1870
1860
1850
1840
(&)
107, 832
53,687
1830 «• . . .
1820d
a Free population only.
b No figures available.
c Aliens— foreigners not naturalized. An additional 5,477, given as "number of aliens, etc in New
York City," is not included.
d Aliens — foreigners not naturalized.
The foreign-born population of continental United States showed
an uninterrupted increase between 1850 and 1900. During the fifty
years the number of the foreign-born grew to more than four and
a half times its original figure, or from 2,244,602 to 10,341,276. In
the decade 1850 to 1860 "the foreign-born population increased by
1,894,095, or 84.4 per cent. This percentage of increase was greater
than in any succeeding decade, but the numerical increase was
greatest in the decade 1880 to 1890, when the foreign-born popula-
tion increased 2,569,617. It is noteworthy that the smallest numer-
ical increase, as well as the smallest percentage of increase, was that
recorded for 1890 to 1900 — the last decade of the half century cov-
ered by the table.
* 123
124
The Immigration Commission.
It is interesting in this connection to compare the decennial increase
in the foreign-born population enumerated by the census with the
statistics of immigration compiled by the Bureau of Immigration.
TABLE 2. — Immigration and increase of foreign-born population, by decade: 1850 to 1900.
Decade.
Total
recorded
immigra-
tion.
Increase in foreign-
born population, ac-
cording to census.
Total
immigra-
tion from
Europe.
Increase in population
born in Europe, ac-
cording to census.
Number.
Per cent
of record-
ed immi-
gration.
Number.
851,287
2,276,297
807,693
1,130,917
1,773,834
Per cent
of record-
ed immi-
gration.
1890 to 1900
3,687,564
5,246,613
2,812,191
2,314,824
2,598,214
1.091,716
2,5(i9,617
1,112,714
1,428,532
1, 894, 095
29.6
49.0
39.6
61.7
72.9
3,558,978
4,737,046
2,272,262
2,065,270
2,452,660
23.9
48.1
35.5
54.8
72.3
1880 to 1890
1870 to 1880
1860 to 1870
1850 to I860
In the decade 1850 to 1860 an immigration from Europe of
2,452,660 produced an increase of 1,773,834 in the population of
European birth. Forty years later, in the decade 1890 to 1900, a
European immigration of 3,558,978 produced an increase of only
851,287 in the population born in Europe. Thus an immigration that
was 50 per cent greater produced an increase only one-half as great.
The explanation of this contrast is readily seen. The increase in
the foreign-born population during any period is the net result of
immigration, deaths, and emigration or return migration. Expressed
in the form of an equation:
Increase = immigration — deaths and return migration.
In 1890 the foreign-born population present in this country was
four times as great as it was in 1850. Therefore, at the present time
it takes a much larger immigration merely to make good the losses
through death than it did when the foreign-born population was
smaller and contained fewer old people.
The statistics of the census of 1900 indicate that not more than 70
per cent of the total number of immigrants entering the United States
in the ten-year period between 1890 and 1900 were found in this coun-
try at the end of that period. The others had either died or returned
to the country from which they came or remigrated to some other
country. This statement is based on the following figures:
TABLE 3. — Distribution of foreign-born population, by period of immigration: 1900.
Period of immigration.
Foreign-born
population of
continental
United States.
Total .
10,341.276
1890-1900
2, 609, 173
1880-1890
3,503,042
Prior to 1880
4,229,061
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900. 125
In this table the 1,012,653 foreign-born persons for whom the date
of immigration was not ascertained are distributed pro rata on the
basis of the distribution shown by the 9,328,623 foreign-born persons
whose length of residence in the United States was ascertained. On
this basis it is found that in 1900 there were living in the United States
2,609,173 foreign-born who had immigrated since 1890; 3,503,042
who immigrated between 1880 and 1890; and 4,229,061 who immi-
grated prior to 1880.
In the decade 1890 to 1900 the total recorded immigration was
3,687,564. According to the census the number of foreign-born
present in the United States in 1900 who had immigrated during that
period was, as just stated, 2,609,173. Assuming that the census
figures are approximately accurate, then if the record of immigra-
tion is complete, the difference between these totals will represent
the number of immigrants coming in between 1890 and 1900 who died
or remigrated before the end of the decade. The difference is
1,078,391, or 29 per cent of the total recorded immigration. As a
matter of fact, however, the record of immigration is not complete,
as it includes only a small part of the immigration across the Cana-
dian and Mexican borders. Therefore, the percentage of immigrants
who died or returned must have been considerably greater than this
comparison would indicate.
The total recorded immigration from Europe between 1890 and
1900 was 3,558,978, which may be accepted as a practically complete
record. In 1900 the total population-born in Europe was, according to
the census, 8,871,895; but the census does not show what proportion
of this total number immigrated since 1890, the period of immigra-
tion being given for the total foreign-born only. Assuming, how-
ever, that the proportion would be the same for the population born in
Europe as for the total foreign-born population, the number of Euro-
peans who immigrated between 1890 and 1900 would be 2,238,454,
which is 62.9 per cent of the total immigration from Europe in that
period.
The table following shows the number and per cent of foreign-born
in the population of each State and geographic division of continental
United States, 1850 to 1900, by decade.
126
The Immigration Commission.
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Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900. 129
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130
The Immigration Commission.
In 1850 the per cent foreign-born in each main geographic division
was as follows: North Atlantic, 15.4; North Central, 12; South
Atlantic, 2.2; South Central, 3.2; and Western, 15.1. In the next
twenty years the most notable increases in proportion of foreign-born
are found in the States of the Western division, over one-third of the
population in 7 of a total of 11 States being foreign-born in 1870,
California alone containing 209,831 immigrants, as against 21,802
in 1850.
Of the New England States, Massachusetts and Rhode Island are
the most prominent in the proportion of immigrants; and the per
cent foreign-born in these States has advanced from 16.5 and 16.2,
respectively, in 1850, to 30.2 and 31.4 in 1900. New York has always
had more foreign-born than any other State, but while the number
increased from 655,929 in 1850 to 1,001,280 in 1860 and 1,900,425 in
1900, the proportion has changed but little, being about one-fourth
of the total population.
In the States of the two southern divisions the proportion of for-
eign-born has never exceeded 10 per cent, except in Maryland, the
District of Columbia, and Louisiana, in which the great majority of
immigrants are found in the three cities of Baltimore, Washington,
and New Orleans.
In the North Central division the numbers of immigrants in 1850 were
largest in Ohio (218,193), Illinois (111,892), and Wisconsin (110,477).
Since 1870 Illinois has ranked first, with 515,198 in 1870 and 966,747
in 1900. Michigan rose to second place in 1890, with 543,880 foreign-
born, Wisconsin and Minnesota being third and fourth, these last two
in 1900 containing 515,971 and 505,318 immigrants, respectively.
The following table shows the per cent distribution of the foreign-
born population of continental United States by geographic division,
1850 to 1900:
TABLE 5. — Per cent distribution of the foreign-born population of continental United
States, by geographic division: 18W to 1900.
190
D.
189
3.
188
0.
Geographic division.
Foreign-
born popu-
lation.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Foreign-
born popu-
lation.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Foreign-
born popu-
lation.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Continental United States
10.341,276
100.0
9,249,560
100.0
6,679,943
100.0
North Atlantic. .
4, 762, 796
46.1
3,888 177
42 0
2,814,520
42 1
North Central
4 158 474
40 2
4 060 114
43 9
2 916 829
43 7
South Atlantic
216,030
2.1
208, 525
2.3
174,258
2.6
South Central
357,655
3.5
321 834
3 5
274 274
4.1
Western
846 321
8 2
770 910
8 3
500 062
7 5
187
3.
186
3.
185
3.
Geographic division.
Foreign-
born popu-
lation.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Fo^eign-
born popu-
lation.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Foreign-
born popu-
lation.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Continental United States
5,567.229
100.0
4,138,697
100.0
2,244,602
100.0
North Atlantic
2,520 606
45 3
2 023 905
48 9
1 325 543
59.1
North Central . . ..
2,333,285
41.9
1,543,358
37.3
650, 375
29.0
South Atlantic
166,844
3.0
162, 500
3.9
104,910
4.7
South Central
233, 131
4.2
229, 932
5.6
136,755
6.1
Western
313,363
5.6
179,002
4.3
27,019
1.2
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
131
In 1850, 59.1 per cent of the immigrants in the United States
resided in the North Atlantic and 29 per cent in the North Central
division, these two divisions together containing 88.1 per cent of the
total foreign-born in the United States. By the year 1880, however,
the tide of immigration had moved westward to such an extent that
the number in the North Central reached 2,916,829 and exceeded the
number in the North Atlantic division, the respective percentages in
these divisions being 43.7 and 42.1 of the total foreign-born in the
United States. From 1880 to 1890 each division gained over 1,000,000
foreign-born persons, the North Central division being still in the
lead; but in the decade 1890-1900 the increase in number of foreign-
born was confined largely to the North Atlantic division, this fact
being clearly shown by the following table:
TABLE 6. — Per cent distribution of increase in foreign-born population in each decade, by
geographic division: 1850 to 1900.
Geographic division.
1890 to
1900.
1880 to
1890.
18f 0 to
1880.
1860 to
1870.
1850 to
1860.
Continental United States
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
North Atlantic
80.1
41.8
26.4
34.8
36.9
North Central
9.0
44.5
52.4
55.3
47.1
South Atlantic
.7
1.3
.7
.3
3.0
South Central
3.3
1.9
3.7
2
4.9
Western
6.9
10.5
16.8
9.4
8.0
In conclusion of the above discussion it may be noted that of the phe-
nomenal increase of 2,569,617 in the foreign-born population in the
decade 1880-1890, the North Central division comprised 44.5 per cent
and the North Atlantic 41.8 per cent, but of an increase of 1,091,729
in the decade 1890 to 1900 the North Atlantic division comprised
80.1 per cent, or 4 of every 5, as against 9.1 per cent, or less than 1 of
every 10, in the North Central division.
If the United States be divided into three main belts running
north and south, the easternmost belt to comprise the two Atlantic
divisions, the central belt the two central divisions, and the western-
most belt the Western division, the per cent distribution of the total
increase by belts is as follows:
TABLE 7. — Per cent distribution of increase of foreign-born population in each decade, in
Atlantic, Central, and Western belts: 1850 to 1900.
Geographic division.
1890 to
1900.
1880 to
1890.
1870 to
1880.
1860 to
1870.
18.50 to
1860.
Continental United States
100 0
100 0
100 0
100 0
100.0
Atlantic belt ..
80 8
43 1
27.1
35.1
39.9
Central belt . .
12 3
46 3
56 1
55 5
52 1
Western belt
6 9
10 5
16 8
9 4
8 0
During the first three decades the central belt received a large pro-
portion— more than one-half — of the increase in the foreign-born
population. The share of the increase in the western belt became
larger in each succeeding decade, while the Atlantic belt received a
smaller share each decade. The last two decades completely reverse
these conditions. The rush of immigrants to the Middle West and
132
The Immigration Commission.
West suffered a check, for the percentage of total increase in the cen-
tral belt fell from 56.1 per cent between 1870 and 1880 to 46.3 per
cent between 1880 and 1890, and but 12.3 per cent beween 1890 and
1900. The percentage in the western belt similarly fell from 16.8 per
cent to 10.5 per cent and then to 6.9 per cent. The percentage in
the Atlantic belt, however, increased from 27.1 per cent between 1870
and 1880 to 45.1 per cent between 1880 and 1890 and 80.8 per cent
between 1890 and 1900.
The following table gives the native and foreign born population
for each census since 1850, and the number and per cent of increase
by decades:
TABLE 8. — Native and foreign born population of continental United States, by census
year, and number and per cent of increase, by decade: 1850 to 1900.
Census year.
Population.
Increase since preced-
ing census.
Per cent of in-
crease.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
1900
65, 653, 299
53,372,703
43,475,840
32, 991, 142
27, 304, 624
20,947,274
10, 341, 276
9,249,560
6, 679, 943
5,567,229
4, 138, 697
2,244,602
12, 280, 596
9,896,863
10, 484, 698
5, 686, 518
6,357,350
1,091,716
2,569,617
1,112,714
1, 428, 532
1,894,095
23.0
22.8
31.8
20.8
30.3
11.8
38 5
20.0
34.5
84.4
1890
1880
1870
1860
1850
The increase in native population during the fifty years covered
by this table was 44,706,025; in foreign-born population, 8,096,674.
These increases may be distributed by decades, as follows:
TABLE 9. — Per cent distribution of increase in native and foreign born population, by
decade: 1850 to 1900.
Decade.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total
100.0
100.0
1890-1900 -
27.5
13.5
1880-1890
22.1
31.7
1870-1880
13.7
1860-1870
12.7
17.6
1850-1860
14.2
23.4
For the native population, the largest increase occurred in the last
decade, 1890 to 1900. This increase was made up in much larger
numbers of native white one or both of whose parents were foreign-
born, than the increase during previous decades. Undoubtedly
the unprecedented immigration or the decade 1880 to 1890 was
responsible for this; for the influx of a large body of immigrants in
the productive period of life is bound to contribute materially to
the increase of native-born population during the succeeding decade
or two.
The second largest increase in native population occurred between
1870 and 1880, the third largest between 1880 and 1890, and the
smallest increase of all in the civil-war decade, 1860 to 1870.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900. 133
For the foreign-born population the largest increase took place
in the decade 1880 to 1890, when times were prosperous and eco-
nomic conditions normal. This decade saw also the greatest immi-
gration of the whole century. The second largest increase occurred
in the decade 1850 to 1860, largely made up of Irish and Germans,
who were driven to the United States by economic and political
unrest in their own countries. As these classes of immigrants came
to stay, the increase in foreign-born population during the decade
is very marked. The smallest increases occurred in the decades
1870 to 1880 and 1890 to 1900, and by almost identical figures. In
the earlier decade the increase was a small one because of economic
and financial depression. In the latter decade there was also an
economic crisis, which had its effect not so much in checking immi-
gration as in promoting the return of immigrants. Although the
immigration between 1890 and 1900 was the second largest of the
century, the increase in foreign-born population during the decade
was the smallest for any of the five decades under consideration.
During three of the five decades the rate of increase of foreign-born
population was greater than that of the native population. (See
Table 8.) These were the decades 1850 to 1860, 1860 to 1870, and
1880 to 1890. From 1850 to 1860 the rate of growth of the foreign-
born was nearly three times that of native population. In the fol-
lowing decade, 1860 to 1870, the rate of growth of foreign-born Cop-
ulation was but three-fourths greater than that of native population,
being 34.5 per cent as against 20.8 per cent for the native popula-
tion. Between 1870 and 1880 the increase of native population was
nearly twice as large as in the decade of the civil war, but the increase
of the foreign-born fell off nearly one-fourth. The result was that
for the first time since 1850 the rate of growth of the foreign-born
was lower than that of the native population, being only 20 per cent
as against 31.8 percent for the native-born. In the decade between
1880 and 1890 the foreign-born population increased by an amount
twice that of the preceding decade; and as the numerical increase
of the native population at the same time fell off, the rate of in-
crease of the foreign-born was again greater than that of the native
population and by a considerable margin. The increase of the native
population in the following decade, 1890 to 1900, was the largest in
fifty years, but the increase of foreign-born population fell off, with
the result that the rate of growth of the foreign-born population was
only half as great as that of the native population.
134
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows the distribution of foreign-born popula-
tion in continental United States, by country of birth, 1850-1900:
TABLE 10. — Foreign-born population of continental United States, by country of birth:
1850 to 1900.
Country of birth.
1900.
1890.a
1880.
1870.
1860.
1850.
All foreign countries
10,341,276
9, 249, 547
6,679,943
5,567 229
4 138 793
2 210 839
Europe
8,871,895
8,020,608
5,744,311
4,936,618
3, 805, 701
2 031 867
Northwest Europe
United Kingdom
3,845,289
2 783 082
4,056,160
3 122 911
3,212,431
2 772 169
2, 867, 926
2 626 241
2,271,661
2 199 079
1,358,887
1 340 812
Ireland
1,615,459
1,871,509
1,854,571
1 855 827
1 611 304
961 719
Wales
93,586
100 079
83 302
74 533
45 763
29 868
England
840,513
909,092
664, 160
555,046
433,494
278 675
Scotland . .
233, 524
242.231
170 136
140 835
108 518
70 550
Scandinavia .
1,062 207
933 249
440 262
241 685
72 582
18 075
Denmark
153, 805
132, 543
64,196
30, 107
9,962
1 838
Norway
Sweden
336,388
572 014
322,665
478 041
181,729
194 337
114,246
97 332
43,995
18 625
12,678
3 559
Central Europe
3,878,649
3, 447, 564
2,325,931
1,919 813
1,399,114
609 239
Holland
104,931
81 828
58 090
46 802
28 281
9 848
Belgium
29, 757
22,639
15,535
12,553
9,072
1,313
Luxemburg
3,031
2,882
12, 836
5.802
Switzerland
115 593
104 069
88 621
75 153
53 327
13 358
Germany
2 663 418
2 784 894
1 966 742
1 690 533
1 276 075
583 774
Austria
Bohemia
275,907
156 891
123,271
118 106
38,663
85 361
30' 508
40 289
25,061
'946
Poland
b 383, 407
147, 440
48,557
14,436
7,298
Hungary
145 714
62 435
11 526
3 737
East Europe
486, 367
182,644
35, 722
4,644
3,160
1,414
Finland.
62,641
Russia
423 726
182 644
35 722
4 644
3 KJO
1 414
Southwest Europe
625 882
317 935
164 932
141 997
129 907
62 135
Portugal
30,608
15 996
8,138
4 542
4 116
1,'274
Spain
7 050
6 185
5 288
3 841
4 944
3 113
France
104, 197
113, 174
106,971
116 402
109 870
54, 069
Italy
484 027
182 580
44 535
17 212
11 677
3 679
Southeast Europe
33, 457
3,726
1,981
692
456
192
Greece
8 516
1,887
776
390
328
86
Turkey
9,910
1,839
1,205
302
128
106
Roumania
15,032
Europe (not specified)
2,251
12, 579
3,314
1,546
1,403
America, outside United States
Canada
1,317,265
c 1, 179 807
1,088,245
cggO 938
807, 230
dill 157
551,335
d493 464
288, 285
d249 970
168,484
d!47 711
English
784, 741
678, 442
French
395 066
302 496
West Indies
e 25, 435
23,256
16, 401
11,570
7,353
5,772
Cuba...
11, 081
6,917
5,319
Other West Indies. . .
14, 354
9,484
6,251
Mexico
103, 393
77, 853
68,399
42, 435
27, 466
13,317
Central America
3,897
1,192
707
301
233
141
South America. . .
4,733
5,006
4,566
3,565
3,263
1,543
Asia .'.
120, 248
113, 383
107, 630
64 565
36, 796
1,135
Japan
24 788
2 292
401
73
China
81,534
106,688
104, 468
63, 042
35, 565
758
India
2,031
2,143
1,707
586
Asia (not specified)
Africa
11,895
2,538
2,260
2,207
1,054
2,204
864
2,657
1,231
526
377
551
Australia
6 807
5 984
4 906
3,118
1,419
Oceanic islands
11, 781
13, 108
9,594
5,344
2,082
/588
Atlantic
9,768
9,739
7,641
4,434
1,361
Pacific
2, 013
3 3, 309
9 1,953
0910
0721
/588
Ail others
ft 10, 742
ft 6, 012
ft 4, 068
ft 3, 592
ft 3, 984
ft 8, 214
a Not including Indian Territory.
&In the census of 1900 the number of persons born in Poland is given as follows: Poland (Austrian)
58,497; Poland (German) 150,210; Poland (Russian) 154,376; Poland (unknown) 20,324.
c Includes Newfoundland.
d British America.
t Not including Porto Rico.
/ Hawaii only.
g Includes Hawaii,
ft Includes persons born abroad but country not specified, and persons born at sea under a foreign flag.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
135
Of the 2,210,839 foreign-born in continental United States in 1850,
the Irish constituted 43.5 per cent, the Germans 26.4 per cent, and
the English 12.6 per cent, these three peoples together furnishing
82.5 per cent of the total. In 1900, however, these three constituted
less than half (49.5 per cent) of the total foreign-born. The Irish
had declined from 43.5 to 15.6 per cent and the English from 12.6
to 8.1 percent, while the Germans more nearly held their ground
during the half century, furnishing over one-fourth (25.8 per cent)
of the total immigrant population in 1900, a decline of less than 1
per cent below the proportion in 1850. While immigrants from the
United Kingdom decreased in proportion from 60.6 to 26.9 per cent
in fifty years, their neighbors, the Scandinavians, increased from 0.8
per cent in 1850 to 10.3 per cent in 1900, Sweden alone furnishing
5.5 per cent of the total foreign-born.
An equally conspicuous gain is that of immigrants from east Europe
(including Finland and Russia, exclusive of Russian Poland), who con-
stituted less than 1 per cent (0.5 per cent), or 35,722 persons, in 1880,
but 4.7 per cent in 1900. In 1880 Italian immigrants furnished only
44,535, or 0.7 per cent of the total immigrant population, but in 1890
2 per cent, and in 1900, 4.7 per cent. In 1900 immigrants from the
three countries of southeast Europe (Greece, Turkey, and Roumania)
constituted only 0.3 per cent of the total, or 33,457 persons, the tide
from this quarter appearing to have set in about twenty years later
than that from Russia and thirty years after that from Italy. From
countries outside of Europe there has been little increase or decrease
in proportion of immigrants in the United States except in the case
of Canada, the immigrants from that country constituting 6.7 per cent
of the total in 1850, and 11.4 per cent in 1900.
The following table shows the increase of foreign-born from each
contributing geographic division in each decade from 1850 to 1900:
TABLE 11. — Increase in foreign-born population, by census decade and country of birth:
1850 to 1900.
Country of birth.
1890 to
1900.«
1880 to
1890.«
1870 to
1880.
1860 to
1870.
1850 to
1860.
All foreign countries
1,091,729
2, 569, 604
1,112,714
1 428,436
1 927,954
Europe
851 287
2 276 297
807 693
1 130 917
1 773 834
Northwest Europe
& 210, 871
843, 729
344 505
596 265
912 774
United Kingdom
b 339 829
350 742
145 928
427 162
858 267
Ireland . . .
' b 256, 050
16, 938
b 1,256
244 523
649 585
Wales
6 6 493
16 777
8 769
28 770
15 895
England
b 68 579
244 932
109 114
1°1 552
154 819
Scotland . .
&8 707
72 095
29 301
32 317
37 968
Scandinavia
128, 958
492,987
198,577
169, 103
54,507
Denmark. .
21,262
68 347
34 089
20 145
8 124
Norway
13 723
140 936
67 483
70 251
31 317
Sweden
93 973
283 704
97 005
78 707
15 066
Central Europe
431 085
1 121 633
406 118
520 699
789 875
Holland
23 103
23 738
11 288
18 521
18 433
Belgium.
7 118
7 104
2 982
3 481
7 759
Luxemburg
149
b 9, 954
7,034
Switzerland
11,524
15, 448
13 468
21,826
39 969
Germany
6 121,476
818 152
276 209
414 458
692 301
Austria
152 636
84 608
8 155
5 447
24 115
Bohemia. .
38,785
32' 745
45 072
Poland
235 967
98 883
34 121
7 i3g
Hungary
83,279
50, 909
7,789
East Europe. ..
303 723
146 922
31 078
1 484
1 746
Russia. .
241.082
146. 922
31.078
1.484
l!746
Not including Indian Territory in 1890.
b Decrease.
136
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 11. — Increase in foreign-born population, by census decade and by country of birth:
1850 to 1900— Continued.
Country of birth.
1890 to
1900. a
1880 to
lS90.a
1870 to
1880.
1860 to
1870.
1850 to
1860.
Europe — Continued .
Southwest Europe
307,947
14,612
865
b 8, 977
301,447
29, 731
6,628
8,071
b 10, 328
229,020
198,869
106,299
153,003
7,858
897
6,203
138, 045
1,745
1,111
634
9,265
281,015
263,781
22,935
3,596
1,447
6 9, 431
27,323
1,289
386
903
1,768
255,895
223, 693
12,090
426
M03
6,532
5,535
236
62
174
143
263,050
243, 494
67,772
2,842
1,131
55,801
7,998
264
242
22
Portugal . .
Spain
France
Italy
Southeast Europe
Greece
Turkey
Europe (not specified)
ATnerica, outside United States.
119,801
102,259
Canada
English .
French
92,570
2,179
Westlndies
6,855
4,831
1,598
4,217
1,581
Cuba
Other West Indies
3,233
|
Mexico
25,540
2,705
b273
6,865
22,496
& 25, 154
&112
9,635
331
823
b 1,327
29
b.1,356
4,730
9,454
485
440
5,753
1,891
2,220
436
1,206
3
1,078
3,514
2,098
1,41-6
1,944
25, 964
406
1,001
43,065
328
41,426
1,121
190
&453
1,788
4,250
3, 207
1,043
476
14,9(i9
68
302
27, 769
14,149
92
1,720
35,661
Central America
South America
Asia •
Japan
China. . .
27, 477
34,807
India
Asia (not specified)
&367
2,131
1,699
3,262
3,073
189
*>392
854
625
Africa
Australia
Oceanic islands
(c)
Atlantic
Pacific
(c)
- b 4, 230
A 11 others d
a Not including Indian Territory in 1890.
b Decrease.
cNo increase estimated for the decade 1850-1860, since in 1850 the Oceanic and Pacific islands included
Hawaii only,
d Includes persons born abroad but country not specified, and persons born at sea under a foreign flag.
The foregoing table presents an interesting record of the character
of the increase of foreign-born population from census to census.
For the first decade, 1850 to 1860, the countries furnishing the largest
portions of the total increase were Germany and Ireland, with over
600,000 each, and England and Canada. For the second decade, 1860
to 1870, the leading countries in this regard were Germany, with over
400,000, Ireland and Canada, with over 200,000 each, and England.
For the third decade, 1870 to 1880, the leading countries were Ger-
many, with nearly 300,000, Canada, with over 200,000, and England.
For the fourth decade, 1880 to 1890, they were Germany, with over
800,000, Sweden, Canada, and England, with over 200,000 each, and
Russia, Norway, and Italy. For the fifth decade, 1890 to 1900, they
were Italy, with 300,000, Russia and Poland, with over 200,000 each,
and Canada and Austria. During this decade, for the first time, there
appear large decreases, especially among the leading countries of the
earlier decades. Ireland lost 250,000, Germany over 100,000, and
England 70,000.
The table following shows the per cent of increase of foreign-born
in each decade, by country of birth.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
137
TABLE 12 —Per cent of increase in foreign-born population, by census decade and country
of birth: 1850 to 1900.
Country of birth.
All foreign countries =
1890 to
1900.o
1880 to
1890.a
1870 to 1880.
1860 to 1870.
1850 to 1860.
11.8
38.5
20.0
34.5
87.2
10.6
• 65.2
610.9
613.7
66.5
67.5
63.6
13.8
16.0
4.3
19.7
12.5
28.2
31.4
5.2
11.1
64.4
123.8
32.8
160.0
133.4
166.3
132.0
96.9
91.3
14.0
67.9
165.1
797.9
351.2
438.9
682.1
21.0
20.3
15.7
30.6
9.4
39.6
26.3
12.7
.9
20.1
36.9
42.4
112.0
106.5
77.6
146.0
48.2
40.9
45.7
677.5
17.4
41.6
218.8
38.4
203.6
441.7
411.3
411.3
92.8
96.6
17.0
5.8
310.0
88.1
143.2
52.6
279.6
34.8
36.8
16.4
12.0
5.6
6.1
11.8
19.7
20.8
82.2
113.2
59.1
99.7
21.2
24.1
23.8
121.2
17.9
16.3
26.7
111.9
236.4
208.4
669.2
669.2
16.2
79.2
37.7
68.1
158.7
186.3
99.0
299.0
114.4
46.4
45.3
29.7
26.2
19.4
15.2
62.9
28.0
29.8
233.0
202.2
159.7
422.6
37.2
65.5
38.4
87.3
67.2
64.0
67.5
53.2
55.6
53.8
301.6
442.0
247.0
423.3
129.6
187.2
590.9
Northwest Europe
United Kingdom
Ireland .
Wales
England
Scotland
Denmark
Norway
Sweden
Central Europe
Holland
Belgium
Luxemburg
Switzerland.... . .
40.9
32.5
21.7
299.2
118.6
2,549.2
Germany
Austria ~
Bohemia
Poland
97.8
Hungary
East Europe . .
47.0
47.0
9.3
10.3
69.5
5.9
47.4
51.8
18.9
* 135.9
10.2
91.2
97.4
123.5
123.5
109.1
223.1
36.3
103.2
217.4
137.5
281.4
20.8
Russia
Southwest Europe
Portugal
Spain
France . . . . ...
Italy
Southeast Europe
jQ reece
Turkey.
Europe (not specified)
America, outside United States
71.1
69.2
Canada
English
French
West Indies...
41.8
41.8
30.0
51.7
61.2
134.9
28.1
66.7
449.4
65.7
191.3
22.0
617.0
57.3
79.5
72.3
114.6
13.3
57.4
27.4
Cuba '
Other West Indies
Mexico
32.8
226.9
65.5
6.1
981.5
623.6
65.2
426.3
15.0
13.8
610.1
.3
640.2
78.7
13.8
68.6
9.6
5.3
471.6
2.1
25.5
114.4
.1
22.0
36.6
27.5
72.5
47.8
54.5
29.2
9.3
75.5
106.2
65.2
111.5
3,141.9
Central America
South America ... .
Asia
Japan . . .
China
77.3
4,592.0
India
Asia (not specified)
Africa
629.8
405.1
119.7
156.7
225.8
26.2
69.8
226.5
64.5
Australia ,
Oceanic islands
(c)
Atlantic
Pacific
(c)
61761.7
All others d
a Not including Indian Territory in 1890.
6 Decrease.
c No increase estimated for the decade 1850-1860, since in 1850 the Oceanic and Pacific islands included
Hawaii only.
d Includes persons born abroad but country not specified, and persons born at sea under a foreign flag.
72289° — VOL 1—11-
-10
138 The Immigration Commission.
Although the foregoing percentages are very interesting as showing
general immigration currents, they are apt to be misleading unless
studied in relation to the absolute numbers which they represent.
For instance, the increase of 4,592 per cent in number of Chinese
during the first decade, 1850 to I860, represented in absolute figures
an increase of 34,807 persons, while in the decade 1870 to 1880, wiien
the increase in numbers was larger, being 41,426, the increase in
percentage was notably less, being 65.7 per cent.
In northwest Europe Irish immigration was the earliest and also
the first to subside, there being a decrease of 0.1 per cent during
the decade 1870 to 1880. The Welsh, Scotch, and English show a
decrease for the first time from 1890 to 1900. The increase in Scan-
dinavians bids fair to change to a decrease; especially is this true of
the Norwegians, who show only a 4.3 per cent increase during the
decade 1890 to 1900.
In central Europe Germany has been the most important source
of immigration since 1850, but during the decade 1890 to 1900 there
was a decrease of 4.4 per cent in number of German immigrants in the
United States, although in the preceding decade the increase was 41.6
per cent, representing nearly a million persons (818,152). The
Bohemians, though of the earlier immigration, still increase steadily,
the last decade showing a 32.8 per cent increase. Austria and
Hungary, sources of recent immigration, show increases of 123.8 and
133.4 per cent, respectively, during the decade 1890 to 1900. The rate
of increase of persons born in what was formerly Poland (including
Austrian, Prussian, and Kussian Poland) was 160 per cent during the
decade 1890 to 1900.
Other European countries which may be looked to as sources of
future immigration show percentage increases in the decade 1890 to
1900 as follows: Russia (including Finland), 166.3; Portugal, 91.3;
Italy, 165.1; Greece, 351.2, and Turkey, 438.9.
Canada and Mexico are steady contributors to our population,
showing increases of 20.3 and 32.8 per cent, respectively, during the
decade 1890 to 1900.
Chinese immigration came to a standstill during the decade 1880 to
1890, after the first exclusion laws were passed in 1882, and in the
decade 1890 to 1900 the Chinese in the United States decreased 23.6
per cent. Japanese immigration has just begun to be numerically
significant, as indicated by an increase of 981.5 per cent during the
decade 1890 to 1900, or 22,496 persons.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
139
CONCENTRATION IN CITIES.
DISTRIBUTION BY CLASS OP PLACE OF RESIDENCE.
In 1900 the 10,341,276 foreign-born residing in continental United
States were distributed by class of place of residence as indicated in
the following table:
TABLE 13. — Distribution of foreign-born population of continental United States, by
class of place of residence: 1900.
Class of place of residence.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Total
10,341,276
100.0
Cities of 2 500 or over
6, 859, 078
66.3
100 000 or over
4,008,085
38.8
°5 000 to 100,000
1,122,196
10.8
8 000 to 25 000
953,827
9.2
4 000 to 8,000
479,866
4.6
2 500 to 4 000
295,104
2.9
3 482 198
33 7
From the preceding table it will be seen that 38.8 per cent of the
foreign-born population of continental United States in 1900 resided
in cities having at least 100,000 inhabitants. The percentage in
cities having a population of from 25,000 to 100,000 was 10.8, making
the total percentage in cities having at least 25,000 inhabitants 49.6,
or practically one-half. The percentage in smaller cities, having a
population of from 2,500 to 25,000, was 16.7, or one-sixth, and in
country districts 33.7, or one- third.
To gauge the degree of concentration in cities indicated by these
percentages, it is necessary to introduce corresponding percentages
for the native population, which is done in the following table:
TABLE 14. — Per cent distribution of native and foreign born population of continental
United States, by class of place of residence: 1900.
Class of place of residence.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total
100.0
100.0
Cities of 2,500 or over .
36.1
66.3
100,000 or over
15.5
6.7
6.6
4.4
2.9
38.8
10.8
9.2
4.6
2.9
25,000 to 100,000.
8,000 to 25,000
4.000 to 8,000
2,500 to 4,000
Smaller cities and countr
y districts
63.9
33.7
The preceding table shows clearly that the foreign-born population
of continental United States is concentrated in cities to a much
greater degree than the native population. Of the total foreign-born
population; 66.3 per cent reside in cities having a population of at
140
The Immigration Commission.
least 2,500, but only 36.1 per cent of the native population are so
classed. The larger the cities, the greater the disparity between the
percentages of foreign-born population and of native population
residing in such cities.
The following table exhibits the concentration of foreign-born in
cities from a somewhat different angle. There is shown the total
population for each class of cities and for country districts in conti-
nental United States, the foreign-born population, and the ratio of
foreign-born to total.
TABLE 15. — Total population and number and per cent of foreign-born, in continental
United States, by class of place of residence: 1900.
Class of place of residence.
Total
population.
Foreign-born.
Number.
Per cento
Total
75,994,575
10,341,276
13.6
Cities of 2 500 or over
30,583,411
6,859,078
22.4
100,000 or over
14,208,347
5.509,965
5,273,887
3, 380, 193
2,211,019
4,008,085
1,122,196
953,827
479, 866
295.104
28.2
20.4
18.1
14.2
13.3
25,000 to 100,000
8,000 to 25.000...
4 000 to 8 000
2,500 to 4.000
Smaller cities and country districts j 45, 411, 164
5,482,198
7.7
The ratio of the foreign-born population to the total population of
continental United States is shown by the preceding table to be 13.6
per cent. The percentage for cities having at least 2,500 inhabitants
is 22.4 and that for country districts is 7.7. The percentage of
foreign-born is thus three times as great in cities as in country
districts. By class of city, the percentage of foreign-born decreases
regularly with the size of city. In cities of at least 100,000 popula-
tion the percentage of foreign-born is 28.2; in cities of 25,000 to
100,000 it is 20.4; in cities of 8,000 to 25,000, 18.1; in cities of 4,000 to
8,000, 14.2; and in cities of 2,500 to 4,000, 13.3.
The next table compares the native white of native parentage,
native white of foreign parentage, and foreign-born white, as regards
the number and percentage residing, in 1900, in cities having at least
25,000 inhabitants. Figures for foreign-born white are used in pref-
erence to those for all foreign-born, as furnishing a more accurate
basis of comparison with native white population.
TABLE 16. — White population in cities of continental United States, by nativity: 1900.
Nativity.
Total
white
population.
In cities having a pop-
ulation of 25,000 or
over.
Number.
Per cent.
Total
66,809,196
18,529,154
27.7
Native-born (both pa
Native-born (one or b
Foreign-born
rents native-born)
40,949,362
15,646,017
10,213,817
6,621,617
6,833,875
5,073,662
16.2
43.6
49.7
oth parents foreign-born)
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
141
The preceding table shows that the greater the remove of a class
from native white stock the greater is the percentage of that class
in large cities. The proportion of each class of white population in
cities of the specified size in 1900 is as follows: Native white of native
parentage, 16.2 per cent; native white of foreign parentage (i. e., first
remove), 43.6 per cent; foreign-born white (i. e., second remove),
49.7 per cent. The percentage for the three classes combined is 27.7.
The table next presented shows the increase in native and foreign
born population, 1890 to 1900, and the extent to which this increase
is found in cities and in country districts :
TABLE 17. — Number and per cent distribution of native and foreign born population, and
number and per cent of increase, by class of place of residence: 1890 and 1900.
Class of place of residence.
Population.
Increase, 1890-1900.
Native-born.
Foreign-born.
1900.
1890.
1900.
1890.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total
65,653,299
53, 698, 154
10,341,276
9,249,560
11,955,145
1,091,716
Cities of 2,500 or over
100,000 or over
23,724,333
16,880,232
6,859,078
5, 679, 135
6,844,101
1,179,943
10,200,262
4, 387, 769
4, 320, 060
2,900,327
1,915,915
6,613,312
3,294,321
3,357,180
2, 020, 453
1,594,958
4,008,085
1. 122, 196
953, 827
479,866
295, 104
3, 084, 648
997, 279
897,877
428, 846
270, 485
3, 586, 950
1,093,440
962, 880
879,874
320,957
923, 437
124,917
55,950
51,020
24, 619
25,000 to 100,000
8 000 to 25,000
4,000 to 8,000
2,500 to 4,000
Smaller cities and country
districts
41,928,966
36,817,922
3, 482, 198
3, 570, 425
5,111,044
o88,227
Class of place of residence.
Per cent distribution of population.
Per cent of increase,
1890-1900.
Native-born.
Foreign-born.
1900.
1890.
1900.
1890.
Native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
22.3
11.8
Cities of 2,500 or over
36.1
31.4
66.3
61.4
40.5
20.8
100,000 or over
15.5
6.7
6.6
4.4
2.9
12.3
6.1
6.3
3.7
3.0
38.8
10.8
9.2
4.6
2.9
33.4
10.8
9.7
4.6
2.9
54.2
33.2
28.7
43.5
20.1
29.9
12.5
6.2
11.9
9.1
25,000 to 100,000
8,000 to 25,000. .
4,000 to 8,000
2,500 to 4,000
Smaller cities and country
districts
63.9
68.6
33.7
38.6
13.9
a 2. 5
a Decrease.
The preceding table shows that of a total of 10,341,276 foreign-
born persons in continental United States in 1900, 6,859,078, or 66.3
per cent, resided in cities of 2,500 or over. The number residing in
smaller cities and in country districts, 3,482,198, constituted 33.7
per cent, or slightly over one-third, of the total foreign-born. Almost
exactly inverse proportions are found among the native population,
however, 63.9 per cent of a total of -65,653,299 residing in the smaller
cities and country districts, and 36.1 per cent in the larger cities.
142 The Immigration Commission.
Of the total native population 15.5 per ce.nt were in cities of over
100,000; of the total foreign-born 38.8 per cent were in such cities.
Comparing the figures for 1890 and 1900 it will be seen that in
cities of 100,000 or over the native population shows an increase of
3,586,950, or a percentage increase of 54.2. This was sufficient to
cause an advance in the proportion living in such cities from 12.3
per cent of the total native in 1890 to 15.5 per cent in 1900. The
number of foreign-born living in cities of 100,000 increased 29.9
per cent between 1890 and 1900 and the proportion in cities of this
size advanced from 33.4 per cent of the total foreign-born in 1890 to
38.8 per cent in 1900.
These figures indicate that there was a tendency toward concen-
tration in the largest cities on the part of both native and foreign
born. In the smaller cities and country districts, however, although
the native-born show an absolute increase of 5,111,044, or 13.9 per
cent, the foreign-born show a decrease of 2.5 per cent. The increase
in native population in country districts was not sufficient to maintain
its position relative to the large city population, however, the pro-
portion in country districts declining from 68.6 per cent of the total
in 1890 to 63.9 per cent in 1900.
The increase in foreign-born is an increase in city population
entirely, and mostly in large city population. The increase in native-
born, however, was more equally proportioned between cities and
country districts.
These figures for native-born* include negroes, native whites of
native parentage, and native whites of foreign parentage, and there-
fore do not throw any light upon the relative positions of native
whites of native parentage and those of foreign parentage. The
growth and distribution of these two classes of whites in comparison
with foreign whites are shown in the table following.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
143
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144 The Immigration Commission.
When the native white population is separated into two classes a
striking contrast is seen in the distribution between city and country,
for while 29.9 per cent of the native white of native parentage are in
cities of at least 2,500 population and 70.1 per cent in the country,
the distribution of the native white of foreign parentage shows 60.5
per cent in such cities and only 39.5 per cent in the country. The
foreign-born white show a larger measure of concentration in cities
than either of the other classes, 66.4 per cent of them being in cities
and 33.6 per cent in the country. It should be noted that the word
cities as here used is restricted to the cities having not less than 2,500
inhabitants, while the term country includes the smaller cities as well
as the distinctively country districts.
Comparing 1890 and 1900 it will be seen that native whites of
foreign parentage show the highest rates of increase in both city and
country, or 40 per cent and 23.1 per cent, respectively. The increases
for native whites of native parentage were 37.4 per cent in city popu-
lation and 12.3 per cent in the country. The foreign white popula-
tion increased 21 per cent in cities, but show a decrease of 2.4 per
cent in the country.
If the increases in city and country are considered relative to the
total increases it will be found that of a total increase of 6,473,646
in the native whites of native parentage, the cities of 100,000 or over
contributed 1,481,028, or slightly over one-fifth, and the country
3,138,162, or nearly one-half. Among native whites of foreign par-
entage, of a total increase of 4,142,342 persons, 1,870,766, or slightly
less than one-half, represented an increase in cities of at least 100,000
population, and 1,160,591, or a little over one-fourth, an increase in
the country. Among foreign white, however, the net increase of
1,091,950 persons is almost all accounted for by the increase of
925,791 in cities of 100,000 or over, while in the country there was.
a decrease of 85,594 foreign white. The increase of foreign white
was exclusively an increase of city population ; the increase of native
whites of foreign parentage was over two-thirds in the cities, while
the increase of native whites of native parentage was nearly one-
half in the country, this last proportion being, however, somewhat
lower than might be expected when the fact is considered that 74.1
per cent of this class were in the country in 1890.
CONCENTRATION BY PRINCIPAL FOREIGN NATIONALITIES.
The " principal foreign nationalities" include 16 European and the
2 Canadian nationalities that have emigrated to the United States
in greatest numbers.
The following table gives the number of each principal foreign
nationality residing in continental United States in 1900, and the
percentage in cities having in 1890 a population of 25,000 or over.
This table utilizes the 1890 classification of cities in order to furnish
a basis of comparison with the corresponding percentages for the
year 1890.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
145
TABLE 19. — Number and per cent of total population of continental United States in
cities having in 1890 a population of 25,000 or over, by country of birth: 1900.
Country of birth.
Total in
1900.
In cities having a population of
25,000 or over in 1890.
Number
in 1900.
Per cent
in 1900.
Per cent
in 1890.
All countries
75,994,575
18, 582, 151
24.5
22.3
Continental United States
65, 653, 299
10,341,276
13,691,377
4,890,774
20.9
47.3
18.6
44.1
All foreign countries
Russia
486, 367
484, 027
383,407
1,615,459
156, 891
275, 907
2,663,418
104, 197
145,714
840, 513
233, 524
784, 741
115, 593
395, 066
572,014
93, 586
153, 803
336,388
320, 368
296, 040
6229,887
966, 189
80, 498
136,915
1,297,474
50,105
69, 440
369,776
101,884
291,332
39, 534
132, 253
187,496
26, 540
37,439
70,845
73.4
61.2
60.0
59.8
51.3
49.6
48.7
48.1
47.7
44.0
43.6
37.1
34.2
33.5
32.8
28.4
24.3
21.1
a 57. 9
58.8
57.1
56.0
48.3
48.3
47.7
45.7
44.8
40.7
41.2
c31.4
31.2
(c)
31.8
25.8
23.2
20.8
Italy
Poland
Ireland
Bohemia
Austria
Germany
France
Hungary
England
Scotland
Canada (English)
Switzerland
Canada (French)
Sweden
Wales
Denmark
Norway . . .
a Including Finland.
6 Including German, Austrian, and Russian Poland, and Poland unknown.
c French and English Canadians not given separately in 1890.
It will be seen from the foregoing table that the nationalities vary
greatly in their tendency to concentrate in large cities. Probably
this is mainly due to differences in national characteristics, although
to some degree it may be attributable to differences in periods of
immigration. The Russians, with 73.4 per cent in large cities, the
Italians, with 61.2 per cent, and the Poles, with 60 per cent, are all of
the newer class of immigrants. On the other hand, the Danes and
Norwegians, who have the smallest percentage in cities, were by no
means the earliest immigrants to this country. The Germans, who
are numerically the most important of the 18 nationalities, and
represent an earlier immigration, reside in large cities to the extent
of 48.7 per cent, a percentage almost exactly midway between the
highest and lowest in the table. The Irish, who are the second most
important nationality, have the high percentage of 59.8, although
they are of an older class of immigrants and might be expected to be
considerably dispersed. The third most important nationality, the
English, are also an older type of immigrants, and have the com-
paratively low percentage of 44. A comparison of the figures for
1890 and 1900 showTs an increasing percentage in cities for every
nationalit}^ as well as for the total population.
146
The Immigration Commission.
AGE.
The following table shows the distribution of each age group, by
nativity :
TABLE 20. — Per cent distribution of each age group, in continental United States, by
nativity: 1900.
Age group.
Native
white
(both
parents
native-
born).
Native
white (one
or both
parents
foreign-
born).
Foreign
white.
Total col-
ored. «
All ages
53.9
20.6
13.4
12 1
Under 5
59. G
26.2
.6
13.6
5 to 9
58.3
26.1
1.7
13 9
10 to 14
57 7
24 6
3 9
13 9
15 to 19
56.0
23.1
7.4
13.4
20 to 24
51.9
21 9
12 5
13 7
25 to 29
49.1
22.3
16.8
11.7
30 to 34
47.9
21.1
21.1
9 9
35 to 39 ^
46.3
19.8
23.7
10.2
40 to 44 . ....
49.6
18.4
22.7
9.3
45 to 49
51 7
13 8
24 3
10 1
50 to 54.
52.7
9.5
27.3
10.5
55 to 59
54.5
7 9
29.1
8.6
60 to C4
53.9
6.1
30.4
9.5
65 to 09
55.3
4.9
31.5
8.2
70 to 74
55 3
2
31 9
8 C
75 to 79
57.0
.3
30.6
8.1
80 to 84
57.4
.5
27.5
10.7
85 or over
53 9
G
23 9
17 5
Age unknown
55.9
.1
12.4
27.7
a Negro, Indian, and Mongolian.
American stock of native white parentage constitutes 53.9 per cent
of the total population of the United States. The highest percent-
age (59.6) of this class is found in the group of persons under 5 years,
the proportion by age groups regularly decreasing until the group
"35 to 39 years " is reached, which group stands lowest in percent-
age (46.3) of native white parentage. Thereafter, until the age of
85 years is reached, there is a gradual though irregular rise.
The proportion of native white persons of foreign parentage, also,
is largest (26.2 per cent) in the age group ' 'under 5 years." With
the exception of one group (25 to 29 years), every group shows a
decrease as the age increases until the age of 75 years is reached.
Just the opposite is true of the foreign-born white (immigrants),
however, the age group "under 5 years" constituting less than 1 per
cent (0.6), and an increase in per cent of the total population taking
place with every advance by age group except one (40 to 44 years),
until the age of 75 years is reached, the highest percentage being 31.9
in the group "70 to 74 years."
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to* 1900.
147
The following table shows the per cent distribution, by age group,
of the population comprised in each class of nativity:
TABLE 21. — Population and per cent distribution, in continental United States, by na-
tivity and age group: 1900.
Population.
Age group.
All
classes.
Native
white
(both par-
ents native-
born).
Native
white (one
or both
parents
foreign-
born).
Foreign
white.
Total
colored.**
\
All ages &
75,793,990
40,837,331
15,637,876
10,188,937
9,129,847
Under 20
33, 681, 074
28,632,443
10,399,976
3,080,498
19, 534, 444
14,077,733
5,509,927
1,715,226
8, 453, 389
6,003,381
1,039,9SO
14i; 146
1,072,872
5,334,072
2,831,646
950,347
4, 620, 369
3,217,257
1,018,442
273,779
20 to 44
45 to 64 ...
65 or over
Age group.
Per cent distribution.
All
classes.
Native
white
(both par-
ents native-
born).
Native
white (one
or both
parents
foreign-
born).
Foreign
white.
Total
colored, a
Allagesb
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Under 20...
44.4
37.8
13.7
4.1
47.8
34.5
13.5
4.2
54.1
38.4
6.6
.9
10.5
52.4
27.8-
9.3
50.6
35.2
11.2
3.0
20 to 44
45«to 64
65 or over..
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian.
Exclusive of persons of unknown age.
Of the total population of the United States, 44.4 per cent, or 9 of
every 20 persons, are under 20 years of age, while the number of those
in the most active period of life (20 to 44 years of age) constitutes
37.8 per cent, or over one-third of the total population.
Among the native whites having both parents native there is a
slightly higher percentage (47.8) under 20 years of age, while the
percentage (34.5) from 20 to 44 years of age is lower than the corre-
sponding proportion in the total population.
Among the foreign-born white the proportion in the active period
of life (20 to 44) constitutes over one-half (52.4 per cent) of the total
foreign white population. Considering the fact that only 10.5 per
cent of this class are under 20 years of age, it would seem that the net
productivity or economic gain from this class would be greater than
from any other if considered alone. However, in this connection
must be considered the second generation of foreign parentage,
represented by the native whites having one or both parents foreign-
born. Of this class 54.1 per cent, or more than one-half of the total,
are under 20 years of age. Nevertheless this class has a larger per-
centage (38.4) in the most active period of life (20 to 44) than has the
class of whites of native parentage, and a smaller percentage over 45
years of age than either of the other classes of white population.
148
The Immigration Commission.
The colored population has about the same percentage (35.2) in
the age group 20 to 44 years as have the native whites of native par-
entage, but a larger percentage (50.6) under 20 years of age, and a
slightly less proportion over 45 years of age, or 14.2 per cent as com-
pared with 17.7 per cent among the native whites of native parentage.
VOTING AGE AND CITIZENSHIP.
The figures for voting age and citizenship are not, of course,
restricted to the number of actual voters, but comprise all those of
the male sex who would be eligible to vote apart from educational,
residential, or other limitations imposed by the national and state
governments.
The following table shows the per cent increase of males of voting
age, by nativity:
TABLE 22. — Per cent increase of males of voting age, by nativity: 1890 toj.900.
Nativity.
Males of voting age.
Increase.
1900.
1890.
Number.
Per cent.
Total a
21,102,982
16,940.311
4,162,671
24.6
Native white (both, parents native-born)
10, 535, 748
3,458,556
4; 914, 173
2,194,505
8,807,223
2,150,273
4,242,360
1,740,455
1,728,525
1,308,283
671, 813
454,050
19.6
60.8
15.8
26.1
Native white (one or both parents foreign-born)
Foreign white
Colored b . ...
a Exclusive of Indian Territory and Indian reservations.
b Negro, Indian, and Mongolian.
From the foregoing table it will be seen that native white males
of native parentage at least 21 years of age show an increase of
1,728,525, or 19.6 per cent, during the decade. The native white
of foreign parentage show a smaller numerical increase, 1,308,283,
but their percentage increase, 60.8, was over three times as large as
that of the whites of native parentage. Immigrant whites increased
only 15.8 per cent, or 671,813 in actual numbers, while the colored
races show an increase of 26.1 per cent, or slightly over one-fourth.
The following table shows, for the States specified, the per cent
foreign-born in the male population 21 years of age or over, 1890 and
1900.
Distribution of Immigrants, i850 to 1900.
149
TABLE 23. — Per cent of foreign-born in ihe total male population 21 years of age or over
of specified States: 1890 and 1900.
Male population 21 years of age or over.
States.a
1900.
1890.
Total.
Foreign-born.
Total.
Foreign-born.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Continental United States...
North Dakota
21,134,299
5,010,286
23.7
16,940,311
4,348,459
25.7
95,217
506,794
570,715
101,931
127, 144
544,087
843,465
17,710
112,681
2,184,965
280,340
67, 172
719,478
555, 608
195,572
1,401,456
44,081
301,091
37,898
144,446
53,932
185,708
1,817,239
130,987
635,298
108. 356
1,212,223
217,663
413,786
55,067
321,903
856,684
54,018
83,823
737,768
720,206
55,873
261,026
257,527
43,694
54,324
225,270
347, 731
7,187
45,602
838, 136
107,092
25,233
262, 125
198, 161
69,382
468,882
13,775
91,130
11,335
42,523
15,747
51,773
487, 149
34,888
158,025
20,891
226,254
38,732
67,025
7,585
42,687
113,025
6,816
10, 101
87, 169
73,317
58.7
51.5
45.1
42.9
42.7
41.4
41.2
40.6
40.5
38.4
38.2
37.6
36.4
35.7
35.5
33.5
31.2
30.3
29.9
29.4
29.2
27.9
26.8
26.6
24.9
19.3
18.7
17.8
16.2
13.8
13.3
13.2
12.6
12.1
11.8
10.2
55,959
376,036
461,722
65,415
100,017
462,289
665,009
20,951
96,765
1,769,649
224,092
54,471
617,445
413, 530
146,918
1,072,663
23, 696
301,500
27,044
111,744
31,490
164,920
1,461,869
118,135
520,332
101,697
1,016,464
201,241
383,231
44,951
270,738
705,718
47,559
64,505
535,942
595,066
36,314
221,309
244,384
29,973
40,185
232, 135
257,094
10,770
42,914
685,462
78,419
24, 525
248, 317
145,047
57,950
390,317
10,031
95,875
9,192
37,415
11,705
50,340
397,440
26,047
155,670
19,686
218,841
30,470
73,065
6,757
42,589
120,737
6,152
9,242
75,248
73,358
64.9
58.9
52.9
45.8
40.2
50.2
38.7
51.4
44.3
38.7
35.0
45.0
40.2
35.1
39.4
36.4
42.3
31.8
34.0
33.5
37.2
30.5
27.2
22.0
29.9
19.4
21.5
15.1
19.1
15.0
15.7
17.1
12.9
14.3
14.0
12.3
Minnesota
Montana
Rhode Island
California
Massachusetts
Nevada
South Dakota
New York
Connecticut
Utah
Michigan
New Jersey
Washington
Illinois
Arizona .
Nebraska
Wyoming
Oregon
Idaho
Colorado
Pennsylvania
New Hampshire. _ _
Iowa
Vermont
Ohio
Maine
Kansas
New Mexico
Maryland .
Missouri
Delaware
District of Columbia
Texas
Indiana
a States in which at least 10 per cent of the total male population 21 years of age or over in 1900 was
foreign-born.
The four States having the highest percentages of foreign-born in
the total male population of voting age are North Dakota (58.7 per
cent), Minnesota (51.5 per cent), Wisconsin (45.1 per cent), and
Montana (42.9 per cent), all these States touching the Canadian
border between the Rocky Mountains and Lake Michigan. The
States with the largest numbers of foreign-born of voting age are
New York with 838,136, Pennsylvania with 487,140, Illinois with
468,882, and Massachusetts with 347,731, these figures constituting
38.4, 26.8, 33.5, and 41.2 per cent of the total male populations of
voting age in the respective States. The States with the lowest per-
centages are generally in the South or Middle West.
Comparing 1900 with 1890 it will be seen that decreases in the per
cent of foreign-born are the rule, increases occurring in only six
States, viz, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey,
New Hampshire, and Maine.
The table next presented shows the per cents naturalized or having
first papers in the foreign-born population 21 years of age or over of
specified States.
150
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 24. — Per cent naturalized and per cent having first papers in the foreign-born
male population 21 years of age or over of specified States: 1890 and 1900.
Foreign-born male population 21 years of age or over.
1900.
1890.
States."
Perc
ent—
Perc
ent —
Total.
Natural-
ized.
Having
first
papers.
Total.
Natural-
ized.
Having
first
papers.
Continental United States
5, 010, 286
56 9
8.2
4, 348, 459
58.5
5.4
Iowa
158, 025
74.4
3.6
155, 670
68.9
4.5
Minnesota
261, 026
63 8
13 7
221, 309
63.7
11.6
Wisconsin
257, 527
47.0
30.0
244, 384
64.7
11.6
South Dakota
45, 602
58 6
17.4
42, 914
66.7
13.2
North Dakota
55, 873
56.5
18.9
36,314
48.9
20.3
Nebraska . .
91, 130
59.5
15.8
95, 875
64.5
8.7
Missouri
113,025
69 8
4.6
120, 737
67.0
3.4
Indiana
73, 317
60.6
13.4
73,358
75.9
4.7
District of Columbia
10, 101
67.1
6.5
9,242
60.8
1.8
Illinois
468, 882
69.7
3.5
390,317
62.1
4.3
Ohio
226, 254
69.6
3.1
218,841
70.3
2.5
Kansas
67, 025
61 6
10.9
73,065
69.4
6.6
Colorado
51,773
57.4
14.2
50, 340
58.5
7.3
Michigan
262, 125
58.6
11.9
248, 317
58.8
8.9
Maryland
42, 687
67.0
3.0
42, 589
61.8
3.3
Montana . . .
43, 694
60.3
9.2
29, 973
49.9
16.0
Utah
25, 233
62 7
5.3
24, 525
59.6
6.4
Idaho
15, 747
58.0
8.9
11, 705
55.2
7.2
Wyoming
11,335
55.2
9.8
9,192
47.6
11.7
Washington
69, 382
57.0
8.0
57,950
51.2
11.8
New York . ...
838, 136
57.5
7.1
685,462
60.7
3.3
Delaware
6,816
60.4
4.1
6,152
56.8
1.9
New Jersey
198, 161
55.3
6.5
145,047
60.3
3.4
Texas
87, 169
43. 1
17.9
75, 248
54.4
5.4
Oregon
42, 523
51.4
8.4
37,415
47.6
7.2
Nevada
7,187
52.3
3.6
10, 770
54.1
2.5
Rhode Island
54, 324
51.3
3.8
40, 185
38.8
3.9
California
225, 270
50.8
4.2
232, 135
43.3
4.2
Pennsylvania
487, 140
48.2
5.7
397,440
53.2
3.8
Connecticut
107, 092
49.3
4.6
78, 419
49.4
2.7
New Mexico
7,585
47.3
5.8
6,757
52.9
4.5
Vermont
20,891
45.8
3.1
19, 686
47.0
2.5
Massachusetts
347, 731
43.5
4.3
257, 094
43.8
2.5
New Hampshire
34, 888
40.2
26, 047
38.9
2.6
Arizona
13, 775
34.9
4.8
10, 031
38.8
2.2
Maine
38, 732
34.3
2.0
30, 470
36.5
1.8
a States in which at least 10 per cent of the total male population 21 years of age or over in 1900 was for-
eign-born. The ranking of the States is according to the percentage of the foreign-born either naturalized
or having first papers in 1900.
The five States which rank highest in the proportion of the foreign-
born male population of voting age having either first or second
naturalization papers are Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the two
Dakotas. All these States are in the northwest, and the proportion
having either first or second papers is over 75 per cent of the
foreign-born males of voting age in each State. The next ten
States in order (including the District of Columbia) have percentages
ranging from 70 in Maryland to 75.3 in Nebraska, eight of these ten
being in the West or Middle West. The next five States in order are
Rocky Mountain States in the northwest, and the proportions having
either first or second papers range from 65 per cent in Washington
to 69.5 per cent in Montana. The percentages of the remaining
States range from 36.3 in Maine to 64.6 in New York, all of these with
the exception of Delaware being either in the North Atlantic division,
which comprises the great majority of recent immigrants, or in those
sections in which the Chinese or Mexicans are present in large pro-
portions.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
151
The following table shows the per cent of foreign-born in the male
population 21 years of age or over of specified States and cities, 1890
and 1900:
TABLE 25. — Per cent of foreign-born in the male population 21 years of age or over of
specified States and cities: 1890 and 1900.
States and cities. «
1900.
1890.
Total
number
of males
21 years
of age
or over.
Foreign-born.
Total
number
of males
21 years
of age
or over.
Foreign-born.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Massachusetts.
843, 465
176,068
35, 743
26,842
27,059
26, 864
17,813
17, 162
11,791
9,102
9,245
127, 144
11,075
7,363
280,340
21,952
13,558
8,041
2, 184, 965
1,007,670
97,938
13,385
555,608
70, 558
60,319
29,648
17,089
15, 191
9,308
7,552
1,817,239
28, 075
9,812
i; 212, 223
111,522
13, 591
1, 401, 456
511,048
8,856
8,932
719, 478
78, 855
7,259
570, 715
75, 020
11,320
8,283
7,513
506,794
63,711
18,937
101,931
13, 387
195, 572
14,005
144, 446
38,353
544, 087
128,985
347, 731
82, 580
16, 653
17,810
15,362
12,286
11,147
9,354
7,186
4,265
4,738
54,324
5,285
4,477
107,092
10,022
6,943
4,473
838, 136
547, 225
45,021
6,257
198, 161
31,766
27, 340
16,594
10,001
7,065
5,100
4,914
487, 140
13,641
4,556
226, 254
57, 144
6,278
175, 577
273,360
4,219
4,451
262, 125
40,359
3,847
257,527
40,485
6,415
4,441
3,379
261,026
30, 256
11,241
43,694
6,273
69,382
6,409
42,523
17,374
225, 270
66, 734
41.2
46.9
46.6
66.4
56.8
45.7
62.6
' 54.5
60.9
46.9
51.2
42.7
47.7
60.8
38.2
45.7
51.2
55.6
38.4
54.3
46.0
46.7
35.7
45.0
45.3
56.0
58.0
46.5
54.8
65.1
26.8
48.6
46.4
18.7
51.2
46.2
33.5
53.5
47.6
49.8
36.4
51.2
53.0
45.1
54.0
56.7
53.6
45.0
51.5
47.5
59.4
42.9
46.9
35.5
45.8
29.4
45.3
41.4
51.7
665,009
137,910
25,274
18, 993
20, 505
20,211
11,942
11,367
9,083
257,094
63, 731
11,324
12, 705
10,970
9,428
7,314
5,012
5,782
38.7
46.2
44.8
66.9
53.5
46.6
61.2
44.1
63.7
Boston
Worcester
Fall River
"Lowell
Cambridge-
Lawrence
New Bedford . .
Holyoke
Fitchburg
Gloucester
Rhode Island
Pawtucket
100,017
7,538
40, 185
3,556
40.2
47.2
Connecticut
224,092
14, 701
8,247
78,419
6,220
4,021
35.0
42.3
48.8
Bridgeport
Waterburv
New Britain
New York
1, 769, 649
446, 798
71, 755
8,715
413,530
50, 133
46,884
20,875
12,034
10, 457
685, 462
269, 069
37,656
4,373
145, 047
23,900
24, 126
12, 106
7,C99
4,939
38.7
. 60. 2
52.5
50.2
35.1
47.7
51.5
58.0
64.0
47.2
New York
Buffalo
Yonkers
New Jersey
Newark
Jersey City
Pater son
Hobo ken
Elizabeth
Bayonne
Passaic
Pennsylvania :
1,461,8C9
20, 053
397, 440
11,116
27.2
55.4
Scranton
McKeesport
Ohio .
1,016,464
73,948
8,977
1,072,663
331,593
218, 841
42,469
4,756
390,317
198, 484
21.5
57.4
53.0
36.4
59.4
Cleveland ,
Youngstown
Illinois
Chicago ....
Rockford
Joliet
Michigan..
617, 445
55, 476
7,868
461,722
52,330
248,317
31,994
4,568
244, 384
33,661
40.2
57.7
58.1
52.9
64.3
Detroit
Bay City..
Wisconsin
Milwaukee .
Superior
Racine
Oshkosh
Minnesota
376, 036
56, 301
15, 029
65,415
221,309
29,473
8,999
29,973
58.9
52. 3
59.9
45.8
Minneapolis.
Duluth
Montana
Butte
Washington
146,918
17, 136
111,744
22,253
462, 289
116,350
57,950
7,448
37,415
11,828
232, 135
75,204
39.4
43.5
33.5
53.2
50.2
64.6
Tacoma.
Oregon
Portland
California
San Francisco.
alnchides all cities with a population of 25,000 or over in which at least 45 per cent of the total male
population 21 years of age or over in 1900 was foreign-born. All States included which h£
class.
lave cities of this
152
The Immigration Commission.
Of all males of voting age in the city of Fall River, Mass., in 1900,
66.4 per cent were foreign-born (66.9 per cent in 1890), this being a
higher proportion than in any other city in the United States, the
next highest being in Passaic, N. J., where it was 65.1 per cent.
Among the largest cities New York stands high with 54.3 per cent
(60.2 per cent in 1890), Milwaukee had 54 per cent (64.3 per cent in
1890), Chicago 53.6 per cent (59.9 per cent in 1890), and San Fran-
cisco 51.7 per cent (64.4 per cent in 1890).
Throughout the West decreases in proportion of foreign-born in
the total population of voting age during the decade are conspicuous.
In the eastern States of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania
the change was less than 1 per cent either way, while in Massachu-
setts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut there were noteworthy increases
during the decade.
The following table shows the percentages naturalized and having
first papers in the foreign-born male population 21 years of age or
over of specified States and cities, in 1890 and 1900:
TABLE 26. — Per cent naturalized and per cent having first papers, in 1 he foreign-born male
population 21 years of age or over of specified States and cities: 1890 and 1900.
States and cities, a
1900.
1890.
Foreign-
born
males
21 years
of age
or over.
Per cent —
Foreign-
born
males
21 years
of age
or over.
Per cent —
Natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers.
Natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers.
Massachusetts
347, 731
82,580
16, 653
17,810
15,362
12, 286
11,147
9,354
7,186
4,265
4,738
54,324
5,285
4,477
107,092
10,022
6,943
4,473
838, 136
547,225
45,021
6,257
19S, 161
31,766
27, 340
16,594
10,001
7,065
5,100
4,914
487, 140
13,641
4, 556
226,254
57, 144
6,278
468, 882
273,360
4,219
4,451
262, 125
40,359
3,847
43.5
52.5
42.5
«L1
41.4
45.0
47.5
35.6
43.6
36.3
30.2
51.3
59.9
43.8
49.3
52.7
48.2
51.0
57.5
54.9
65.2
49.0
55.3
57.0
61.0
59.2
62.4
57.6
50.6
38.2
48.2
60.3
55.3
69.6
645
61.8
69.7
68.3
72.3
60.2
58.6
63.5
69.4
4.3
4.4
7.1
2.7
2.6
5.0
3.8
3.7
3.8
5.5
1.3
3.8
48
2.3
257, 094
63, 731
11,324
12, 705
10,970
9,428
7,314
5,012
5,782
43.8
49.7
45.5
44.5
44.2
43.1
52.2
30.6
38.7
2.5
2.4
5.0
2.1
1.5
2.8
2.0
2.0
4.3
Boston. .
Worcester
Fall River
Lowell . .
Cambridge
Lawrence . .
New Bedford
Holyoke
Fitchburg
Gloucester
Rhode Island
40, 185
3,556
38.8
46.8
3.9
4.0
Pawtucket
Woonsocket. .
Connecticut
4.6
6.5
3.0
4.5
7.1
8.3
8.2
5.4
6.5
6.1
6.7
6.4
8.8
4.8
6.2
5.8
5.7
4.7
'46
3.1
43
2.3
3.5
3.8
2.3*
78, 419
6,220
4,021
49.4
54.9
34.8
2.7
2.1
2.8
Bridgeport
Waterburv
New Britain
New York
685, 462
269,069
37,656
4,373
145,047
23,900
24, 126
12,106
7,699
4,939
60.7
57.5
58.2
60.9
60.3
65.5
63.7
62.6
59.7
67.6
3.3
3.1
4.9
2.2
3.4
1.6
2.6
3.6
6.0
2.6
New York
Buffalo
Yonkers
New Jersey
Newark
Jersey City
Paterson
Hoboken
Elizabeth
Bayonne
Passaic
Pennsylvania
397, 440
11,116
53.2
59.2
3.8
3.4
Scranton
Ohio
218,841
42,469
4,756
390,317
198, 484
70.3
59.2
64.7
62.1
55.6
2.5
2.7
3.3
43
4.9
Cleveland
Youngstown
Illinois
Chicago . .
Rockford
Joliet
2.7
11.9
9.8
6.3
" " 'S.9
7.5
10.3
Michigan •
248,317
31,994
4, 568
58.8
60.3
56.5
Detroit
BavCitv...
a Includes all cities with a population of 25,000 or over in which at least 45 per cent of the total male popu-
lation 21 years of age or over in 1900 was foreign-born. All States included which have cities of this class.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
153
TABLE 26. — Per cent naturalized and per cent having first papers, in the foreign-born
male population 21 years of age or over of specified States and cities: 1890 and 1900. —
Continued.
States and cities, a
1900.
1890.
Foreign-
born
males
21 years
of age
or over.
Per cent-
Foreign-
born
males
21 years
of age
or over.
Per cent-
Natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers.
Natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers.
Wisconsin
257, 527
40,485
6,415
4,441
3,379
261,026
30,256
11,241
43, 694
6,273
69,382
6,409
42, 523
17,374
225,270
66, 734
47.0
51.8
48.9
42.6
38.9
63.8
62.2
549
60.3
68.4
57.0
54.2
51.4
38.2
50.8
57.6
30.0
342
29.6
45.6
36.0
13.7
14.9
19.2
9.2
9.1
8.0
6.1
8.4
5.4
4.2
3.5
244,384
33,661
647
56.5
11.6
17.7
Milwaukee
Superior
"R acine
Oshkosh
Minnesota .
221,309
29,473
8,999
29,973
63.7
57.5
46.4
49.9
11.6
12.5
21.2
16.0
Minneapolis. . .
Duluth..
Montana
Butte
Washington. .
57,950
7,448
37, 415
11,828
232, 135
75,204
51.2
46.7
47.6
35.1
43.3
448
11.8
17.4
7.2
5.7
4.2
2.8
Tacoma
Oregon. .
Portland...
California
San Francisco
a Includes all cities with a population of 25,000 or over in which at least 45 per cent of the total male popu-
lation 21 years of age or over in 1900 was foreign-born. All States included which have cities of this class.
In Massachusetts 43.5 per cent of the total foreign-born male pop-
ulation 21 years of age or over are naturalized, and in the other speci-
fied States in the North Atlantic division it may be said that gener-
ally about one-half of the total are naturalized, New York standing
highest with 57.5 per cent. Throughout the Middle and Northwest
the per cent naturalized ranges generally between 60 and 70, except
in Wisconsin, where the per cent naturalized is only 47. However,
Wisconsin has a conspicuously large proportion of persons having
first papers only, or 30 per cent, this peculiarity being explained in
some measure by the Wisconsin voting laws, under which any immi-
grant may vote in a State election who has taken out first papers and
resided in the State a year, while only first papers and ten days of resi-
dence are required for suffrage in city elections.
On the Pacific coast a little over one-half are naturalized, a slight
increase being general since 1890.
72289°— VOL 1—11 11
154
The Immigration Commission.
In the large cities the proportion naturalized is generally over 50 per
cent, viz, 52.$ in Boston, 54.9 in New York, 64.5 in Cleveland, 68.3
in Chicago, 63.5 in Detroit, 51.8 in Milwaukee, 62.2 in Minneapolis,
and 57.6 in San Francisco. Instances of low percentages are found
in some of the smaller cities of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, in
Portland, Oreg. (38.2), and in Oshkosh, Wis. (38.9), although in the
cities of Wisconsin nearly 17 of every 20 immigrants are either natu-
ralized or in possession of first papers. Aliens are comparatively
few also in Minneapolis and Duluth, where about three of every four
immigrants have taken either the first or second degree in citizenship.
In the preceding tables on citizenship the total foreign-born male
population over 21 years of age was the base of computation. In
the table following, the base number includes only foreign-born white
males 21 years of age or over who have resided at least five years in
the United States.
TABLE 27. — Citizenship of foreign-born white males 21 years of age or over who have been
in the United States Jive years or over, by geographic division: 1900.
Geographic division.
Total.
Naturalized.
Number.
Percent.
Continental United States
4,322,054
2,849,981 65.9
North Atlantic
1,784,596
1,813,513
89, 423
150, 178
434, 344
1,095,137
1,319,970
65,392
94,092
275,390
61.3
70.8
73.1
62.6
63.4
North Central ...
South Atlantic
South Central
Western H
Of all foreign-born males of voting age who are potential citizens (of
at least five years' residence) 65.9 per cent, or nearly two of every three,
have been naturalized. The lowest proportion of naturalized is
found in the North Atlantic division (61.3 per cent). The highest
proportion (73.1 per cent) is found in the South Atlantic division,
but a proportion almost as high (70.8 per cent), representing
twentyfold as many people, is found in the North Central division.
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
155
The following table shows, for 1900, the three foreign nationalities
numerically the most significant in the white male population of
voting age in those States in which at least 10 per cent of the popu-
lation was foreign-born:
TABLE 28. — Per cent foreign-born of the total white male population 21 years of age or
over, and country of birth of the three ranking foreign nationalities, in specified States:
1900.
[Only those States are included in this table in which at least 10 per cent of the male population of voting
age was foreign-born.]
State.
f
Male population 21 years of age or over.
Total.
Per
cent
foreign-
born.
Largest foreign
nationality.
Second largest for-
eign nationality.
Third largest for-
eign nationality.
Country of
birth.
Per
cent
of
total.
Country of
birth.
Per
cent
of
total.
Country of
birth.
Per
cent
of
total.
Continental
United States.
North Atlantic division:
Maine
21,134,299
23.7
Germany
6.3
Ireland
3.4
England
2.0
217,663
130, 987
108, 356
843, 465
127, 144
280, 340
2, 184, 965
555, 608
1,817,239
1,212,223
720,206
1, 401, 456
719, 478
570,715
506, 794
635,298
856, 684
95,217
112, 681
301,091
431, 786
54,018
321,903
83,823
737, 768
101,931
53, 932
37, 898
185, 708
55,067*
44.081
67, 172
17,710
195, 572
144, 446
544, 087
17.8
26.6
19.3
41.2
42.7
38.2
38.4
35.7
26.8
18.7
10.2
33.5
36.4
45.1
51.5
24.9
13.2
58.7
40.5
30.3
16.2
12.6
13.3
12.1
11.8
42.9
29.2
29.9
27.9
13.8
31.2
37.6
40.6
35.5
29.4
41.4
Canada, Eng.
Canada, Fr..
Canada, Fr..
Ireland
6.7
L12.3
6.4
12.1
11.1
10.6
10.6
10.3
5.7
8.3
5.3
11.7
9.2
20.5
11.8
10.0
6.7
16.8
9.1
11.3
5.2
4.2
16.5
3.7
4.1
6.2
4.1
3.7
4.6
5.7
14.3
12.9
6.8
5.3
6.3
7.0
Canada, Fr..
Canada, Eng.
Canada, Eng.
Canada, Eng.
Canada, Fr..
Germany
Ireland. .
5.2
4.6
4.0
6.8
8.6
5.4
8.0
7.0
5.0
2.1
1.1
3.9
8.4
5.5
11.6
2.4
1.8
12.3
8.5
4.2
1.9
2.2
1.8
3.3
3.4
6.0
3.6
3.7
4.0
1.6
2.9
5.8
5.7
5.0
5.4
6.7
Ireland
2.1
4.0
3.1
5.9
• 7.7
. 3.6
3.8
3.8
2.9
1.9
.8
3.7
3.3
2.5
10.6
2.3
1.8
6.5
4.3
2.5
1.8
1.4
1.4
1.4
.7
4.8
3.2
3.0
3.2
1.1
2.4
4.3
4.4
4.1
2.4
5.0
New Hampshire
Vermont
Ireland
Ireland
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Canada, Fr..
England
Italy. . .
Ireland
Ireland
Germany
Germany ...
Germany . . .
Germany...
Germany . . .
Germany . . .
Canada, Eng.
Germany
Sweden
Germany —
Germany . . .
Norway
Norway
Germany
Germany . . .
Ireland
Germany
Germany . . .
Mexico
Ireland
England
England
Germany
Mexico
Mexico
England
China
Germany —
China
Connecticut
New York
Italy
New Jersey
Ireland
Ireland
Ireland
Ireland
Ireland
Germany
Norway
Germany
Sweden
Ireland
Canada,Eng.
Germany
Sweden.....
Sweden
Germany....
Ireland
Ireland
Germany —
Canada,Eng.
Germany ...
Germany
England
Germany
China
Italy
Pennsylvania
England
England
England
Sweden
England
Sweden
Norway
Ireland
England
Germany
Russia
Bohemia
England
Poland
Russia
England
England
England
Sweden
Sweden
Sweden
England
England
Sweden
Ireland
Sweden
England
Ireland
North Central division:
Ohio
Indiana ...
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas. .
South Atlantic division:
Delaware
Maryland
District of Columbia
South Central division:
Texas
Western division:
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico....
Arizona
Utah
Denmark
Italy
Canada,Eng.
Germany
Germany
Nevada .
Washington
Oregon
California
China
£
156
The Immigration Commission.
The 36 States specified in the preceding table are mostly in the
North and West, the entire South Central division (except Texas)
and all but three of the South Atlantic States having less than 10
per cent foreign-born among males of voting age. Of these omitted
States only 3 have any one nationality that constitutes over 1 per
cent of the total males of voting age, the highest being in Kentucky,
where the Germans constitute 3.6 per cent of the total.
Of the States specified in the table the Germans are the numer-
ically predominant nationality in 15 instances; this people ranks
second 9 times and takes third rank once. The English take first
rank in 3 States and second in 1. Conspicuous, however, is the
number of States in which the English rank third, there being 13
such. The French Canadians rank first in New Hampshire and Ver-
mont and the English Canadians in Maine and Michigan. In Oregon,
California, and Nevada the Chinese are the leading foreign nation-
ality, while the Mexicans take first rank in Texas, New Mexico, and
Arizona. It must be remembered, however, that this means first
rank only among the foreign-born, and that in these 6 States pre-
dominated by Mexicans and Chinese the population is generally
sparse, as in Nevada and Arizona, or the percentage of foreign-born
is low, as in Texas, where 88.2 per cent ol the total are native-born.
California is an exception, for the population is large and the per
cent of foreign-born is high (41.4), the Germans constituting 6.7,
the Irish 5, and the Chinese 7 per cent of the total male population
of voting age.
Tlie number of times each nationality takes rank is shown in the
following table:
TABLE 29. — Nationalities ranking first, second, and third in number of males of voting
age in States specified in the preceding table, by country of birth: 1900.
Country of birth.
First.
Second.
Third.
Germany .
15
11
1
Ireland
5
g
6
England
3
1
13
Canada English
2
6
0
Canada French
2
2
1
Sweden
1
3
7
China
3
1
o
Mexico
3
0
0
Norway .
2
1
1
Italy
0
1
3
Denmark
0
1
0
Russia
0
o
2
0
o
1
Poland
0
0
1
*
Total number of States
30
36
36
ILLITERACY AND ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH.
An illiterate in census statistics is a person at least 10 years of age
who can not read and write any language. If a person is unable to
write he is generally unable to read, but in 1900, of a total of 6,180,069
illiterates, 955,843, or 15.5 per cent, were able to read but unable to
write. In the following tables these partial illiterates are counted
as "illiterate."
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
157
In the native white population 10 years of age or over, 4.6 per cent
are illiterate, as compared with 12.9 per cent in the foreign-born white
population. Among children 10 to 14 years of age the difference is not
so great, illiteracy among those born in the United States being 3.4 per
cent as against 5.6 per cent among those born abroad. In cities with
25,000 inhabitants or over the proportions illiterate are still lower, or
0.3 per cent among native white children and 3.9 per cent among
foreign-born white children, the corresponding figures in smaller
cities and country districts being 4.3 and 7.6 per cent, respectively.
In continental United States the proportion illiterate of native
white children of foreign parentage (0.9 per cent) is notably less than
that of native white children of native parentage (4.4 "per cent).
This difference must be ascribed to the fact that the foreign-born are
largely concentrated in cities and have better educational advantages
than those afforded in country districts, where the children of native
parentage more generally reside. This lower proportion of illiteracy
in cities than in country districts is general in the population over 10
years of age. If literacy is an index of Americanization it would
seem that the second generation of foreign parentage could be better
assimilated in cities than in country districts.
The following table shows, by nativity, the per cent of illiterates in
the population of each grand division, in 1900*.
TABLE 30. — Per cent illiterate in the population 10 years of age or over of continental
United States, by geographic division and nativity: 1900.
Geographic division.
Population 10 years of age or
over.
Illiterate.
Total.
Number. Per cent
Native white (both parents
native-born).
Total.
Illiterate.
Number. Per cent
Continental United States. . .
57,949,824
10.7
30,310,261
1,734,764
5.7
North Atlantic.
North Central. .
South Atlantic.
South Central..
Western...
16, 692, 161
20,281,866
7, 616, 159
10, 124, 215
3,235,423
976,536
858, 322
1,821,346
2,318,579
205,286
5.9
4.2
23.9
22.9
6.3
7,699,683
10,436,150
4,447,906
6, 198, 648
1,527,874
133,345
295,415
535,163
719, 392
51, 449
1.7
2.8
12.0
11.6
3.3
Geographic division.
ContinentalUnited
States.
North Atlantic.
North Central..
South Atlantic.
South Central. .
Western...
Native white (one or both
parents foreign-born).
Total.
10,926,401
4,029,853
5,300,323
300,716
525,118
770,391
Illiterate.
Number.
178,847
58, 707
68,257
6,367
35,575
9,941
Per
cent.
1.6
;• •
1.4
1.2
2.1
6.7
1.2
Foreign white.
Total.
10,014,256
4, 620, 656
4,095,121
205,209
342, 942
750,328
Illiterate.
Number.
1,287,135
734,424
383,976
226,437
78,339
63,959
Per
cent.
12.8
15.8
9.3
12.8
22.8
8.5
Colored,
Total.
341,969
450,272
2,662,328
3,057,507
186,830
Illiterate.
Number.
2,979,323
50,060
110,674
1,253,479
1,485,273
79,937
Per
cent.
44.5
24.6
47.1
48.6
42.8
o Negro, Indian, and Mongolian.
158
The Immigration Commission.
The preceding table shows that in the northern divisions the aver-
age proportion of illiterates is about 5 per cent. In the southern States,
largely owing to the presence of negroes, the percentage of illiteracy
is more than four times as high as in the North. The Western divi-
sion has about 1 per cent more illiterates proportionally than have
the northern States.
Among native whites of native parentage the percentage of illiter-
ates is lowest (1.7) in the North Atlantic division, increasing gradually
to the West. In the South the per cent of illiterate whites of native
parentage is comparatively high, being between 1 1 and 12. The native
population of immigrant parentage shows less illiteracy than do the
whites of native parentage, or about 1.3 per cent in the North and
"V^est and about 6 per cent throughout the South.
The percentage of illiteracy among the immigrants themselves is
lowest in the North Central division (9.3), higher in the North At-
lantic (15.8) than in the South Atlantic States (12.8), but highest in
the South Central States, where 22.8 per cent are illiterate. The
negroes are less illiterate in the North Atlantic division than the
white immigrants, but in the South nearly one-half are illiterate.
The following table is especially interesting as an index of the
educational condition of the children of immigrants in city and
country:
TABLE 31. — Per cent illiterate in the population 10 years ofaje or over in cities and in
country districts, by geographic division and nativity: 1900.
Geographic division.
Cities having a population of 25,000
or over.
Cities having a population of less than
25,000 and country districts.
Total.
Native
white
(both
parents
native-
born.)
Native
white
(one or
both
parents
foreign-
born).
For-
eign
white.
Col-
ored. «
Total.
Native
white
(both
parents
native-
born.)
Native
white
(one or
both
parents
foreign-
born).
For-
eign
white.
Col-
ored .a
Continental
United States.
North Atlantic
5.7
sTs"
5.7
10.4
12.5
2.8
0.8
.6
.7
1.6
2.3
.3
0.7
.7
.6
1.1
1.6
.3
11.6
13.7
8.6
11.7
12.7
5.4
24.4
12TT
16.5
29.2
33.8
20.4
12.5
s7<r
.4
26.1
24.0
7.6
6.7
.... - , .
2.1
3.2
13.3
12.2
4.2
2.4
iTcT
1.6
3.6
9.9
1.8
14.0
1 .•jsi^'.-.z"-.:
19.9
9.9
14.4
27.1
10.1
48.0
liTs
29.4
49.3
50.1
49.9
North Central
South Atlantic
South Central.
Western
a Negro, Indian, and Mongolian.
The foregoing table shows greater literacy in the larger cities, 5.7
per cent of the population being illiterate, "as against 12.5 per cent
in the rural districts and small towns. The proportion of illiterate
immigrants is generally over 10 per cent in the city and country, but it
is notable that the second generation, of foreign-born parentage, shows
even less illiteracy than the native stock of native white parentage,
except in the North Atlantic division, where there is approximate
equality. In the North Atlantic division there is 13.7 per cent of illit-
eracy in the city population among foreign-born whites, while among
the native-born of foreign parentage there is less than. 1 per cent (0.7)
of illiteracy. In the small towns and country districts of the same
division the second generation of foreign parentage shows only 2.6 per
cent illiterate, although the proportion illiterate among immigrants
Distribution of Immigrants, 1850 to 1900.
159
is 19.9 per cent. The native-born of foreign parentage are 9.9 per
cent illiterate in the country districts of the South Central division.
This is a rather large proportion, but it represents comparatively few
persons, as the majority of those of foreign parentage are in the North.
The following table shows the per cent illiterate in the male popula-
tion 21 years or age or over in cities of 25,000 or more, and in smaller
cities and country districts, by nativity and grade of citizenship:
TABLE 32. — Per cent illiterate in the male population 21 years of age or over in cities
and in country districts, by nativity and citizenship: 1900.
Nativity and citizenship.
Cities having a population of
25,000 or over.
Cities having a population of less
than 25,000 and country dis-
tricts
Total.
Illiterate.
Total.
Illiterate.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Total
5.885,644
339,223
5.8
15,248,655
1,949,247
12.8
Native white ...
3.231,316
331,921
25,290
80,856
.8
24.4
10,783,111
1,777,665
662,291
929,955
6.1
52.3
Native colored o
Foreign-born
2,322,407
233,077
10.0 | 2,687,879
357,001
13.3
Naturalized
1,358,985
160,808
500,800
301,814
64,667
16,669
120,486
31,225
4.8
10.4
24.1
10.4
1,490,996
251,982
500,795
444,106
115,678
32, 1'Jl
153,422
55,770
7.8
12.8
30.6
12.6
First papers
Alien... ::
Unknown
a Negro, Indian, and Mongolian.
In cities having at least 25,000 inhabitants the percentage of
illiteracy among males of voting age is 5.8, while for smaller cities
and country districts it is much higher, being 12.8. Less than 1
Eer cent of native whites of the larger cities would be disfranchised
y the enforcement of a literacy requirement, but a higher per-
centage, 6.1, would be affected in the country districts. Among
colored races the proportion illiterate is 24.4 per cent in the larger
cities and 52.3 per cent in the smaller cities and country districts.
Of all immigrant males of voting age 1 of every 10 is illiterate in the
larger cities and 1 of every 8 in the smaller cities and country dis-
tricts, the proportions for the same urban groups being 24.1 and 30.6
per cent among aliens, 10.4 and 12.7 per cent among those having
first papers, and 4.8 and 7.8 per cent — least of ah1 — among natural-
ized immigrants.
In the preceding tables on illiteracy, persons are considered illit-
erate only when they can not read or write any language, either
English or foreign.
The table following shows, for 1890 and 1900, the percentage of
foreign-born whites 10 years of age or over unable to speak English,
in each grand division.
160
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 33. — Per cent unable to speak English in the foreign-born white population 10
years of age or over, by geographic division: 1890 and 1900.
Geographic division.
1900.
1890.
Total.
Unable to speak
English.
Total.
Unable to speak
English.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Continental United States...
North Atlantic. . ...
10, 014, 256
1,217,280
12.2
8,786,887
1,371,044
15.6
4,620,656
4,095,121
205, 209
342, 942
750,328
585,617
471,418
19,518
85,661
55,066
12.6
11.5
9.5
25.0
7.3
3,720,601
3,908,466
196,454
307,458
653, 908
509,670
690, 756
25, 265
82, 954
62,399
13.7
17.7
12.9
27.0
9.5
North Central
South Atlantic
South Central
Western
The preceding table indicates that there has been a gain in ability
to speak English among white immigrants in each grand division.
The largest gain was in the North Central division, where the per-
centage unable to speak English declined from 17.7 in 1890 to 11.5 in
1900. The least decline in proportion unable to speak English was in
the North Atlantic division, from 13.7 per cent in 1890 to 12.6 per
cent in 1900. In the South Central division one of every four white
immigrants is unable to speak English. In the Western division is
found the lowest percentage unable to speak English — only 7.3 in
1900 — the large proportion of English, Irish, and Canadians present
in this division partly explaining its low proportion of non-English-
speaking foreign-born.
ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
EMIGRATION CONDITIONS IN EUROPE.
For the complete report on emigration conditions in Europe
see Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 4.
161
CONTENTS.
Page.
Old and new European immigration 166
Attitude of European countries toward emigration 168
Character of European emigration ;. 169
Sex 171
Age 172
Occupations of emigrants, 172
Literacy in Europe 175
Money shown by immigrants 178
Permanent and transient emigration 179
Extent and permanence of the return movement 181
Effects of the return movement in Europe 184
Causes of emigration 185
Assisted immigration 192
Emigration of criminals 192
Examination of emigrants abroad 193
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. European immigration to the United States, fiscal years 1882 and
1907, by country ." 167
2. European immigration to the United States, fiscal years 1882 and
1907, by class 167
3. European immigration ( including Syrian ) to the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by sex and by race or people 171
4. European immigration (including Syrian) to'the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by class and sex 171
5. European immigration (including Syrian) to the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by class and age groups 172
6. Occupation of European immigrants (including Syrian) to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by race or people 172
7. Occupation of European immigrants (including Syrian) to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by class 174
8. Occupation of European immigrants (includi ng Syrian) to the United
States, Hebrews excepted, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by
class of immigration 174
9. Number and per cent of illiterates 14 years of age and over among
European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by race or people 175
10. Number and per cent of illiterates 14 years of age or over among
European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by class of immigration. 176
11. Per cent of illiteracy among the recruits in various European coun-
tries and among native white males 21 to 24 years of age in the
United States 177
12. Per cent of illiteracy in the population of specified European coun-
tries and of the United States 177
13. Money per capita shown on admission to the United States by Euro-
pean immigrants (including Syrian), fiscal years 1906 to 1909 inclu-
sive, by class of immigration 178
14. European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States during the fiscal year 1907 and European emigrant aliens
(including Syrian) departing from the United States during the
fiscal year 1908, by race or people 180
163
164 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 15. European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States during the fiscal year 1907 and European emigrant aliens
(including Syrian) departing from the United States during the
fiscal year 1908, by class of immigration 180
16. European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States and European emigrant aliens (including Syrian) depart-
ing from the United States, fiscal years 1908 to 1910 inclusive, by
race or people .' 182
17. European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States and European emigrant aliens (including Syrian) depart-
ing from the United States, fiscal years 1908 to 1910 inclusive, by
class of immigration 182
18. European emigrant aliens (including Syrian) departing from the
United States, fiscal years 1908 to 1910 inclusive, by class, sex, age,
and period of residence 183
19. Movement of third-class passengers between the United States and
European ports, calendar years 1899 to 1909, inclusive 183
20. Immigrants admitted and aliens debarred at United States ports,
fiscal years 1892 to 1910 . 194
21. Number of intended emigrants rejected at ports or control stations
specified, Dec. 1, 1906, to Dec. 31, 1907 199
22. Number of persons carried and number and per cent debarred for
medical causes, at transatlantic ports, during January, February,
March, July, August, and September, 1907, by port of embark-
ation .. 202
EMIGRATION CONDITIONS IN EUROPE,
In the summer of 1907 Commissioners Dillingham (chairman),
Latimer, Ho well, Bennet, Burnett, and Wheeler visited Europe for
the purpose of making a general survey of emigration causes and con-
ditions in countries which are the chief sources of the immigration
movement to the United States. The commissioners sailed from
Boston May 18 for Naples and, with the exception of Mr. Wheeler,
who conducted supplementary investigations for about two months,
reached New York on the return voyage September 6.
In the course of the inquiry the Commission; or individual com-
missioners, visited Italy, Austria, Hungary, Russia, Finland, Greece,
Turkey in Europe and Turkey in Asia, Roumania, Germany, Switzer-
land, Belgium, the Netherlands. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, France,
England, Ireland, and Scotland. The general plan followed by the
Commission included a study of the natural and artificial causes of
emigration, classes emigrating, and the character of 'emigrants, the
attitude of various European governments toward emigration, the
effects of emigration on various European countries, emigration con-
trol and the inspection of emigrants abroad, the emigration of crimi-
nals and other classes debarred by the United States law and the
effect of that law on European immigration to this country.
The capital of each country, the principal ports at which emi-
grants for the United States embark, and wherever feasible the chief
emigrant-furnishing districts of southern and eastern Europe, were
visited. Much of the available time was necessarily given to con-
sultation with officials of the various countries included in the in-
quiry and with American diplomatic and consular officers and others
acquainted with the emigration situation in Europe. In the course of
the investigation the commissioners prepared memoranda covering
all phases of the subject under consideration. When deemed neces-
sary, formal hearings were resorted to ; interviews were recorded, in
detail or in substance ; considerable carefully prepared information,
including expressions of opinion by government officials and others,
was secured; and a large quantity of governmental and other docu-
ments and exhibits was collected. This material was carefully con-
sidered in the preparation of this feature of the Commission's general
report. In addition to the data secured by the Commission there
was made available by the courtesy of the United States Bureau of
Immigration and Naturalization a digest of unpublished reports
by representatives of the bureau who visited Europe in 1906 to
investigate various phases of the subject under consideration. Fol-
lowing the commissioners' visit to Italy, the Royal Italian Agricul-
tural Commission investigated emigration conditions in Basilicata
and Calabria, and the report resulting from this inquiry was placed
165
166 The Immigration Commission.
at the disposal of the Immigration Commission by the Italian
authorities. The two reports last mentioned have been freely used
and duly accredited. Other sources considered in the preparation
of the reports were largely official publications of foreign govern-
ments, and in some cases authoritative unofficial publications were
employed.
The Commission's report upon this topic is divided into two parts.
The first is a discussion of recent European immigration to the United
States and the more general features of the emigration situation in
Europe, while the second part deals mpra particularly with emigra-
tion conditions in the various countries which are now the chief
sources of immigration to the United States. It is the purpose of the
report to show the causes and character of the present movement of
population from Europe to the United States and other matters
necessary to an understanding of the situation.
In studying this situation in the various countries which are now
the chief sources of our immigration, the Commission considered
the possibility and feasibility of international agreements as a meas-
ure for regulating the movement of population between such coun-
tries and the United States. Naturally such information as was
secured in that regard can not be included in the Commission's report
to the Congress. There seems to be every assurance, however, that
agreements with certain European governments for the control of
the movement, especially with a view to preventing the emigration of
criminals and other undesirables, are entirely within the range of
possibility.
OLD AND NEW EUROPEAN IMMIGRATION.
In studying the emigration situation in Europe the Commission was
not unmindful of the fact that the widespread apprehension in the
United States relative to immigration is chiefly due to the changed
character in the movement of population from Europe in recent years.
Because of this, European immigration, for the purposes of this re-
port, is divided into two general classes, which for convenience of ref-
erence may be designated as the old and the new immigration. The
former class includes immigrants from England, Ireland, Scotland,
Wales, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Nor-
way, Sweden, and Switzerland, which countries from 1819 to 1883
furnished about 95 per cent of the total movement of population from
Europe to the United States, while the latter class, or new immigra-
tion, includes immigrants from Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece,
Italy, Montenegro, Poland, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Servia,
Spain, Syria, and Turkey, which countries in the year 1907 furnished
81 per cent of the total number of European immigrants admitted to
the United States.
The crest of the wave in which the old immigration predominated
was reached in 1882, the crest of the new, thus far, in 1907, and a sur-
vey of European immigration in those years as shown by the follow-
ing table indicates in detail the change in its character geographically.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
167
TABLE 1. — European immigration to the United States, fiscal years 1882 and
1907, by country.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Country.
Year.
Increase.
Decrease.
Per cent distri-
bution.
1882.
1907.
1882.
1907.
\ustria-Hungary . ....
29, 150
1,431
338,452
6,396
11,359
7,243
9,731
37,807
36,580
285,731
6,637
22, 133
(«)
9,608
4,384
258,943
5,784
20, 589
3,748
20,767
56, 637
34,530
19,740
2,660
309,302
4,965
11,359
4.5
.2
28.2
.5
.9
.6
.8
3.2
3.0
23.8
.6
1.8
(a)
.8
.4
21.6
.5
1.7
.3
1.7
4.7
2.9
1.6
.2
<*)
(b)
Denmark
11,618
6,004
250, 630
126
32, 159
9,517
29, 101
4,672
1,436
65
16,918
378
64,607
10, 844
69
82,394
76,432
18,937
1,656
4
38
4,375
1.8
.9
38.7
lo
1.5
4.5
.7
.2
(6)
2.6
.1
10.0
1.7
(6)
12.7
11.8
2.9
(6)
(")
France including Corsica
3,727
German Empire .
212,823
36,454
253, 572
Italy including Sicily and Sardinia
Netherlands
2,880
6.968
(a)
Norway
Poland
(a)
8,172
4,319
242, 025
5,406
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azores
Roumania
Russian Empire
Spain
Sweden
44, 018
7,096
Switzerland
Turkey in Europe
20,698
United Kingdom:
England
25,757
41,902
Ireland
Scotland
803
1,004
Wales
Not specified
4
Europe, not specified
107
69
Total Europe
648, 186
1,199,536
551,380
100.0
100.0
0 In 1907 Poland is included under Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Russian
Empire.
6 Less than 0.05 per cent.
The following table shows the number of European immigrants
admitted to the United States in 1882 and 1907, classified according
to old and new immigration, as previously explained :
TABLE 2. — European immigration to the United States, fiscal years 1882 and
1907, by class.
Class.
Year.
Per cent distribu-
tions
1882.
1907.
1882.
-
1907.
Old immigration
563, 175
84, 973
38
227,851
971,608
107
86.9
13.1
(a)
19.0
81.0
(a)
New immigration
Not specified
Total
648, 186
1,199.566
100.0
100.0
0 Less than 0.05 per cent.
Because of this radical change in the character of European im-
migration to the United States in recent years the Commission in its
various lines of investigation has paid particular attention to the
peoples of southern and southeastern Europe who have come to this
country as immigrants. For the same reason the investigation in
Europe was made especially with a view to securing information
relative to conditions general in the south and east of Europe, so
far as such conditions were in any way related to the subject under
consideration.
168 The Immigration Commission.
ATTITUDE OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES TOWARD EMIGRATION.
All European countries except Russia and Turkey recognize the
right of their people to emigrate. Under the Russian law citizens of
the Empire are in general forbidden to leave the country to take up
a permanent residence elsewhere, but the fact that Russia in 1907
was third among the emigrant-furnishing nations of Europe indi-
cates that the law in this regard is practically obsolete. The same
is true as regards the Turkish law upon this subject. From a senti-
mental standpoint emigration is, with a few exceptions, a matter
of national regret. In some countries military reasons inspire a
not inconsiderable degree of opposition, for the reason that emi-
grants as a rule are of an age which makes them liable to military
service. There appears to be, also, a well-grounded and increasing
objection to emigration in some sections of Europe because of the eco-
nomic loss resulting from the exodus of so many agricultural and
other laborers. In general, however, it may be said that emigration
is recognized as a phenomenon controlled almost entirely by irresist-
ible economic forces which practically compel an attitude of acquies-
cence on the part of governments.
Some European countries, notably France, Switzerland, the Neth-
erlands, and Belgium, have experienced no emigration problem of
importance in more recent times. At one time Germany was the
leading emigrant-furnishing nation of the world but this has now
ceased to be the case. During the period when the emigration move-
ment from northern and western Europe to the United States was
at its greatest height, Denmark was somewhat affected. The move-
ment from Denmark, however, was never so large as from other
Scandinavian countries. The United Kingdom is still a source of
considerable immigration to the United States, but the movement is
smaller than formerly, and the number now emigrating is not suffi-
ciently large to create an emigration problem. There is also a
considerable movement of population from the United Kingdom,
or more particularly from England and Scotland, to Canada and
other parts of the British Empire, but this is encouraged and in a
measure assisted, for England is the only country in Europe which
openly promotes, or at least sanctions and assists in, the emigration
of public charges. Such assisted emigration, however, is directed
to Canada or other British colonies instead of to the United States.
The European countries most concerned in the matter of emigra-
tion at the present time are Norway, Sweden, Italy, Austria, Hun-
gary, Russia, Greece, Turkey, and the Balkan States, and so far as
practicable the Commission has considered the attitude of these
countries toward the present movement of their people to the United
States.
In most European countries the government exercises some measure
of control over emigration. Generally, however, this control concerns
merely the welfare of the emigrant in protecting him from exploita-
tion and ill treatment before embarkation and during his voyage at
sea. Some countries also take a deep interest in the welfare of their
citizens who as emigrants have left their native land.
The attitude of some governments toward emigration is naturally
influenced to a greater or less extent by the permanency of such emi-
gration. As stated elsewhere, the newer immigration to the United
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 169
States from southern and eastern Europe is to a considerable degree
a movement of transient industrial workers, rather than persons who
emigrate with the purpose of becoming actual settlers in another
country. While it is a fact that many who come to the United States
as intending transients eventually become permanent residents, it is
also true that many continue in a transient state, and thus* retain a
more than sentimental interest in their native countries. Whatever
may be the value, in an economic sense, of this latter class of immi-
grants to the country in which they may temporarily reside, it is cer-
tain that they are an important factor in promoting the general
economic welfare of several European countries. The advantage in
this regard is in great part due to the large and constant flow of so-
called immigrant money into such countries from the United States.
The greater part of this money is sent to countries or sections of coun-
tries where low economic conditions prevail, and its uplifting effect
in many places is recognized. Another quite important factor in this
regard is the immigrant who returns to resume a permanent residence
in his native country with more or less capital acquired in the United
States. Through the purchase and development of land or in other
enterprises these returned immigrants have naturally benefited the
communities in which they reside. It may be stated also that the
introduction of American ideas and methods has, in many cases,
proved a valuable adjunct to American-earned capital.
On the other hand; emigration from some provinces of southern
and eastern European countries has been so great that a shortage in
the supply of common labor has resulted. This claim was frequently
made to members of the Commission by landowners and others in
various countries. It appears also that a relatively large increase in
wages has occurred in sections from which large numbers of im-
migrants have been drawn.
In brief, it may be stated that employers of labor may, through
excessive emigration, be affected by a shortage of labor and a con-
sequent rise in wages. But on the other hand, the economic condition
of the laboring classes from which the great majority of emigrants
are drawn is favorably affected, not only by remittances from the
United States but by increased wages at home.
CHARACTER OF EUROPEAN EMIGRATION.
The present-day emigration from Europe to the United States is for
the most part drawn from country districts and smaller cities or
villages and is composed largely of the peasantry and unskilled labor-
ing classes. This, is particularly true of the races or peoples from
countries furnishing the newer immigration, with the conspicuous
exception of Russian Hebrews, who are city dwellers by compulsion.
Emigration being mainly a result of economic conditions, it is natural
that the emigrating spirit should be strongest among those most
seriously affected, but notwithstanding this the present movement is
not recruited in the main from the lowest economic and social strata
of the population. In European countries, as in the United States, the
poorest and least desirable element in the population, from an
economic as well as a social standpoint, is found in the larger cities,
and as a rule such cities furnish comparatively few emigrants.
Neither do the average or typical emigrants of to-day represent the
72289°— VOL 1—11 12
170 The Immigration Commission.
lowest in the economic and social scale even among the classes from
which they come, a circumstance attributable to both natural and
artificial causes. In the first place, emigrating to a strange and distant
country, although less of an undertaking than formerly, is still a
serious and relatively difficult matter, requiring a degree of courage
and resourcefulness not possessed by weaklings of any class. This
natural law in the main regulated the earlier European emigration
to the United States, and under its influence the present emigration
represents the stronger and better element of the particular class from
which it is drawn.
A most potent adjunct to the natural law of selection, however, is
the United States immigration act, the effect of which in preventing
the emigration, or even attempted emigration, of at least physical and
mental defectives is probably not generally realized. The provisions
of the United States immigration law are well known among the emi-
grating classes of Europe, and the large number rejected at European
ports, or refused admission after reaching the United States, has a
decided influence in retarding emigration, and naturally that influ-
ence is most potent among those who doubt their ability to meet the
law's requirements.
In its study of the character of European emigration the Commis-
sion confined itself to the ordinary characteristics and conditions of
the various races which make for their desirability or undesirability
as immigrants to the United States. The character of the various
races from an ethnological standpoint has also been given attention
and a comprehensive study in this regard forms a part of the Com-
mission's general report under the title " Dictionary of races
peoples." a
In addition to more general observations relative to the character
of European emigration, the sex, age, occupation, and degree of
education are essential to an understanding of the present-da,^
immigrant.
For the purpose of this discussion data relative to the above-
mentioned items have been compiled for an eleven years' period,
1899-1909, and the results classified according to the old and new
immigration .previously mentioned. In this instance, however, the
classification is by race or people, rather than country of origin, which
arrangement is permitted by the fact that the data employed have
since 1899 been so recorded by the Bureau of Immigration. In what
follows the old and new immigration will be considered to include the
following races or peoples :
Old : Dutch and Flemish, English, French, German, Irish, Scandi-
navian, Scotch, and Welsh.
New: Armenian; Bohemian and Moravian; Bulgarian, Servian,
and Montenegrin ; Croatian and Slovenian ; Dalmatian, Bosnian, and
Herzegovinian ; Finnish; Greek; Hebrew; North Italian; South
Italian ; Lithuanian ; Magyar ; Polish ; Portuguese ; Eoumanian ; Rus-
sian ; Ruthenian ; Slovak ; Spanish ; Syrian ; b and Turkish.
J — — — '
0 Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 5. (S. Doc. No. 002, Gist
Cong., 3d sess.)
6 Nearly all Syrian and a considerable nnmber of Turkish immigrants come
from Turkey in Asia, but for convenience and because they are so closely allied
to the people of Turkey in Europe they are classed here as a part of the new
immigration from Europe.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
171
SEX.
Classified by sex, there appears a wide difference among the vari-
ous races of immigrants, as is shown by the following table covering
this item in detail for the eleven years 1899 to 1909? inclusive :
TABLE 3. — European immigration (including Syrian} to the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by sex and by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Number.
Per cent.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Armenian
20,990
91,727
82,261
295,981
26,785
74, 646
355, 116
136,038
94, 676
682,995
177,827
990, 182
401,342
341, 888
1.719,260
152,544
310, 049
820,716
62,240
68,505
66.280
119,468
534,269
112,230
345, 111
45,214
50, 592
11,671
18,508
923
15, 596
52,237
78, 947
251,919
24,799
48,889
219,222
89,565
55,502
405,863
169,726
561,616
189, 611
268, 123
1.351,719
108,417
225,272
567, 992
38,515
62,636
56, 104
88,416
327,448
71,392
242, 620
37, 402
34, 487
11,239
11,996
658
5,394
39,490
3,314
44,062
1,986
25, 757
135,894
46,473
39,174.
277, 132
8,101
428,566
211,731
73,765
367, 541
44,127
84, 777
252, 724
26,725
5,869
10, 176
31, 052
206, 821
40,838
102, 491
7,812
16, 105
432
6,512
265
74.3
56.9
96.0
85.1
92.6
65.5
61.7
65.8
58.6
59.4
95.4
56.7
47.2
78.4
78.6
71.1
72.7
69.2
59.0
91.4
84.6
74.0
61.3
63.6
70.3
82.7
68.2
96.3
64.8
71.3
25.7
43.1
4.0
14.9
7.4
34.5
38.3-
34.2
41.4
40.6
4.6'
43.3
52.8'
21.6'
21.4-
28. 9*
27.3
30.8
41.0
8.6
15.4
26.0
38.7
36.4
29.7
17.3
31.8
3.7
35.2
28.7
Bohemian and Moravian .
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin
Croatian and Slovenian
Dalmatian Bosnian and Horze^oviniau
Dutch and' Flemish .
English
Finnish
French
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North
Italian South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian . .
Ruthenian
Scandinavian
Scotch
Slovak
Spanish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Others
Total
8,213,034
5,667,928
2, 545, 106
69.0
31.0
The striking predominance of males does not apply to all races
composing the new immigration, but the tendency in this regard is
sufficient to create a wide difference between the old and new classes,
as is indicated by the following table :
TABLE 4. — European immigration (including Syrian) to the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to. 1909 inclusive, by class and sex.
r*iT!<?
Number.
Per
cent.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Old immigration
2 273 782
1 329 923
943 859
58 5
41 5
New immigration . .
5 939 252
4 338 005
1 601 247
73 0
27 0
Total
8 213 034
5 667 928
2 545 106
f>Q 0
q-i A
172
The Immigration Commission.
AGE.
The element of age among European immigrants of both classes
and all races is conspicuous because of the large proportion included
in the age group of 14 to 44 years, as shown by the following table,
covering European immigration of the old and new classes for the
eleven years 1899 to 1909, classified by age groups :
TABLE 5. — European immigration (including Syrian) to the United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, l>y class and age groups.
Class.
Number.
Per cent.
Total.
Under 14
years.
14 to 44
years.
45 years
or over.
Under 14 to 44
years, j years'
45 years
or over.
Old immigration .
2,273,782.
5,939,252
290,164
723,810
1,828,382
4,958,124
155,236
257,318
12.8 80.4
12.2 83.5
6.8
4.3
New immigration
Total
8,213,034
1,013,974
6,786,506
412,554
12.3 j 82.6
5.0
The striking feature with regard to the age of immigrants, and
indeed one of the most striking and significant features of European
immigration to the United States in any regard, is the fact that so
many of the immigrants are of the producing and so few are of the
dependent age.
OCCUPATIONS OF EMIGRANTS.
Occupation is an important factor in estimating the character of
emigration, as it indicates the probable general industrial status of
immigrants after admission to the United States. For convenience
immigrants may be divided into the following general classes as
regards occupation: Professional, skilled laborers, farm laborers,
farmers, common laborers, servants, miscellaneous, and no occupation,
;the last named including women and children.
The distribution of occupations among European immigrants by
race or people during the eleven years 1899 to 1909 is shown by the
following table:
.TABLE G. — Occupation of European immigrants (including Syrian) to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, l>y race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Number.
Race or people.
1
Profes-
sional.
Skilled
laborers.
Farm
laborers.
Farm-
ers.
Common
laborers.
Serv-
ants.
Mis-
cella-
neous.
No occu-
pation. a
Total.
Armenian
370
5,971
3,080
377
2,481
1,588
738
6,385
20,990
Bohemian and Moravian....
Bulgarian, Servian, and
Montenegrin
748
107
22,601
2,608
8,247-
36,746
1,580
• 2,782
7,341
34,755
13,695
683
1,010
289
36,505
4,291
91,727
82,261
Croatian and Slovenian. . . ! .
Dalmatian, Bosnian,
and Herzegovinian
228
31
13,952
2,523
SO, 167
7,178
4,290
569
146,278
12,837
17,558
668
683
180
32,825
2,799
295,981
26,785
Dutch and Flemish
1,768
13,111
7,139
3,106
10,579
3,558
2,842
32, 543
74, 646
English
20, 041
105,707
4,902
4,954
24,928
27,851
29,071
137,662
355,116
Finnish...
314
6,380
' 5,604
1,520
68,243
27, 581
414
25,982
136,038
a Including women and children.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
173
TABLE 6. — Occupation of European immigrants (including Syrian} to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909, inclusive, by race or people — Continued.
Number.
Race or people.
Profes-
sional
Skilled
laborers.
Farm
laborers
Farm-
ers.
Commoi
laborers
i Serv-
. ants.
Mis-
cella-
neous.
No occu-
pation.o
Total.
French.
5,903
14.550
594
6,836
4,264
3,000
5,586
148
1,281
1,193
192
139
843
97
5,076
4,219
184
1,504
396
117
585
2
20,829
125,594
13, 632
362,936
41,486
56,854
199,024
8,243
20,966
41,541
3,076
1,852
5,348
2,095
80,921
42,589
12,088
15, 000
7,360
822
6,517
48
5,37S
72,731
33,251
9,63i
15,71'
51,34<
420,261
29,915
102, 45(
162,37$
3,02;
38,28,
20,32;
38,03;
30,06(
2,23,
85, 41J
2,48;
9,75(
3,51(
44(
3 1,680
1 12,021
J 2,092
$ 908
' 6,047
) 5,656
3 12,290
i 355
5 1,586
5 2,549
! 400
) 217
! 862
! 322
) 11,009
> 1,484
1,899
837
) 1, 762
) 619
332
41
8,94
84,53
104, 47
66,31
100, 49
128,57
587,54
64,17
82,50
320,06
22,36.
20,41
24,80
44,33
158,96
6,35,
124,20
6,69,
6,79'
4,87*
1,27'
43
2 10,331
L 78,803
I 3,892
L 61,611
'161.844
) 21,465
) 76,440
I 19,819
L 29,558
1111,100
J 12,869
L 1,617
5 2,273
i 18,046
f 131. 760
J 9, 125
( 39,417
> 1,808
r 3, 548
3 154
r 1,426
5
6,094
27,944
3,957
36,219
8,454
5,809
17,572
291
1,465
1,752
1,396
261
863
81
7,598
7,290
440
5,356
3,242
515
816
10
35,525
260,819
15,935
445.728
57,033
09, 170
400,546
29,596
70,230
180, 148
21,921
5,723
10,965
15,858
102,878
38,935
81,403
11,531
'17,731
1,050
7,115
383
94, 676
682,995
177,827
990, 182
401,342
341,888
1,719,260
152,544
310,049
820,716
65,240
68,505
66,280
119,468
534,269
112,230
345,111
45,214
50,592
11,671
18,508
923
Greek . . *.
Hebrew
Irish .
Italian North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scandinavian
Scotch
Slovak
Spanish .
Syrian
Turkish .
Welsh
Others b
Total.
80, 322
1,247,674
1,290,29;
84, 146
2,282,56,
> 890, 093
172,652
2,165,287
3, 213, 034
Race or people.
Per cent.
Profes-
sional.
Skilled
labor-
ers.
Farm
labor-
ers.
Farm-
ers.
Com-
mon
labor-
ers.
Serv-
ants.
Miscel-
laneous.
No
occupa-
tion.o
Armenian
1.8
.8
.1
.1
.1
2.4
5.6
.2
6 2
28.4
24.6
3.2
4.7
9.4
17.6
29.8
4.7
22 0
14.7
9.0
44.7
27.1
26.8
9.6
1.4
4.1
5.7
10.6
18.7
1.0
3.9
15.0
24.4
19.6
33.0
19.8
4.6
55.9
30.7
32.3
5.6
2.0
24.8
5.5
19.3
30.1
2.4
1.8
1.7
3.4
1.4
2.1
4.2
1.4
1.1
1.8
1.8
1.2
.1
1.5
1.7
.7
.2
.5
.3
.6
.3
1.3
.3
2.1
1.3
.6
1.9
3.5
5.3
1.8
4.4
11.8
8.0
42.2
49.4
47.9
14.2
7.0
50.2
9.4
12.4
58.7
6.7
26.5
37.6
34.2
42.1
26.6
39.0
34.3
29.8
37.4
37.1
29.8
5.7
36.0
14.8
13.4
41.8
6.9
47.0
7.6
14.9
.8
5.9
2.5
4.8
7.8
20.3
10.9
ir.5
2.2
6.2
40.3
6.3
4.4
13.0
9.5
13.5
19.7
2.4
3.4
15.1
24.7
8.1
11.4
4.0
7.0
1.3
7.7
.5
3.5
1.1
.4
. £
. 7
3.8
8.2
G.4
4.1
2.2
3.7
2.1
1.7
1.0
.2
'.2
2.1
.4
1.3
.1
1.4
6.5
.1
11.8
6.4
4.4
4.4
1.1
30.4
39.8
5.2
11.1
10.4
43.6
38.8
19.1
37.5
39.1
9.0
45.0
14.2
20.2
23.3
19.4
22.7
22.0
33.6
8.4
16.5
13.3
19.3
34.7
23.6
25.5
35.0
9.0
38.4
41.5
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin
Croatian and Slovenian
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzego-
vinian
Dutch and Flemish .
English ....
Finnish
German
2.1
.3
.7
1.1
.9
.3
.1
.4
.1
.3
^ 2
L3
.1
1.0
3.8
.1
3.3
.8
1.0
3.2
2
18.4
7.7
36.7
10.3
16.6
11.6
5.4
6.8
5.1
4.7
2.7
8.1
1.8
16.3
37.9
3.5
33.2
14.5
7.0
35.2
5.2
Greek . .
Hebrew
Irish .
Italian North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magvar
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Scandinavian
Scotch
Slovak
Spanish
Svrian
Turkish
Welsh . .
Others &
Total
l.Oi 15.2
15.7
1.0
27.8
10.8
2.1
26.4
a Including women and children.
&119 Austrians, 800 Hungarians, 4 Transylvanians.
174
The Immigration Commission.
According to the old and new immigration classification the dis-
tribution of occupations is as follows:
TABLE 7. — Occupation of European immigrants (including Syrian) to the United
States, fiscal years 1899 to 1909 inclusive, by class of immigration.
Occupation.
Old immi-
gration.
New imrni-
gratipn.
Old im-
migra-
tion.
New im-
migra-
tion.
Professional
.56 406
23 916
2 5
0 4
Skilled laborers
442. 754
804 920
19 5
13 6
Farm laborers
138 598
1 151 697
6 1
19 4
Farmers
40 633
43 513
1 8
7
Common laborers
402, 074
1, 880, 491
17.7
31 7
Servants . .
424 698
465 395
18 7
7 8
Miscellaneous
90 109
82 543
4 0
] 4
Nooccupation
678, 510
1, 486, 777
29.8
25.0
Total
2, 273, 782
5,939,252
100.0
100.0
Number.
Per cent distribu-
tion.
The relatively large proportion of skilled laborers, the smaller pro-
portion of unskilled, \ and the almost total absence of farm laborers
among Hebrew immigrants practically places that race with the older
immigration so far as occupations are concerned, and the elimination
of Hebrews from the above table makes possible a clearer illustration
of the comparative occupational status of the old and new immigra-
tion, as shown by the following table :
TABLE 8. — Occupation of European immigrants (including Syrian) to the United
States, Hebrews excepted, fiscal years 1S99 to 1909, inclusive, by class of
immigration.
Number
Per cent distribu-
tion.
Occupation.
New immi-
New
immi-
Old immi-
gration.
gration
(Hebrews
excepted).
immi-
gration.
gration
(He-
brews ex-
cepted).
Professional
56,406
17,080
2.5
0.3
Skilled laborers
442 754
441 984
19.5
8 9
Farm laborers
138, 598
1,142,064
6.1
23.1
Farmers .....
40.633
42,605
1.8
.9
Common laborers
402,074
1,814,180
17.7
36.7
Servants
424,698
403,784
18.7
8.2
Miscfllappous ....
90,109
46,324
4.0
.9
No occupation
678, 510
1,041,049
29.8
21.0
Total .. . .
2,273,782
4,949,070
100.0
100.0
An analysis of this table shows that about 60 per cent of the new
immigration, Hebrew excepted, during the eleven years considered
was composed of farm and other unskilled laborers, while these
classes furnished about 25 per cent of the older immigration. The
per cent of skilled laborers is much higher in the older class of im-
migrants, but the reverse is true of servants, which may be accounted
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
175
for by the fact that females are relatively fewer among the newer
immigrants. The percentage of farmers as distinguished from
farm laborers is higher in the older immigration, but the actual
number is so small in either case that it is unimportant except to
emphasize the fact that landowners or independent farmers irre-
spective of race do not, as a rule, emigrate to the United States.
LITERACY IN EUROPE.
In none of the factors under consideration, unless it be that of per-
manence of residence, is there so wide a difference between the old
and new classes of immigration as in the matter of degree of educa-
tion, as will be noted from the following table, which shows the
extent of illiteracy among the various races or peoples of European
immigrants admitted to the United States during the eleven years
1899 to 1909 :
TABLE 9. — Number and per cent of illiterates 14 years of age and over among
European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United States, fiscal
1899 to 1909, inclusive, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Number of
persons 14
years of age
or over ad-
mitted.
Persons 14 years of
age or over who
could neither read
nor write.
Number.
Per cent.
Armenian
18,404
72,762
80,854
283,270
26, 123
58,525
302,657
123,415
81,449
566,578
170,514
744,395
381,095
311,243
1,517,768
140, 540
a 283, 430
742,753
49,799
67,029
61,287
113,931
483,049
95.073
312,954
41,000
42.463
11,408
15.191
102
4,433
1,246
33,759
103,156
10, 789
2,767
3,419
1,681
4,401
28,854
45,960
191,544
10,233
36,869
822,113
68,555
^32,205
263,177
33,960
23,232
23,607
58,070
2,168
682
75,914
6,004
22,978
6,722
309
18
24.1
1.7
41.8
36.4
41.3
4.7
1.1
1.4
5.4
5.1
27.0
25.7
2.7
11.8
54.2
48.8
11.4
35.4
68.2
34.7
38.5
51.0
.4
.7
24.3
14.6
54.1
58.9
2.0
17.6
Bohemian and Moravian "...
Bulgarian Servian and Montenegrin
Croatian and Slovenian
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian
Dutch and Flemish
English
Finnish
French
German . .
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian,- North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar...
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scandinavian
Scotch
Slovak
Spanish
Syrian...
Turkish
Welsh
Others
Total
7,199,061
1,918,825
26.7
a Including 693 " Hungarians " in 1899.
6 Including 35 " Hungarians " in 1899.
176
The Immigration Commission.
The foregoing table classified according to the old and new immi-
gration is as follows :
TABLE 10. — Number and per cent of illiterates 14 years of age or over among
European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to tlie United States, fiscal
years 1899 to 1909, inclusive, &?/ class of immigration.
Class.
Number of
persons 14
years of age
or over ad-
mitted.
Persons 14 years of
age or over who
could neither read
nor write.
Number.
Per cent.
Old immigration
1,983,617
5,215,444
52,833
1,865,992
2.7
35.8
New immigration
Total
7,199,061 1,918,825
26.7
Whether the high percentage of illiteracy among the newer im-
migrants is due chiefly to environment or to inherent racial tendencies
can not well be determined. The former would seem to be the more
equitable explanation were it not for the fact that races living under
practically the same material and political conditions show widely
varying results. Conspicuous in this regard are the Germans, the
majority of whom now come from Austria-Hungary and Russia, as
compared with other races from those countries.
As suggested by the foregoing tables showing the degree of educa-
tion among the various races of European immigrants coming to
the United States, illiteracy exists in the various countries of Europe
in widely different degrees. Comparison, however, in respect to the
amount of illiteracy which prevails in specific countries is difficult
because of the different means by which data relative to it are se-
cured in the several countries. In some of the European states
the military recruitment records afford the only measure of. the
literacy of the population, and of course an illiteracy rate based on
such records is open to the objection that it is representative only of
a selected class and not of the total population over an age at which
they might be expected to read and write. For the purposes of an
immigration study, however, data of this nature are valuable for
the reason that immigrants and recruits are, as a rule, drawn from
the same classes in the population. Unfortunately data relative to
the literacy of recruits are not available for all European countries,
a most important omission being Russia, which is among the three
largest immigrant-furnishing nations of Europe. However, the fol-
lowing table, which shows the per cent of illiteracy among the re-
cruits of twelve European countries, compared with the illiteracy
among native white males 21 to 24 years of age in the United States,
will be of interest. With the exception noted, the test of literacy in
each case is ability to read and write.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
177
TABLE 11. — Per cent of illiteracy among the recruits in various European coun-
tries, and among native white males 21 to 24 years of age in the United
States.
Country.
Percentof
illiteracy.
Date.
Source.
Belgium
9 1
1907
Hiibner's " Tabellen ," 1909, p. 93.
Denmark . .
.20
1897
Do.
France
3.5
1906
Statesman's Yearbook, 1909, p. 751.
German Empire .....
.04
1906
Do.
Greece
30.00
(a)
Hubner's "Tabellen," 1909, p. 93.
Italy
30.6
195
Italia Annuario Statistico, 1905-1907.
Netherlands
1.9
1907
Nederland Jaarcij fers, 1907, p. 51.
Roumania
69.0
1900-1904
Annarul Statistico al Romaniei, 1907.
Servia
5° 1
1906
Serbie- \nnuarie Statistique 1906 p. 712.
Sweden
.59
1904
Statesman's Yearbook, 1908, p. 1238.
Switzerland
o.l
1908
Statesman's Yearbook, 1910, p. 1253.
United Kingdom
1 4
1904-1905
Do.
United States
3.8
1900
Twelfth Census of the United States, Supplementary
Analysis.
"Date not given.
b Unable to read.
While not conclusive as to literacy among the total population of
the various countries considered, the data above presented tend to
substantiate common knowledge that while illiteracy is at a minimum
in northern and western Europe it is widespread in the southern
and eastern countries which contribute largely to the present tide of
immigration to the United States.
Statistics relative to literacy based on census records are available
for some of the principal immigrant- furnishing countries of Europe.
These data are based on such different proportions of the popula-
tion in various countries that comparisons with each other or with
the United States are difficult and in most cases impossible, but
nevertheless they are valuable and interesting for the purposes of
this report.
The following table shows the per cent of illiterates among a cer-
tain proportion of the population of the countries specified, the test
of literacy, except as noted, being the ability to read and write.
TABLE 12. — Per cent of illiteracy in the population of specified European coun-
tries and of the United States.
Country.
Per cent
of illit-
eracy.
Date.
Basis.
Source.
Austria
23.8
1900
Persons 6 years of age or over. .
Oesterr, Statist, Handbuch, 1907.
Belgium
21 9
1900
Total population
p. 6.
Annuaire Statistique de la Bel-
Finland
a 1.2
1900
Population 15 years of age or
gique, 1906, p. 74.
Statististe Arsbok 1907 p 32
Hungary
41.0
1900
over.
Total civil population 6 years
Magyar Statisztikai Evkony
Italy.
48.5
1905
of age or over.
Population 6 years of age or
1905. p. 324.
Italia Annuario Statistico 1905-
Portugal
75 i
1900
over,
do
1907, p. 245.
Statesman's Yearbook 1908 p
Roumania
61.4
1899
Population 10 years of age or
1367.
Russia
72.0
1897
over.
Population 9 years of age or
1907, p. 5.
Rossiia-Perepis Naselenia 1897
Servia
83 0
1900
over.
Statesman's Yearbook 1908 p
Spain..
63 8
1900
do
1485.
United States
10.7
1900
Population 10 years of age or
over.
1900, Vol. II, p. xi.
Twelfth Census, United States,
Supplementary Analysis.
0 Unable to read.
178
The Immigration Commission.
Information relative to illiteracy of the total population in Great
Britain, France, and Germany is not available, but it is well known
that the per cent is low compared with the countries of eastern and
southern Europe under consideration. In the Scandinavian countries
illiteracy is said to be almost nonexistent, and this statement is sub-
stantiated by the fact that the percentage of illiterates among Scan-
dinavian immigrants to the United States is smaller than among any
other immigrants.0 In Norway no attempt is made to secure statis-
tics relative to illiteracy for the reason that little exists.
MONEY SHOWN BY IMMIGRANTS.
It is impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy the
amount of money or the value of the property brought to the United
States by immigrants. The only available information upon the sub-
ject is contained in the records of the Bureau of Immigration and
Naturalization and results from a provision of the immigration law
which directs that there shall be secured from each immigrant in-
formation as to whether or not he is in possession of $50, and if not,
what is the amount he has.6
It will be noted that the law does not contemplate a record of the
actual amount of money brought, the intent being merely to deter-
mine whether immigrants are possessed of a sufficient amount to
carry them to their destination or to provide against their immedi-
ately becoming public charges. In many cases the amount of money
possessed has an important bearing on the admissibility of the
immigrant.
Reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration give the
number of persons of each race or people showing $50 or over, the
number showing less than $50, and the total amount shown. During
the fiscal years 1905 to 1909, inclusive, 5,547,839 European immi-
grants, including Syrians, were admitted to the United States, and
of these, 4,136,016 are recorded as having shown money to some
amount, the discrepancy being in the main due to children and other
dependents. The following table shows the amount of money shown
by immigrants of old and new classes during the period mentioned,
and also the average per capita based on the total number of immi-
grants as well as the total number showing money :
13. — Money per capita shown on act/mission to the United States "by
European immigrants (including Syrian}, fiscal years 1905 to 1909, inclusive,
by class of immigration.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Class.
Total
number
coming.
Total
number
showing
money.
Total
amount of
money
shown.
Average per capita.
Based on
total
coming.
Based on
total
number
showing
money.
Old immigration
1,529,272
1,105,395
3,030,621
$61,018,916
63,623,404
$39. 90
15.83
$55.20
20.99
New immigration ..
4,018,567
Total
5,547,839
4,136,016
124,642,320
22.47
30.14
0 See table on p. 175.
> See Vol. II, p. 735.
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 179
As previously suggested the amounts specified in the foregoing
table do not represent the actual amount of money brought, for the
reason that immigrants having $50 or more are not required to state
the exact amount in their possession. However, in the case of south-
ern and eastern Europeans and Syrians who showed money only 6.3
per cent are recorded as having $50 or more, so that the total amount
shown by immigrants of that class is probably a close approximation
of the total amount in their possession on admission to the United
States. On the other hand, the fact that 31.6 per cent of northern
and western European immigrants showing money were possessed
of $50 or more makes it impossible to estimate the total amount
brought by them.
The aggregate amount of money shown by all European immi-
grants during the five years considered was $124,642,320 ; the amount
accredited to southern and southeastern Europeans was $63,623,404,
which is less than the amount sent by immigrants in the United
States to either Austria-Hungary or Italy in the year 1907.a The
total amount of money sent to European countries by immigrants
in the United States in the year mentioned is conservatively esti-*
mated at $275,000,000, or more than twice as much as was brought
by all immigrants from Europe in five years.
PERMANENT AND TRANSIENT EMIGRATION.
In the matter of stability or permanence of residence in the United
States there is a very wide difference between European immigrants
of the old and new classes. The fact that under the immigration law
of 1907 a detailed record is kept of aliens leaving United States
ports 6 makes possible a study of the tendency of the different races or
peoples to leave the country within varying periods after arrival, and
the experience in this regard during the recent industrial depression
is interesting and suggestive. The departure of aliens from the
United States can not fairly be compared with arriving immigrants
in the same or another year, but these items contrasted indicate clearly
the races or peoples which in the main regard this country as a per-
manent home and those which, to a large extent, consider it only as a
field for remunerative labor during times of industrial prosperity.
The fiscal year 1906-7 being one of unusual industrial activity, it
was marked by the largest immigration in the history of the country,
but following the beginning of the industrial depression in October of
the fiscal year 1907-8 there was a sudden reversal in the tide, and dur-
ing the remainder of that year there was a great exodus of Europeans.
The participation of the various European races or peoples in the
0 See Vol. II, p. 427.
6 See Vol. II, pp. 735, 736, and 737.
180
The Immigration Commission.
unprecedented immigration of 1907 and in the exodus during 1908 is
shown by the following table :
TABLE 14. — European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to tlie United
States during the fiscal year 1907, and European emigrant aliens (including
Syrian) departing from the United States during the fiscal year 1908, by race
or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Immigrants admitted,
1907.
Emigrant aliens de-
parted, 1908.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Armenian
2,644
13,554
27, 174
47,826
7,393
12,467
51,126
14,860
9,392
92,936
46,283
149,182
38,706
51,564
242, 497
25,884
60,071
138,033
9,648
19,200
16,807
24,081
53,425
20,516
42,041
9,495
5,880
1,902
2,754
0.2
1.1
2.2
3.9
.6
1.0
4.1
1.2
.8
7.5
3.7
12.1
3.1
4.2
19.6
2.1
4.9
11.2
.8
1.6
1.4
2.0
4.3
1.7
3.4
.8
.5
2
'.2
234
1,051
5,965
28,584
1,046
1,198
5,320
3,463
3,063
14,418
6,763
7,702
2,441
19.507
147 '.828
3, 388
29,276
46,727
898
5,264
7,507
3,310
5,801
1,596
23,573
1,977
1,700
1,276
163
0.1
.3
1.6
7.5
.3
.3
1.4
.9
.8
3.8
1.8
2.0
.6
5.1
38.8
.9
7.7
12.3
.2
1.4
2.0
.9
1.5
.4
6.2
.5
.5
.3
.0
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin
Croatian and Slovenian
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian . . .
Dutch and' Flemish
English
' Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese. . .
Roumanian
Russian.. .
Ruthenian
Scandinavian
Scotch .
Slovak
Spanish
Syrian
Turkish. . .
Welsh . .
Total
1,237,341
100.0
381,044
100.0
The radical difference between the old and new immigration with
regard to stability of residence during a period of depression is more
clearly shown by the following table :
TABLE 15. — European immigrants (including Syrian) . admitted to the United
States during the fiscal year 1907, and European emigrant aliens (including
Syrian) departing from the United States during the fiscal year 1908, by class
of immigration.
Class.
Immigrants admitted,
1907.
Emigrant aliens
departed, 1908.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Old immigration
281,322
956,019
22.7
77.3
34,000
347,044
8.9
91.1
New immigration
Total
1,237,341
100.0
381,044
100.0
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 181
The one conclusion to be drawn from the record of departures from
the United States, as shown by the foregoing tables, is that as a whole
the races or peoples composing the old immigration are in great part
permanent settlers, and that a large proportion of the newer immi-
grants are simply transients whose interest in the country is measured
by the opportunity afforded for labor.
Conspicuous among the newer immigrants as exceptions to this
rule are the Hebrews, who formed more than 12 per cent of the Euro-
pean immigration in 1907 and only slightly more than 2 per cent of
the exodus in 1908, indicating a degree of permanency not reached by
any other race or people in either class.
The races or peoples conspicuous as showing the smallest degree of
permanency are the Croatian and Slovenian, Magyar, North and
South Italian, Polish, Russian, Slovak, and Turkish, while those
showing relatively the smallest number of departing aliens are the
Armenian, Bohemian and Moravian, Dutch and Flemish, Hebrew,
Irish, Scotch, and Welsh.
In both the old and new classes the exodus of 1908 was composed
largely of recent immigrants, about 75 per cent of the former and 83
per cent of the latter having resided in the United States continuously
for not over five years.
EXTENT AND PERMANENCE OF THE RETURN MOVEMENT.
From available data it appears that at least one-third of all Euro-
pean immigrants who come to the United States eventually return to
Europe. It seems to be a common belief that this outward movement
is largely composed of persons who follow seasonal occupations in the
United States and who consequently come and go according to the
seasonal demands for labor. Such is not the case, however, for as
nearly as can be judged from existing data not more than one-third
of those who return to Europe come again to this country. Prior to
the fiscal year 1908 data respecting the number of outgoing aliens
were not secured by the immigration authorities. Owing to a pro-
vision of the immigration law of 1907 such data are now available
for the three fiscal years 1908 to 1910, and in the table following
the number of European emigrant aliens are shown in comparison
with immigration from Europe for the same years.
182
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 16. — European! immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States, and European emigrant aliens (including Syrian) departing from the
United States, fiscal years 1908 to 1910, inclusive, by race or people.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Race or people.
Immigrants
admitted.
Emigrant
aliens
departing.
Number
depart-
ing for
every
100 ad-
mitted.
Armenian
11,440
1,294
11
Bohemian and Moravian ...
25, 188
2,710
11
Bulgarian Servian and Montenegrin
37,286
10,927
29
Croatian and Slovenian.
78,658
44, 442
57
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian
10,331
1,991
19
Dutch and Flemish
29, 004
3,085
11
English ' .
101,611
14,481
14
Finnish
32, 752
5,608
17
French
21,298
9 622
45
German. ..
192,644
39,749
21
Greek
86,257
21,615
25
Hebrew
236 100
18, 949
8
Irish.
93,090
6,409
7
Italian, North
77, 661
48, 649
63
Italian, South
457,414
257, 902
56
Lithuanian .
51,129
7,189
14
Magyar
78,901
51,014
65
Polish
269, 646
82, 507
31
Portuguese
18,426
2,550
14
Roumanian
30 949
8 396
27
Russian
41,578
17,076
41
Ruthenian
55, 106
6 697
12
Scandinavian
113,786
15, 602
14
Scotch ,
42, 737
4,345
10
Slovak
70,717
41 438
59
Spanish
10 299
5 297
51
Syrian...
13,507
3,810
28
Turkish
4 261
3 010
71
Welsh
5 562
471
3
Total.
2,297 338
736 835
32
The above data classified according to the old and new immigration
are as follows:
TABLE 17. — European immigrants (including Syrian) admitted to the United
States, and European emigrant aliens (including Syrian) departing from the
United States, fiscal years 1908 to 1910, inclusive, by class of immigration.
(lass.
Tm migrants
admitted.
Emigrant
aliens
departing.
Number
depart-
ing for
every 100
admitted.
Old Immigration
599 732
93 764
16
New immigration
1 697 606
643 071
38
Total
2 297,338
736 835
32
It will be noted that for every 100 European immigrants admitted
to the United States during the period 32 departed from the country.
There is a striking preponderance of southern and eastern Europeans
in the outward movement, and their relative lack of stability of resi-
dence as compared with the older immigrant classes is clearly shown
by the fact that of the former 38 departed for every 100 admitted
while among the latter the proportion was only 16 departed to 100
admitted.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
183
The following table shows the sex, age, and length of residence in
the United States of European aliens leaving the country during the
three years under consideration:
TABLE 18. — European emigrant aliens (including Syrian) departing from the
United States, fiscal years 1908 to 1910, inclusive, by class, sex, age, and
period of residence.
Class.
Total
num-
ber.
Sex.
Age.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Fe-
male.
Under
14
•years.
14 to 44
years.
45 years
or over.
Under
14
years.
14 to
44
years.
45
years
or
over.
Old immigration..
New immigration. .
Total
91,692
644,896
58,291
550,505
33,401
94,391
63.6
85.4
36.4
14.6
6,118
25,136
73,871
564,178
11,703
55,582
6.7
3.9
80.6
87.5
12.8
8.6
736,588
608,796
127,792
82.7
17.3
31,254
638,049
67,285
4.2
86.6
9.1
flnnt.innniis rpsidpnpp. in TTnit.p.rJ fitatps
Class.
Number.
Per cent.
Un-
known
Not
over 5
years.
5 to 10
years.
10 to
15
years.
15 to
20
years.
Over
20
years.
Un-
known
Not
over
5
years.
5 to
10
years.
10 to
15
years.
15 to
20
years.
Over
20
years.
Old immigration..
New immigration.
Total
7,125
5,945
65,415
535,344
13,345-
91,181
2,231
7,220
1,805
3,622
1,771
1,584
7.8
.9
71.3
83.0
14.6
14.1
2.4
1.1
2.0
.0
1.9
.2
13,070
600, 759
104,526
9,451
5,427
3,355
1.8
81.6
14.2
1.3
.7
.5
While the above tables cover a comparatively short period of time
and include at least one year when the outward movement was abnor-
mally large, they nevertheless seem to indicate, on the whole, about
the normal status of the inward and outward movement of Europeans
in recent years. This belief is substantiated by the steamship com-
panies' records of west and east bound steerage passengers between
European and United States ports since 1898, which data are shown in
the following table :
TABLE 19. — Movement of third-class passengers between the United States and
European ports, calendar years 1S99 to 1910 inclusive.
[Compiled from reports of the Trans-Atlantic Passenger Association.]
Ports.
Number of passengers-
Number
arriving
for every
100 leaving.
Leaving
for
United
States
ports.
Arriving
from
United
States
ports.
British
2,604,972
4,155,732
2,044,650
1,012,739
1,159,237
1,122,605
39
28
55
North continental
Mediterranean .•
Total
8,805,354
3,294,581
37
184 The Immigration Commission.
These figures are not entirely comparable with the Bureau of
Immigration statistics previously shown, because the latter include
only immigrant and emigrant aliens, while the steamship association
data are based on all steerage passengers. Moreover the bureau
figures include all immigrants regardless of the class of transporta-
tion. However, the fact that nearly all immigrants travel in the
steerage, and that relatively few besides immigrants do so, makes it
entirely safe to employ the* figures last presented for the purpose of
approximating the extent of the inward and outward movement
under discussion.
By comparing the bureau and steamship data it will be seen that
the latter, covering a longer period of time, show the largest relative
outward movement, and indicate that the tendency of European
immigrants to leave the United States in large numbers is not peculiar
to the last three years. These data are further substantiated by
official Italian statistics, which show that from January 1, 1899, to
December 31, 1907, inclusive, 1,724,952 Italians departed in the steer-
age from ports of that country for United States ports, while during
the same period 798,435 returned in the steerage from the United
States.
How large a proportion of the immigrants who return to Europe
do not come again to the United States can not be definitely deter-
mined. This, however, can undoubtedly be approximated with a fair
degree of accuracy by a consideration of the proportion of arriving
immigrants who have been in the United States previously. During
the fiscal years 1899 to 1906, inclusive, 11.9 per cent of all European
immigrants admitted at United States ports had been in this country
before. As previously shown, the outward movement of European
aliens in recent years has been approximately one-third as great as
the number of European immigrants admitted to the United States.
Comparing this with the fact that only about 12 per cent of all
European immigrants admitted to the United States have been here
Ereviously, it seems clear that approximately two-thirds of all who
;ave the United States do so permanently.
The tables also show that males predominate in the outward move-
ment, 85.4 per cent of the south and east Europeans departing being of
that sex. The fact that 86.6 per cent of all the departing aliens were
from 14 to 44 years of age indicates that those leaving the country
are in the prime of life, while 81.6 per cent have been in the United
States not over five years. The cause of the large outward move-
ment, and especially that part which apparently leaves the United
States permanently, can only be conjectured. That it is not due to
lack of opportunity for employment, except in a period of depression,
is evident from the^ fact that there is a steady influx of European
laborers who have little or no difficulty in finding employment here.
It seems reasonable to suppose that the movement is due to various
causes, including dissatisfaction, ill health, the desire to rejoin family
and friends, and the fulfillment of an ambition to possess a sufficient
amount of money to make life at home less of a struggle.
EFFECTS OF THE RETURN MOVEMENT IN EUROPE.
In every country of Europe to which large numbers of former emi-
grants return from America the effects of the return movement are
apparent. The repatriates as a rule return with amounts of money
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 185
which seem large in the surroundings from which they emigrated.
Usually, also, their sojourn abroad has made them more enterprising
and ambitious and created in them a desire for better things than
those to which they were formerly accustomed. This desire usually
leads to the adoption of a higher standard of living and improved
methods of labor in agriculture and other pursuits. In several parts
of Europe visited by members of the Commission the dwellings of the
returned emigrants are conspicuously better than those of their neigh-
bors, and their economic status as a whole is higher. In many cases
their example is emulated by their neighbors, and in consequence the
tone of whole communities is elevated.
CAUSES OF EMIGRATION.
The present movement of population from Europe to the United
States is, with few exceptions, almost entirely attributable to eco-
nomic causes. Emigration due to political reasons and, to a less
extent, religious oppression, undoubtedly exists, but even in countries
where these incentives prevail the more important cause is very
largely an economic one. This does not mean, however, that emigra-
tion from Europe is now an economic necessity. At times in the past,
notably during the famine years in Ireland, actual want forced a
choice between emigration and literal starvation, but the present
movement results in the main from a widespread desire for better
economic conditions rather than from the necessity of escaping in-
tolerable ones. In other words, the emigrant of to-day comes to the
United States not merely to make a living, but to make a better living
than is possible at home.
With comparatively few exceptions, the emigrant of to-day is
essentially a seller of labor seeking a more favorable market. To a
considerable extent this incentive is accompanied by a certain spirit
of unrest and adventure and a more or less definite ambition for gen-
eral social betterment, but primarily the movement is accounted for
by the fact that the reward of labor is much greater in the United
States than in Europe.
The desire to escape military service is also a primary cause of emi-
gration from some countries, but on the whole it is relatively unim-
portant. It is true, moreover, that some emigrate to escape punish-
ment for crime, or the stigma which follows such punishment, while
others of the criminal class deliberately seek supposedly more advan-
tageous fields for criminal activity. The emigration of criminals of
this class is a natural movement not altogether peculiar to European
countries, and, although vastly important because dangerous, numer-
ically it affects but little the tide of European emigration to the
United States.
In order that the chief cause of emigration from Europe may be
better understood, the Commission has given considerable attention
to economic conditions in the countries visited, with particular refer-
ence to the status of emigrating classes in this regard. It was impos-
sible for the commissioners personally to make more than a general
survey of this subject, but because an understanding of the economic
situation in the chief immigrant-furnishing countries is essential to
an intelligent discussion of the immigration question, the results of
72289°— VOL 1—11 13
186 The Immigration Commission.
the Commission's investigation have been supplemented by official
data or well-authenticated material from other sources.
The purely economic condition of the wage-worker is generally
very much lower in Europe than in the United States. This is espe-
cially true of the unskilled laborer class from which so great a pro-
portion of the emigration to the United States is drawn. Skilled
labor also is poorly paid when compared with returns for like service
in the United States, but the opportunity for continual employment
in this field is usually good and the wages sufficiently high to lessen
the incentive to emigration. A large proportion of the emigration
from southern and eastern Europe may be traced directly to the
inability of the peasantry to gain an adequate livelihood in agricul-
tural pursuits either as laborers or proprietors. Agricultural labor
is paid extremely low wages, and employment is quite likely to be sea-
sonal rather than continuous. In cases where peasant proprietor-
ship is possible, the land holdings are usually so small, the methods
of cultivation so primitive, and the taxes so high, that even in pro-
ductive years the struggle for existence is a hard one, while a crop fail-
ure means practical disaster for the small farmer and farm laborer
alike. In agrarian Russia, where the people have not learned to
emigrate, a crop failure results in a famine, while in other sections
of southern and eastern Europe it results in emigration, usually to*
the United States. Periods of industrial depression as well as crop
failures stimulate emigration, but the effect of the former is not so
pronounced, for the reason that disturbed financial and industrial
conditions in Europe are usually coincidental with like conditions
in the United States, and at such times the emigration movement is
always relatively smaller.
The fragmentary nature of available data relative to wages in many
European countries makes a satisfactory comparison with wages in
the United States impossible. It is well known, however, that even in
England, Germany, France, and other countries of western Europe
wages are below the United States standard, while in southern and
eastern Europe the difference is very great. The Commission found
this to be true in its investigations in parts of Italy, Austria-Hun-
gary, Greece, Turkey, Russia, and the Balkan States. In fact, it may
safely be stated that in these countries the average wage of men en-
gaged in common and agricultural labor is less than 50 cents per
day, while in some sections it is even much lower. It is true that
in some countries agricultural laborers receive from employers certain
concessions in the way of fuel, food, etc., but in cases of this nature
which came to the attention of the Commission the value of the con-
cessions was insufficient to materially affect the low wage scale.
It is a common but erroneous belief that peasants and artisans in
the European countries from which the new immigrant comes can
live so very cheaply that the low wages have practically as great a
purchasing power as the higher wages in the United States. The low
cost of living among the working people, especially of southern and
eastern Europe, Is due to a low standard of living rather than to the
cheapness of food and other commodities. As a matter of fact, meat
and other costly articles of food, which are considered as almost essen-
tial to the everyday table of the American workingman, can not be
afforded among laborers in like occupations in southern and eastern
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 187
Europe. The same is true of the American standard of housing,
clothing, and other things which enter into the cost of living.
Notwithstanding the bad economic conditions surrounding the
classes which furnish so great a part of the emigration from southern
and eastern Europe, the Commission believes that a laudable ambi-
tion for better things than they possess rather than a need for actual
necessities is the chief motive behind the movement to the United
States. Knowledge of conditions in America, promulgated through
letters from friends or by emigrants who have returned for a visit to
their native villages, creates and fosters among the people a desire for
improved conditions which, it is believed, can be attained only
through emigration.
It is the opinion of the Commission that, with the exception of
some Russian and Roumanian Hebrews, relatively few Europeans
emigrate at the present time because of political or religious condi-
tions. It is doubtless true that political discontent still influences the
emigration movement from Ireland, but to a less degree than in
earlier years. The survival of the Polish national spirit undoubtedly
is a determining factor in the emigration from Prussia, Russia, and
Austria of some of that race, while dissatisfaction with Russian domi-
nation is to a degree responsible for Finnish emigration. In all
probability some part of the emigration from Turkey in Europe and
Turkey in Asia, as well as from the Balkan States, is also attrib-
utable to political conditions in those countries. There is, of course,
a small movement from nearly every European country of political
idealists who prefer a democracy to a monarchial government, but
these, and in fact all, with the exception of the Hebrew peoples re-
ferred to, whose emigration is in part due to political or religious
causes, form a very small portion of the present European emigration
to the United States.
Contributory or immediate causes of emigration were given due
consideration by the Commission. Chief of these is clearly the ad-
vice and assistance of relatives or friends who have previously emi-
grated. Through the medium of letters from those already in the
United States and the visits of former emigrants, the emigrating
classes of Europe are kept constantly if not always reliably informed
as to labor conditions here, and these agencies are by far the most
potent promoters of the present movement of population.
The Commission found ample evidence of this fact in every country
of southern and eastern Europe. Of the two agencies mentioned,
however, letters are by far the more important. In fact, it is en-
tirely safe to assert that letters to friends at home from persons who
have emigrated have been the immediate cause of by far the greater
part of the remarkable movement from southern and eastern Europe
to the United States during the past twenty-five years. There is
hardly a village or community in southern Italy and Sicily that has
not contributed a portion of its population to swell the tide of emi-
gration to the United States, and the same is true of large areas of
Austria, Hungary, Greece, Turkey, and the Balkan States. There is
a tendency on the part of emigrants from these countries to retain an
interest in the homeland, and in consequence a great amount of cor-
respondence passes back and forth. It was frequently stated to mem-
bers of the Commission that letters from persons who have emigrated
to America were passed from hand to hand until most of the emi-
188 The Immigration Commission.
grants' friends and neighbors were acquainted with the contents. In
periods of industrial activity, as a rule, the letters so circulated con-
tain optimistic references to wages and opportunities for employment
in the United States, and when comparison in this regard is made
with conditions at home it is inevitable that whole communities
should be inoculated with a desire to emigrate. The reverse is true
during seasons of industrial depression in the United States. At such
times intending emigrants are quickly informed by their friends in
the United States relative to conditions of employment and a great
falling off in the tide of emigration is the immediate result.
Emigrants who have returned for a visit to their native land are
also great promoters of emigration. This is particularly true of
southern and eastern European emigrants, who as a class make more
or less frequent visits to their old homes. Among the returning emi-
grants are always some who have failed to achieve success in Amer-
ica, and some who through changed conditions of life and employment
return in broken health. It is but natural that these should have a
slightly deterrent effect on emigration, but, on the whole, this is
relatively unimportant, for the returning emigrant, as a rule, is one
who has succeeded. In times of industrial inactivity in the United
States the large number of emigrants who return to their native lands
of course serve as a temporary check to emigration, but it is certain
that in the long run such returning emigrants actually promote
rather than retard the movement to the United States.
The importance of the advice of friends as an immediate cause of
emigration from Europe is also indicated by the fact that nearly all
European immigrants admitted to the United States are, according
to their own statements, going to join relatives or friends. The
United States immigration law provides that information upon this
point be secured relative to every alien coming to the United States
by water,0 and the record shows that in the fiscal years 1908 and 1909,
94.7 per cent of all European and Syrian immigrants admitted were
destined to relatives or friends. It is worthy of note that the per-
centage was higher in the new immigration than in the old, being 97
per cent in the former and 89.4 per cent in the latter.
The foregoing not only indicates a very general relationship between
admitted immigrants and those who follow, but it suggests forcibly
that emigration from Europe proceeds according to well-defined indi-
vidual plans rather than in a haphazard way.
Actual contracts involving promises of employment between em-
ployers in the United States and laborers in Europe are not respon-
sible for any very considerable part of the present emigration move-
ment. It will be understood, however, that this statement refers only
to cases where actual bona fide contracts between employers and la-
borers exist rather than to so-called contract labor cases as defined in
the sweeping terms of the United States immigration law, which clas-
sifies as such all persons —
who have been induced or solicited to migrate to this country by offers or
promises of employment or in consequence of agreements, oral, written, or
printed, express or implied, to perform labor in this country of any kind, skilled
or unskilled; * * *.
Under a strict interpretation of the law above quoted, it would
seem that in order to escape being classified as contract laborers im-
migrants coming to the United States must be entirely without as-
a See Vol. II, p. 7.°.r>.
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 189
surance that employment will be available here. Indeed, it is certain
that European immigrants, and particularly those from southern and
eastern Europe, are, under a literal construction of the law, for the
most part contract laborers, for it is unlikely that many emigrants
embark for the United States without a pretty definite knowledge of
where they will go and what they will do if admitted.
It should not be understood, however, that the Commission believes
that contract labor in its more serious form does not exist. Un-
doubtedly many immigrants come to the United States from south-
ern and eastern Europe as the result of definite if not open agree-
ments with employers of labor here, but, as previously stated, actual
and direct contract labor agreements can not be considered as the
direct or immediate cause of any considerable proportion of the
European emigration movement to the United States. As before
stated emigrants as a rule are practically assured that employment
awaits them in America before they leave their homes for ports of
embarkation, and doubtless in a majority of cases they know just
where and what the employment will be. This is another result of
letters from former emigrants in the United States. In fact it may
be said that immigrants, or at least newly arrived immigrants, are
substantially the agencies which keep the American labor market
supplied with unskilled laborers from Europe. Some of them operate
consciously and on a large scale, but as a rule each immigrant simply
informs his nearest friends that employment can be had and advises
them to come. It is these personal appeals which, more than all other
agencies, promote and regulate the tide of European emigration to
America.
Moreover, the immigrant in the United States in a large measure
assists, as well as advises, his friends in the Old World to emigrate.
It is difficult, and in many cases impossible, for the southern and east-
ern European to save a sufficient amount of money to purchase a
steerage ticket to the United States. No matter how strong the de-
sire to emigrate may be its accomplishment on the part of the ordi-
nary laborer, dependent upon his own resources, can be realized only
after a long struggle. To immigrants in the United States, however,
the price of steerage transportation to or from Europe is relatively
a small matter, and by giving or advancing the necessary money they
make possible the emigration of many. It is impossible to estimate
with any degree of accuracy what proportion of the large amount
of money annually sent abroad by immigrants is sent for the purpose
of assisting relatives or friends to emigrate, but it is certain that the
aggregate is large. The immediate families of immigrants are the-
largest beneficiaries in this regard, but the assistance referred to is
extended to many others.
Next to the advice and assistance of friends and relatives who have
already emigrated, the propaganda conducted by steamship ticket
agents is undoubtedly the most important immediate cause of emi-
gration from Europe to the United States. This propaganda flour-
ishes in every emigrant- furnishing country of Europe, notwithstand-
ing the fact that the promotion of emigration is forbidden by the
laws of many such countries as well as by thfc United States immi-
gration law.a
0 See Vol. II, p. 734.
190 The Immigration Commission.
It is, of course, difficult if not impossible to secure a really effective
enforcement of this provision of the United States law, but undoubt-
edly it does supplement the emigration laws of various European
countries in compelling steamship ticket agents to solicit emigration
in a secret manner rather than openly.
It does not appear that steamship companies as a rule openly or
directly violate the United States law, but through local agents and
subagents of such companies it is violated persistently and continu-
ously. Selling steerage tickets to America is the sole or chief occu-
pation of large numbers of persons in southern and eastern Europe,
and from the observations of the Commission it is clear that these
local agents as a rule solicit business by every possible means and
consequently encourage emigration.
No data are available to show even approximately the total number
of such agents and subagents engaged in the steerage ticket business.
One authority stated to the Commission that two of the leading
steamship lines had five or six thousand ticket agents in Galicia
alone, and that there was " a great hunt for emigrants " there. The
total number of such agents is undoubtedly very large, for the steerage
business is vastly important to all the lines operating passenger ships,
and all compete for a share of it. The great majority of emigrants
from southern and eastern European countries sail under foreign
flags, Italian emigrants, a large proportion of whom sail under the
flag of Italy, being the only conspicuous exception. Many Greek,
Russian, and Austrian emigrants sail on ships of those nations, but
the bulk of the emigrant business originating in eastern and southern
European countries, excepting Italy, is handled by the British, Ger-
man, Dutch, French, and Belgian lines. There is at present an agree-
ment among the larger steamship companies which in a measure regu-
lates the distribution of this traffic and prevents unrestricted compe-
tition between the lines, but this does not affect the vigorous and wide-
spread hunt for steerage passengers which is carried on throughout
the chief emigrant- furnishing countries.
The Commission's inquiry and information from other sources
indicate that the attempted promotion of emigration by steamship
ticket agents is carried on to a greater extent in Austria, Hungary.
Greece, and Russia than in other countries. The Russian law, as
elsewhere stated, does not recognize the right of the people to emi-
grate permanently, and while the large and continued movement of
population from tne Empire to over-seas countries is proof that the
law is to a large degree inoperative, it nevertheless seems to restrict
somewhat the activities of steamship agents. Moreover, there were
at the time of the Commission's visit two Russian steamship lines
carrying emigrants directly from Libau to the United States, and the
Government's interest in the success of these lines resulted in a rather
strict surveillance of the agents of foreign companies doing business
in the Empire. Because of this, much of the work of agents of foreign
lines was carried on surreptitiously ; in fact, they were commonly de-
scribed to the Commission as " secret agents." Emigration from
Russia is, or at least is made to appear to be, a difficult matter, and
the work of the secret* agents consists not only of selling steamship
transportation, but also in procuring passports, and in smuggling
across the frontier emigrants who for military or other reasons can
not procure passports, or who because of their excessive cost elect to
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 191
leave Eussia without them. This was frequently stated to the Com-
mission. A Russian official at St. Petersburg complained to the Com-
mission that Jewish secret agents of British lines had been employed
in Russia to induce Christians, instead of Jews, to emigrate. It was
learned that some letters had been received by prospective emigrants
containing more information than the dates of sailing, terms, etc. (as
allowed by section 7 of the United States immigration act a) , and also
that on market days in some places steamship agents would mingle
with the people and endeavor to incite them to emigrate.6
The Hungarian law strictly forbids the promotion of emigration
and the Government has prosecuted violations so vigorously that at
the time of the Commission's visit the emigration authorities expressed
the belief that the practice had been checked. It was stated to the
Commission that foreign steamship lines had constantly acted in
c6ntravention of the Hungarian regulations by employing secret
agents to solicit jbusiness, or through agents writing personal letters
to prospective emigrants, advising them how to leave Hungary with-
out the consent of the Government. Letters of this nature were pre-
sented to the Commission. Some of them are accompanied by crudely
drawn maps indicating the location of all the Hungarian control
stations on the Austrian border, and the routes of travel by which
such stations can be avoided. The Commission was shown the records
in hundreds of cases where the secret agents of foreign steamship
companies had been convicted and fined or imprisoned for violating
the Hungarian law by soliciting emigration. It was reported to
the Commission that in one year at Kassa, a Hungarian city on the
Austrian border, eight secret agents of the German lines were pun-
ished for violations of the emigration law.
In Austria, at the time of the Commission's visit, there was com-
paratively little agitation relative to emigration. Attempts had
been made to enact an emigration law similar to that of Hungary,
but these were not successful. The solicitation of emigration is for-
bidden by law, but it appeared that steamship ticket agents were
not subjected to strict regulation, as they are in Hungary. Gov-
ernment officials and others interested in the emigration situation
expressed the belief that the solicitations of agents had little effect
on the emigration movement, which was influenced almost entirely
by economic conditions. It was not denied, however, that steam-
ship agents do solicit emigration.
The Italian law strictly forbids the solicitation of emigration by
steamship agents, and complaints relative to violation of the law
were not nearly so numerous as in some countries visited. Never-
theless there are many persons engaged in the business of selling
steerage tickets in that country, and the Commission was informed
that considerable soliciting is done.
The Commission found that steamship agents were very active in
Greece and that the highly colored posters and other advertising
matter of the steamship companies were to be found everywhere.
According to its population Greece furnishes more emigrants to the
United States than any other country, and the spirit of emigration is
a See Vol. II, p. 734.
6 Unpublished reports of agents of the United States Bureau of Immigration.
192 The Immigration Commission.
so intense among the people that solicitation by steamship companies
probably plays relatively a small part even as a contributory cause of
the movement.
ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.
Emigration from Europe to the United States through public as-
sistance is so small as to be of little or no importance. It is prob-
able and easily conceivable that local authorities sometimes assist
in the emigration of public charges and criminals, but such instances
are believed to be rare. As a matter of fact, European nations look
with regret on the emigration of their young and able-bodied men
and women, and the comity of nations would prevent the deportation
of criminals and paupers to a country whose laws denied admission
to such classes, however desirable their emigration might be. Besides,
the assisted emigration to the United States of the aged or physically
or mentally defective would be sure to result in failure because of the
stringent provisions of the United States immigration law. It is
well known that in the earlier days of unrestricted immigration large
numbers of paupers and other undesirables were assisted to emigrate,
or were practically deported, from the British Isles and other coun-
tries to the United States. Even at the present time, as shown in the
Commission's report on the immigration situation in Canada,0 there
is a large assisted emigration from England to Canada and other
British colonies, but it does not appear that there is any movement
of this nature to the United States.
On the other hand various nations of the Western Hemisphere
make systematic efforts in Europe to induce immigration. The Cana-
dian government maintains agencies in all the countries of northern
and western Europe where the solicitation of emigration is permitted,
and pays a bonus to thousands of booking agents for directing emi-
grants to the Dominion.6 Canada, however, expends no money in
the transportation of emigrants. Several South American countries,
including Brazil and Argentine Republic, also systematically solicit
immigration in Europe.
Several American States have attempted to attract immigrants by
the distribution in Europe of literature advertising the attractions
of such States. A few States have sent commissioners to various
countries for the purpose of inducing immigration, but although some
measure of success has attended such efforts the propaganda has had
little effect on the immigration movemenjb as a whole.
EMIGRATION OF CRIMINALS.
That former convicts and professional criminals from all countries
come to the United States practically at will can not and need not be
denied, although it seems probable that in the popular belief the
number is greatly exaggerated. This class emigrates and is admitted
to this country, and, in the opinion of the Commission, the blame can
not equitably be placed elsewhere than on the United States. The
Commission is convinced that no European government encourages
the emigration of its criminals to this country. Some, it is true,
take no measures to prevent such emigration, especially after criminals
a The Immigration Situation in Other Countries. Reports of the Immigration
Commission, vol. 40. (Senate Doc. No. 761, 61st Cong., 3d sees.)
6 See Vol. II, pp. 607 and 608.
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 193
have paid the legal penalties demanded, but others, and particularly
Italy, seek to restrain the departure of former convicts in common
with other classes debarred by the United States immigration law.
The accomplishment of this purpose on the part of Italy is attempted
by specific regulations forbidding the issuance of passports to in-
tended immigrants who have been convicted of a felony or other
crime or misdemeanor involving moral turpitude within the meaning
of the United States law: Under the Italian system local officials
furnish the record upon which is determined the intending emigrant's
right to receive a passport, and it is not denied that some officials at
times violate the injunctions of the Government in this regard, but
as a whole the Commission believes the effort is honestly made and
in the main successfully accomplished. The weakness and inefficiency
of the system, however, lie in- the fact that passports are not de-
manded by the United States as a requisite of admission, and although
subjects of Italy may not leave Italian ports without them, there is
little or nothing to prevent those unprovided from leaving the coun-
try overland without passports or with passports to other countries
and then embarking for the United States from foreign ports. Thus
it is readily seen that the precaution of Italy, however effective, is
practically worthless without cooperation on the part of the United
States.
EXAMINATION OF EMIGRANTS ABROAD.
The practice of examining into the physical condition of emigrants
at the time of embarkation is one of long standing at some European
ports. In the earlier days, and in fact until quite recently, the pur-
pose of the inspection was merely to protect the health of steerage
passengers during the ocean voyage. ^The Belgian law of 1843 pro-
vided that in case the presence of infectious disease among passengers
was suspected there should be an examination by a naval surgeon in
order to prevent the embarkation of afflicted persons. The British
steerage law of 1848, the enactment of which followed the experi-
ences of 1847, when thousands of emigrants driven from Ireland by
the famine died of ship fever, provided that passengers should be
examined by a physician and those whose condition was likely to
endanger the health of other passengers should not be permitted to
proceed. Similar laws or regulations became general among the
maritime nations and are still in effect.
The situation is also affected somewhat by provisions of the United
States quarantine law, which requires American consular officers
to satisfy themselves of the sanitary condition of ships and passengers
sailing for United States ports. The laws above referred to are
intended to prevent the embarkation of persons afflicted with dis-
eases of a quarantinable nature, and the only real and effective pro-
tection this country has against the coming of the otherwise physically
or mentally defective is the United States immigration law which,
through rejections and penalties at United States ports, has made
the transportation of diseased emigrants unprofitable to the steam-
ship companies. This law is responsible for the elaborate system of
emigrant inspection which prevails at ports of embarkation and else-
where in Europe at the present time.
194
The Immigration Commission.
A systematic medical inspection of immigrants at United States
ports was first established under the immigration act of March 3,
1891.a Under that law steamship companies were required to return
free of charge excluded aliens, and the number of rejections soon
compelled the companies to exercise some degree of care in the selec-
tion of steerage passengers at foreign ports of embarkation. The
necessity of a careful inspection abroad was increased when in 1897
trachoma was classed as a " dangerous contagious " disease, within the
meaning of the United States immigration law, and again when the
immigration law of 1903 imposed a fine of $100 upon steamship com-
panies for bringing to a United States port an alien afflicted with a
loathsome or dangerous contagious disease, when the presence of
such disease might have been detected by a competent medical ex-
amination at the foreign port of embarkation.
The immigration law of 1907,6 at present in force, increased the
causes for which a fine of $100 may be imposed on steamship com-
panies to include the bringing of idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, and per-
sons afflicted with tuberculosis whose condition might have been de-
tected at the foreign port of embarkation.0
The effect of the various laws in debarring undesirable immigrants
since 1892 is indicated by the following table, which shows by years
the number rejected at all United States ports, as compared with the
total number of immigrants admitted in such years :
TABLE 20. — Immigrants admitted and aliens debarred at United States ports,
fiscal years 1892 to 1910.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration.]
Year.
Immigrants
admitted.
Aliens
debarred.
Ratio.
1892...
579.663
2,164
1 to 268
1893
439 730
1 053
1 to 418
1894 ...
285 631
1 389
1 to 206
1895
258 536
2 419
1 to 107
1896
343 267
2 799
1 to 123
1897
230 832
1 617
1 to 143
1898
229 299
3 030
1 to 76
1899
311 715
3 798
1 to 82
1900...
448 572
4 246
1 to 106
1901 :
487 918
3 516
1 to 139
1902
648 743
4 974
1 to 130
1903
857 046
8 769
1 to 98
1904...
812 870
7 994
1 to 102
1905...
1 026 499
11 879
1 to 86
1906
1 100 735
12 432
1 to 89
1907
1 285 349
13 064
1 to 98
1908
782 870
10 902
1 to 72
1909...
751 786
lo'411
1 to 72
1910
1 04l'570
24 270
1 to 43
Total
11 922 631
130 721
1 to 91
How to prevent the embarkation at foreign ports of emigrants who
under the immigration law can not be admitted at United States ports
is a serious problem, in which the welfare of the emigrant is the chief
consideration. In a purely practical sense, except for the danger of
contagion on shipboard the United States is not seriously affected by
the arrival of diseased persons at ports of entry, because the law
does not permit them to enter the country.
0 See Vol. II, p. 571.
ft Immigration act of February 20, 1907.
c See Vol. II, p. 734.
See Vol. II, pp. 731-744
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 195
From a humanitarian standpoint, however, it is obviously of the
greatest importance that emigrants of the classes debarred by law
from entering the United States be not allowed to embark at foreign
ports. This is accomplished in a large measure under the present
system of inspection abroad, for in ordinary years at least four in-
tending emigrants are turned back by the steamship companies be-
fore leaving a European port to one debarred at United States ports
of arrival.
In view of the importance of the subject the Commission made
careful investigation of examination systems prevailing at the ports
of Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bremen, Cherbourg, Christiania, Copen-
hagen, Fiume, Genoa, Glasgow, Hamburg, Havre, Libau, Liverpool,
Londonderry, Marseille, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Patras, Pirgeus,
Queenstown, Kotterdam, and Southampton, from which ports prac-
tically all emigrants for the United States embark.
There is little uniformity 'in the systems of examination in force
at these ports. At Naples, Palermo, and Messina, under authority
of the United States quarantine law and by agreement with the
Italian Government and the steamship companies, the medical ex-
amination of steerage passengers is made by officers of the United
States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, who exercise
practically absolute control in this regard. • These officers examine for
defects contemplated by the United States immigration law every
intended emigrant holding a steerage ticket and advise the rejection
of those whose physical condition would make their admission to the
United States improbable. While acting unofficially, these officers
have the support of both government and steamship officials, and
their suggestions relative to rejection are always complied with.
The other extreme, so far as United States control is concerned,
exists at Antwerp, where the Belgian Government is unwilling to
yield even partial control of the situation, this attitude being due in
part to a former disagreement incidental to the administration of the
United States quarantine law at that port. At Antwerp not even
American consular officers are permitted to interfere in the examina-
tion of emigrants. Between these extremes there exists a variety of
systems, in which, for the most part, American consular officials per-
form more or less important functions, as outlined in the United
States quarantine law previously referred to. As a practical illus-
tration of the value of examinations at the various European ports
in preventing the embarkation of diseased or otherwise undesirable
emigrants, the Commission, as will appear later, has made a com-
parative study showing rejections, by cause, at United States ports of
emigrants from different ports of Europe.
The examination of intending emigrants, however, is not confined
entirely to ports of embarkation, but in several instances is required
when application for a steamship ticket is made or before the emi-
grant has proceeded to a port of embarkation. The most conspicuous
existence of such preliminary examinations is the control-station
system which the German Government compels the steamship com-
panies to maintain on the German-Russian and German-Austrian
frontiers. There are thirteen of these stations on the frontier and
one near Berlin. Germany, as a matter of self-protection, requires
that all emigrants from eastern Europe intending to cross German
territory to ports of embarkation be examined at such stations, and
those who do not comply with the German law governing the emigrant
196 The Immigration Commission.
traffic through the Empire or who obviously would be debarred at
United States ports are rejected. During the year ending June 30T
1907, out of 455,916 intended emigrants inspected 11,814 were turned
back at these stations.
In some countries an effort is made to prevent intending emigrants
from leaving home unless it is evident that they will meet the re-
quirements of examinations at control stations and ports of embarka-
tion,' or of the United States immigration law. This is particularly
true of Hungary, where at several points there is local supervision of
the departure of emigrants for seaports. While this supervision is
due largely to Hungary's purpose of controlling emigration, par-
ticularly where emigrants are liable to military service, the system
prevents many from leaving home who would be rejected at ports of
embarkation on account of disease.
Medical examinations, with a view to determining the admissibility
of emigrants under the United States law, are not uncommon in con-
nection with the sale of steamship tickets. The most conspicuous
example of examinations of this nature was found in Greece, and this
resulted from a most forcible illustration of the rigidity of the United
States law. In 1906 the Austro-Americano Company, which was then
new in the emigrant-carrying business, had over 300 emigrants refused
admission to the United States and returned on a single voyage. On
arrival at Trieste these returned emigrants mobbed the steamship
company's office, and the experience resulted in the establishment by
the Austro-Americano Company of a systematic scheme of examining
intended emigrants in Greece. Agents of the company in that country
sent their head physician to study the medical examination of immi-
grants at United States ports, and physicians were provided for the
40 subagencies of the company in different parts of Greece. Under
the system in force in Greece, before any document is given to an
intended emigrant he is examined by the physician attached to the sub-
agency. If that physician accepts him he receives a medical certifi-
cate, makes a deposit toward the price of his ticket, and space is re-
served for him on a steamer. When he goes to the port of embarkation
the emigrant is examined by the company's head physician and, if
accepted, is permitted to complete his purchase of a ticket.
In Italy it is the policy of the Government to examine the records
of intended emigrants at the time application is made for a passport,
and unless the applicant can comply with the Italian and United
States laws the passport is refused. But this refers particularly to
the cases of criminals and convicts rather than to the physically
defective, and usually Italian emigrants are given their first medical
examination at ports of embarkation.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1907, a total of 13,064 immi-
grants were rejected at United States ports,0 and for the three fiscal
years ending June 30, 1909, the total number of immigrants from all
sources rejected was 34,377,° or 5,304 less than were turned back at the
European ports and control stations above mentioned in a period of
thirteen months.
The large number of rejections at United States ports is not essen-
tially an unfavorable reflection on the medical examinations con-
ducted in Europe for the reason that the latter are in the main confined
to the physical condition of emigrants, while at the United States
0 See p. 111.
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 197
ports the examination is much broader. But this is not all, for in
addition to the requirements of the United States law relative to the
return of rejected immigrants to ports of embarkation, European
laws, as a rule, require that steamship companies forward those re-
turned to their homes, or home countries, which, in many cases, are at
a considerable distance from the ports at which the rejected ones
embarked. The Italian law relative to emigrants returned from for-
eign ports imposes even greater burdens on the carriers. Under that
law the returned emigrant is entitled to damages from the carrier
if he can prove that the carrier was aware before his departure from
Italy that he could not be admitted under the law of the country to
which he emigrated. A tribunal known as the arbitration commis-
sion has been established in each Province of Italy to examine cases
of this nature, and the emigrant who has been returned may make
a claim before that commission without expense to himself. In many
cases, besides returning the passage money, the carrier is compelled
to pay the returned emigrant for loss of wages incurred by reason of
his journey across the sea. For these reasons the transportation of
emigrants who can not be admitted to the United States is usually
unprofitable, but notwithstanding this fact some companies are
willing to assume considerable risk for the sake of increasing their
steerage business. In the main, however, the examinations conducted
at the various ports are good and effective, so far as concerns the
physical condition of emigrants, and as a safeguard against the
transportation of the diseased, who are certain to be rejected at
United States ports, thev are of the greatest importance, a fact which
the Commission believes is not always fully realized by students of the
immigration problem in the United States.
In the complete report of the Commission upon this subject0 a
detailed description is given of the inspection of emigrants at each
port considered, but for the purpose of this abstract it is necessary
only to note the real and final authority in determining rejections at
the different ports under consideration for causes contemplated by
the United States immigration law. In some instances* this is diffi-
cult on account of apparently divided authority, but the following
summary, it is believed, fairly represents the situation at each port :
Antwerp: Physician employed by steamship company.
Bremen : Physicians employed by American consul, but paid by steamship
companies.
Cherbourg: Ship's doctor. /
Christiania : Physician of the board of health.
Copenhagen : Municipal physician.
Fiume: Physician employed by steamship company, who also acts for the
American consul.
Genoa: Ship's doctor.
Glasgow : Ship's doctor.
Hamburg: Physicians (including eye specialists) employed by steamship
company.
Havre: Physician (including an eye specialist) employed by steamship com-
panies.
Libau: Physician employed by steamship company.
Liverpool: Physicians employed by steamship companies.
Londonderry : Ship's doctor.
Marseille: Physicians (including an eye specialist) employed by steamship
company, and the ship's doctor.
Messina: Acting assistant surgeon of the United States Public Health and
Marine-Hospital Service.
a Emigration Conditions in Europe. Reports of the Immigration Commission,
vol. 4. (S. Doc. No. 748, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
198 The Immigration Commission.
Naples: Officers of the United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital
Service.
Palermo: Acting assistant surgeon of the United States Public Health and
Marine-Hospital Service.
Patras: Physicians employed by steamship companies.
Piraeus: Ship's doctor.
Queenstown : Ship's doctor.
Rotterdam: Physicians (including eye specialists) employed by the steam-
ship company, a physician employed by the American consulate general, and
the ship's doctor.
Southampton : Ship's doctor.
Trieste: Physicians employed by steamship company, the ship's doctor, and
police officers. The American consul exercises unusual authority.
From the foregoing it is clear that the steamship companies are 111
the main responsible for the medical examination of emigrants at
European ports of embarkation, and they are the chief beneficiaries
of the system. A study of the situation also shows that the real con-
trolling factor in the situation at every port is the United States
immigration law, for without it there would be no examination
worthy of the name.
Methods of conducting the inspection differ at the various ports.
At some the examination, as a rule, extends over several days, and
specialists are employed to detect trachoma, which disease is the chief
factor in making a competent examination necessary. At others, and
particularly at some ports of call, the inspection is conducted hur-
riedly and under seemingly unfavorable circumstances. In some
instances American officials have absolutely no part in the work and
exercise no authoritj^ in others American consuls participate actively T
and in the case of some of the Italian ports American medical officers
absolutely control the situation.
Because of the absence of records the Commission was unable to
ascertain for any stated period the total number of rejections made at
all European ports included in the inquiry. In the case of some ports
information was not available for all of the steamship lines em-
barking emigrants there, and in other cases the number of persons
rejected was found, but the cause of rejections could not be ascer-
tained. Consequently the material at hand is incomplete, but it is
sufficient to illustrate the great sifting process that goes on at control
stations and ports before emigrants are finally allowed to embark for
the United States.
The table following shows such information as was available rela-
tive to the number of rejections at the ports indicated during the
thirteen months ending December 31, 1907, which was the period
particularly covered by the Commission's inquiry.
Emigration Conditions in Europe.
199
TABLE 21. — Number of intended emigrants rejected at ports or control stations
specified, December 1, 1906, to December 31, 1907.
Port or control station.
Number
rejected.
Port or control station.
Number
rejected.
Antwerp
(a)
Londonderry
(a)
Bremen:
Marseille
(a)
Control stations
8 110
Messina . .
194
Port .
3 178
Naples
10, 224
Cherbourg
(a)
2 368
Christiania
(a)
Patras «
1,174
Copenhagen
(a)
Piraeus
(a)
Fiume
4 789
Queenstown
124
Genoa & .
382
Rotterdam'
Glasgow
40
Control stations
538
Hamburg:
Port
303
Control stations
3 234
(a)
Port
2 694
Trieste
397
340
Libau c
654
Total
39, 681
Liverpool d
938
a No data.
& Includes only North German-Lloyd and Navigazione Generale Italiana lines. Other lines carrying
emigrants from Genoa to United States ports are the Hamburg-American, La Veloce, Lloyd Italiano, Lloyd
Sabaudo, Spanish, and the White Star.
c Includes only Russian Volunteer Fleet. The Russian East Asiatic Line also carries emigrants from
Libau.
d Includes only American and Cunard lines. Other lines carrying emigrants from Liverpool to United
States ports are the Allan, Dominion, and White Star.
« Includes only Austro- Americana Line. Other lines carrying emigrants from Patras to United States
ports are the Prince, Fabre, and Hellenic-Transatlantic.
As previously explained, it is impossible to state the exact number
of intended emigrants who are refused passage to the United States
from European ports during any given period. From the above
table it will be seen that of the ports included within the Commis-
sion's inquiry no data relative to rejections Were available for Ant-
werp, Cherbourg, Christiania, Copenhagen, Londonderry, Marseille,
Piraeus, and Southampton, while for Genoa, Liverpool, Libau, and
Patras the record is incomplete. This is particularly unfortunate in
the case of Liverpool, which is one of the four great emigration ports
of Europe. Moreover, the inquiry did not include the minor ports
of Barcelona, Bordeaux, Boulogne, Cadiz, Calais, Dover, Gibraltar,
Hull, Leghorn, Plymouth, and Stettin, at all of which some emigrants
embarked for the United States during the year 1907. No data what-
ever could be 'secured relative to the number of applicants who, on
account of their physical condition, were refused transportation by
agents of the various lines requiring a medical examination in con-
nection with the sale of tickets. It is believed, however, that the
number rejected in this way is relatively small.
From the foregoing it is clear that while the number of rejections,
39,681, shown in the preceding table in all probability represents the
greater part of all rejections at ports of embarkation and elsewhere
in Europe, the number would be considerably increased were complete
data available. Of course any estimate of the total number rejected
would of necessity be largely speculative, but it seems safe to assume
that during the period of the thirteen months — December 1, 1906, to
December 31, 1907 — covered by the Commission's inquiry at least
50,000 intended emigrants were refused transportation from Euro-
pean ports to the United States because of the probability that they
would be debarred at United States ports under the provision of the
immigration law.
200 The Immigration Commission.
Of the 39,681 intended emigrants rejected, as shown by the pre-
ceding table, the cause of rejection was available in 34,228 cases. The
principal causes were as follows :
Trachoma 19, 283
Other diseases of the eye 9,622
Favus 1, 872
All other causes__ 3,451
Total 34. 228
It is worthy of note that practically all of the rejections under
discussion were for some physical or mental disability. This is, per-
haps, only natural, in view of the fact that the inspection at prac-
tically every port is conducted purely from a medical standpoint. In
much of the data secured by the Commission the causes of rejection
were not given in great detail, the classification " other causes " in-
cluding a considerable proportion of the rejections at several ports.
So far as shown by the data, however, all of the rejections under con-
sideration were for physical or mental causes except in the following
instances: Liverpool, 4 "arrested;" Trieste, 2 "without means," 117
"rejected by police; " Queenstown, 1 "refused examination."
It does not appear, however, that the police inspection at Trieste
is an attempt to prevent embarkation of persons likely to be excluded
from the United States, and consequently it can hardly be considered
as a means of protecting the United States against the coming of
undesirable classes.
It is, of course, possible that among emigrants rejected for " other
causes " there may be some criminals, prostitutes, procurers, paupers,
contract laborers, or o.ther classes specifically debarred by the United
States immigration law, but, if so, the number is too small to be
worthy of consideration.
At the German control stations on the Russian and Austrian boun-
daries the amount of money possessed by intended emigrants is taken
into consideration, and according to the records 755 persons were
rejected there during the year 1907 for " want of means."
On the whole, however, the examination abroad as conducted at the
time of the Commission's visit and at the present time affords prac-
tically no protection from any of the classes debarred -by the United
States law except the physically or mentally defective, and this not-
withstanding the fact that at several ports American consular officers
actively participate in the inspection and are accorded the privilege
of rejecting emigrants who are undesirable within the meaning of the
United States immigration law.
The system of emigrant inspection in force at Naples, Messina, and
Palermo is of particular interest because of the somewhat prevalent
belief that an examination by United States officers at ports of embar-
kation would prevent the sailing of persons who could not be ad-
mitted to the United States under the provisions of the immigration
law. In his annual report for the fiscal year 1900 Hon. T. V. Pow-
derly, Commissioner-General of Immigration, reiterated a recom-
mendation that had been made in the two preceding reports of the
bureau, as follows:
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 201
That physicians representing the Government be stationed at the foreign
ports of embarkation for the purpose of examining into the physical condition
of aliens who are about to embark for the United States. Experience of the
ability and energy of the surgeons of the United States Marine-Hospital Service
leaves no room for doubt that, should they be assigned to such duty, but few
cases of this dangerous disease would be permitted to embark, and that, besides
accomplishing the most important object of preventing the introduction of
trachoma (or other contagious diseases of the nonquarantinable class), the
delay and trouble and uncertainty incident to examination at the ports of
the United States, where limited accommodations and an ever-increasing and
continuous flow of arrivals necessitates a degree of expedition not always
consistent with thoroughness, would be avoided.
The late Frank P. Sargent, for many years Commissioner-General
of Immigration, was an advocate of this policy, and in annual re-
ports of the bureau repeatedly urged that it be adopted. In 1906
Commissioner-General Sargent, in referring to the examination of
immigrants, said:a
The ideal plan for controlling this situation, however, is the one that has
been urged by the bureau for years, i. e., the stationing of United States
medical officers abroad, with the requirement that all prospective passengers
shall be examined and passed by them as physically and mentally fit for landing
in this country. This would prevent the emigration not only of those afflicted
with contagious disease, but also of those afflicted with idiocy and insanity.
Fortunately the plan so long and urgently advocated by Messrs.
Powderly and Sargent has been in operation at Italian ports long
enough to demonstrate its usefulness and to make possible a compari-
son of results between the inspection as conducted there and at other
European ports.
Since the only purpose of the medical inspection of emigrants at
European ports of embarkation as here considered is to avoid rejec-
tions and penalties at United States ports, the only fair and adequate
test of the efficiency of such examinations is the record of rejections
by the United States Immigration Service. In order to apply this test,
the Commission secured from unpublished records of the Bureau of
Immigration and Naturalization data showing the number of alien
immigrants arriving at United States ports from the various ports
of Europe and the number of such arrivals who were refused admis-
sion to the United States for purely medical reasons. This record
covers six months of the year 1907, when the method of conducting
medical examinations at the various European ports was as previ-
ously described. Thus the results are perfectly comparable.
°Annual Report of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration,
1906.
72289°— VOL 1—11 14
202
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows the result of the inquiry referred to :
TABLE 22. — Number of persons carried and number and per cent debarred for
medical causes at transatlantic ports, during January, February, March, July,
August, and September, 1907, by port of embarkation.
Port of embarkation.
Number
carried.
Debarred.
Number.
Per cent.
Antwerp
28, 267
80,004
2,016
1,764
2,560
22,085
7,154
9,295
55,877
27, 354
8,979
57, 728
2,240
746
1,172
95,000
13, 118
6,296
2,602
8,726
17,291
9,193
8,594
50
485
3
3
5
37
17
36
179
122
37
144
9
7
4
311
61
36
16
16
62
23
27
0.18
.61
.15
.17
.20
.17
.24
.39
.32
.45
.41
.25
.40
.94
.34
.33
.47
.57
.61
.18
.36
.25
.31
Bremen
Christiania
Copenhagen . §
Fiume
Genoa
Glasgow
Havre
Libau
Marseille
Messina .
Palermo
Patras
Piraeus
Queenstown
Rotterdam i
Trieste
Total
468,061
1.690
.36
As previously stated, this table shows the number of alien steerage
passengers reaching United States ports from the various ports of
Europe specified, and the number and per cent of such passengers
debarred under the provisions of the United States immigration law.
In the first place, it is of interest to note that the number debarred
is remarkably small when compared with the total number carried.
This alone clearly illustrates the fact that as a whole the medical
inspection of emigrants prior to embarkation at European ports is
thoroughly effective. Only 0.36 per cent of the persons carried were
debarred at United States ports for medical reasons, which is a much
smaller proportion than were rejected at Italian ports and German
control stations for the same causes.
For the purpose of this study, however, the above table is chiefly
interesting as illustrating the relative effectiveness of the examina-
tion at the various European ports under consideration. In the
beginning it may be well to state that the class of emigrants carried
from the various ports may and doubtless does affect the situation
somewhat. For instance, practically all emigrants from Christiania
are Scandinavians, and trachoma and favus, which are the prin-
cipal causes of medical rejection at United States ports, do not
prevail in Scandinavian countries. Every other port, however, is to
a greater or less extent affected by one or both of these diseases.
Copenhagen is perhaps only slightly affected, through emigration
from Finland where trachoma is prevalent, and Glasgow, because
relatively few continental emigrants sail from that port. Trachoma
is not unknown in Ireland, but it does not exist to such an extent as
in southern and eastern Europe, and consequently Queenstown and
Emigration Conditions in Europe. 203
Londonderry can not perhaps be fairly classified with other ports
with regard to the particular kinds of loathsome, contagious diseases
which cause the rejection of so many aliens at United States ports.
Liverpool, Southampton, and the continental ports, with the ex-
ception of Christiania and Copenhagen, all draw the greater part
of their emigrant traffic from southern and eastern Europe, and
while, of course, the degree to which the diseases under consideration
prevail differs in various sections, nevertheless such diseases are
sufficiently widespread to require a careful medical inspection of
emigrants coming from those sections. Because of this fact the re-
sults of the inspections at these ports are fairly comparable, which
makes possible a reasonable test of the relative effectiveness of the
different inspections.
It will be noted from the preceding table that the percentage of
rejections was smallest among emigrants embarking at Cherbourg,
only 3 rejections out of 2,016 emigrants carried being recorded.
This result is particularly noteworthy because Cherbourg draws
emigrant traffic from the Levantine countries where trachoma and
favus are widespread, as well as from other southern and eastern
European countries. Moreover, it is only a port of call and no
elaborate system of medical inspection prevails there, the ship's
doctor being the determining factor in the matter of rejections.
The largest percentage of rejections occurs among emigrants em-
barking at Marseille, which is not surprising because of the fact that
steerage passengers sailing from that port are largely drawn from
Syria and countries of southern Europe where trachoma is par-
ticularly prevalent.
A rather curious situation is found in comparing rejections among
emigrants from the four ports of Antwerp, Bremen, Hamburg, and
Rotterdam. The steerage business of these four ports is very largely
recruited in eastern Europe, and the class of emigrants embarking is
much the same at each port. It is true also that the great majority
of all emigrants embarking at the German ports, and a large part of
those sailing from Antwerp and Rotterdam, are subjected to an in-
spection at the German control stations. Notwithstanding these facts,
however, there is a wide difference in the proportion of persons em-
barking at the four ports who are debarred at United States ports for
medical causes. These proportions are as follows:
Bremen 1 to 165 I Hamburg 1 to 312
Rotterdam 1 to 279 | Antwerp 1 to 565
It is necessary to note in this connection that the three ports having
the largest proportions rejected have excellent emigrant stations,
superior facilities for handling emigrants, and elaborate and ap-
parently thorough systems .of inspection. At Bremen, which port
makes by far the worst showing in the matter of debarments at
United States ports, it will be remembered that the determining
factor in the matter of rejections is a physician in the employ of the
American consulate, while at Antwerp, which shows relatively a very
small proportion of emigrants rejected at United States ports, Ameri-
can consular or other officials have absolutely no part in the inspection.
Most interesting of all, however, is a comparison between Antwerp
and Naples, for it will be recalled that the emigrant-inspection sys-
tems in force at these ports represent extremes, so far as American
204 The Immigration Commission.
control is concerned, the inspection at Naples being entirely in the
hands of the United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital sur-
geons. Measured by debarments at United States ports, however, the
inspection at Antwerp is considerably more effective, for while the
proportion refused admission to the United States is only 1 to 565
among emigrants embarking at that port, the proportion among emi-
grants sailing from Naples is 1 to 305. In the case of other Italian
ports where American medical officers were in charge the proportion
of emigrants debarred at the United States ports is as follows:
Palermo, 1 to 215 ; Messina, 1 to 293 ; and Genoa, where during the
period under consideration the medical inspection was made by ship's
doctors, 1 -to 421. It may be said, however, that the particular dis-
eases for which emigrants are debarred at United States ports are
not so prevalent among classes embarking at Genoa as at the more
southern ports of Italy.
A comparison between the Adriatic ports of Trieste and Fiume is
interesting. At the latter port the medical inspection is made by a
steamship company doctor and a physician employed by the American
consul, but the Commission was informed that the examination by the
former was so rigid that it had not been necessary for the consulate
physician to reject any emigrants for some time previously. The
American consul attends the examinations, but does not exercise
unusual authority. At Trieste the medical inspection is made by resi-
dent physicians of the steamship company and the ship's doctor, "while
the American consul, at the time under consideration, exercised a
greater degree of authority than was exercised by such consular
officers at any other European port. The consul informed the Com-
mission that he insisted on rejections not only for trachoma and f avus,
but for less conspicuous physical defects as well. Experience at
United States ports with emigrants from Fiume and Trieste indicates
that, notwithstanding the great degree of authority exercised by
the consul at the latter port, the inspection at Fiume is much more
effective. In fact, the proportion debarred at United States ports
among emigrants from Fiume is only 1 to 597, while the proportion
debarred among emigrants sailing from Trieste is 1 to 318. The pro-
portion debarred among emigrants embarking at the Greek ports of
Patras and Piraeus is large, being 1 to 175 in the case of the former,
and 1 to 163 in the case of the latter.
IMMIGRANT RACES OR PEOPLES.
AN ABSTRACT OF THE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION'S DICTIONARY OF
RACES OR PEOPLES.
For the complete dictionary of races or peoples see Reports of the
Immigration Commission, vol. 5.
205
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introductory fc 209
Races or peoples 217
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. Comparative classification of immigrant races or peoples 212
2. Estimated population of certain races in Europe, compared to
immigration of such races from Europe to the United States in
1907, and also to the average annual immigration for the twelve
years ending June 30, 1910 214
3. Population of Austria-Hungary, by race. 219
4. Czech population of Austria-Hungary 221
5. Distribution of Serbo-Croatian population i n 1900 230
6. Distribution of Serbo-Croatians, by religion 230
7. Finnic population of the Russian Empire, 1897. 237
8. German population of the world 242, 243
9. Population of India, by language and geographical division 248
10. Distribution of Italians 252
11. Lithuanian and Lettish population of Russia. 254
12. Number and distribution of Poles 259
13. Population of Roumania 263
14. Distribution of Roumanians 263
15. Races or peoples of the Russian Empire, exclusive of Finland: 1897. . 266
16. Races or peoples of Finland: 1900 , 267
17. Distribution of Little Russians ( Ruthenians) 268
18. Scandinavian population and immigration _ 271
207
IMMIGRANT RACES OR PEOPLES,
INTRODUCTORY.
Since eastern Europe became an important source of immigration
many new ethnical factors have been added to the population of the
United States. Early in the Commission's investigations among
these newer immigrants it became apparent that the true racial status
of many of them was imperfectly understood even in communities
where they were most numerous, and the difficulties encountered in
properly classifying the many ethnical names that were employed to
designate various races or peoples suggested the preparation of a
volume that would promote a better knowledge of the numerous ele-
ments included in the present immigrant movement. This work,
wrhich was prepared by Dr. Daniel Folkmar, assisted by Elnora C.
Folkmar, is presented as a part of the Commission's report, under the
title " Dictionary of Races or Peoples."
While this " dictionary " treats of more than six hundred subjects,
covering all the important and many of the obscure branches or divi-
sions of the human family, it is intended primarily as a discussion of
the various races and peoples indigenous to the countries furnishing
the present immigration movement to the United States, or which
may become sources of future immigration.
Until 1899, when the Bureau of Immigration first classified arriving
immigrants according to the race or people to which they belonged,
practically all population statistics respecting the foreign-born in the
United States were recorded only by country of birth. Previous to
the adoption of the improved method of recording immigration sta-
tistics the Bureau of the Census had attempted in some instances to
distinguish among the various east European peoples in the popula-
tion, and as a result of this effort reports of recent censuses include
more or less accurate data relative to the Polish and Bohemian
elements in the population. In the first-mentioned case this group-
ing is accomplished by regarding for census purposes the former
Kingdom of Poland as a geographical entity instead of Provinces of
Austria, Prussia, and Russia, as Poland has been politically for more
than a century. In the same way Bohemia is considered as a geo-
graphical unit instead of a part of Austria. With these exceptions,
however, census reports make no distinction between the many
important ethnical factors to be found among natives of eastern
European countries resident in the United States.
Poland and Bohemia also appear as " countries of birth " in earlier
immigration statistics, but when the movement of population from
Austria-Hungary, Russia, Turkey, and the Balkan States to the
United States assumed large proportions the old method of recording
209
210 The Immigration Commission.
arrivals only by the country of their nativity was of little value
in determining the ethnical status of such immigrants, and the
Bureau of Immigration finally adopted the racial classification.
The bureau recognizes*45 races or peoples among immigrants coming
to the United States, and of these 36 are indigenous to Europe.
This classification was adopted by the Immigration Commission in
collecting and compiling data respecting the foreign-born in this
country, and it is also made the principal basis of Doctor Folkmar's
dictionary of races or peoples. No work v of this nature has before
been published in the English language, although related works have
been printed in the French, German, and other languages. The pres-
ent work, moreover, differs essentially from previous publications of
the same nature, in that it is written primarily with reference to the
subject of immigration, and is for the convenience of students of that
subject rather than for the ethnologist. Therefore, in addition to a
more strictly ethnological discussion of the various iinmi grant races
and peoples, careful attention has been given to their numerical and
geographical distribution, as well as their relative importance in the
movement of population to the United States and other immigrant-
receiving countries.
In the preparation of the dictionary it was neither the plan of the
Commission nor the purpose of the author to attempt an original
discussion of anthropology or ethnology, but rather to bring together
from the most reliable sources such existing data as it was believed
would be useful in promoting a better understanding of the many
different racial elements that are being added to the population of
the United States through immigration.
In the more strictly ethnological topics of definition and division,
or classification of races or peoples according to their languages, their
physical characteristics, and such other marks as would show their
relationship one to another, and in determining their geographical
habitats, an effort has been made to present the view most generally
accepted among ethnologists, or, in case of radical and important
differences of opinion, to present the rival views. It need not be
explained, in view of the vastness of the ethnographical field and the
present imperfect state of the science, that mistakes are inevitable in
a work of this nature. It is not to be regarded as written for the
ethnologist, but for the student of immigration: for the one who
wants in convenient form an approximately correct statement as to
the ethnical status of immigrant races or peoples, their languages,
their numbers, and the countries from which they come.
In determining the number and geographical distribution of the
races and their various divisions, reference was had to the census
reports and other official publications of foreign countries, as well
as to standard works of history and travel, and the publications of
foreign geographical and other scientific societies. Included in the
dictionary is a selected bibliography of general works upon the sub-
ject under consideration, and a list of a few of the authorities that
were consulted in its preparation.
The number of the chief divisions or basic races of mankind is more
in dispute at the present time than when Linnseus proposed to classify
them into 4, or Blumenbach into 5, great races. Some writers have
reduced the number of such basic races to 3, while others have pro-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 211
posed 15, 29, or even 63. In preparing this dictionary, however, the
author deemed it reasonable to follow the classification employed by
Blumenbach, which school geographies have made most familiar
to Americans, viz, the Caucasian, Ethiopian, Mongolian, Malay, and
American, or, as familiarly called, the white, black, yellow, brown,
and red races.
The use of this classification as the basis for the present work is
perhaps entirely justified by the generally prevailing custom in the
United States, but there is equal justification in the fact that recent
writers, such as Keane and the American authority Brinton, have
returned to practically the earlier classifications.
These authorities have also been closely followed by the author of
the dictionary in separating the many subdivisions of the five great
races one from another according to the languages they speak, and
in grouping them into stocks upon the same basis. In other words,
the primary classification of mankind into five grand divisions may
be made upon physical or somatological grounds, while the subdi-
vision of these into a multitude of smaller " races " or peoples is made
largely upon a linguistic basis. The practical arguments for adopt-
ing such a classification are unanswerable. It is not merely because
it is most convenient and natural to call a man English, Irish, or
German according to the language spoken by him or by his ancestors
in the old home; this is also the classification that has the sanction
of law in immigration statistics and in the censuses of foreign coun-
tries. In no other way can figures be found that are comparable as
to population, immigration, and distribution of immigrants. While
it is well to find a classification by physical characteristics insisted
upon in the able works of Ripley, Deiiiker, and others, it is mani-
festly impracticable to use such classification in immigration work or
in a census. The immigrant inspector or the enumerator in the field
may easily ascertain the mother tongue of an individual, but he has
neither the time nor the training to determine whether such individ-
ual is dolichocephalic or brachycephalic in type. He may not even
know that these terms refer to the shape of the head and are con-
sidered to be of fundamental importance by the school of ethnologists
just referred to. Finally, it may be that neither the ethnical nor the
linguistic school has reached the ultimate word, but that a more
natural and acceptable classification of peoples will be based in the
future upon continuity of descent among the members of a race
•or of a stock, whether such genetic relationship be established by
somatological, linguistic, sociological, or historical evidence, or by
all combined.
212
The Immigration Commission.
For convenience the author of the dictionary adopted the following
classification of races or peoples :
TABLE 1. — Comparative classification of immigrant races or peoples.
Based on Brinton (cf. Keane).
People.
Ripley's races, with other correspond-
ing terms.
Race.
Stock.
Group.
Caucasian. .
Mongolian .
Malay
Aryan . . .
Semitic...
Caucasic. .
Teutonic
Lettic
Scandinavian:
Danish
I. TEUTONIC.
H. Europaeus (Lapouge).
Nordic (Deniker).
Dolicho-leptorhine (Kohlmann).
Germanic (English writers).
Reihengraber (German writers).
Kymric (French writers).
Part Alpine.
II. ALPINE (OR CELTIC).
H. Alpinus (Lapouge).
Occidental (Deniker).
Disentis (German writers).
Celto-Slavic (French writers).
Lappanoid (Pruner-Bey).
Sarmatian (von Holder).
Arvernian (Beddoe).
Part Alpine.
Part Mediterranean.
m. MEDITERRANEAN.
H. Meridionalis (Lapouge).
Atlanto-Mediterranean and Ibero-Insu-
lar (Deniker).
Iberian (English writers).
Ligurian (Italian writers).
\Part Mediterranean.
(Part Teutonic.
I Part Mediterranean.
JDoubtml.
Norwegian
Swedish
1 German (N. part). . .
Dutch
English (part)
Flemish...
Lithuanian
Celtic
Scotch (part)
Irish (part)
Slavonic
Illyric
Armenic
Italic
Welsh
Russian. .
Polish...
Czech:
Bohemian
Moravian
Servian
Croatian
Montenegrin
Slovak
Slovenian
Ruthenian
Dalmatian .
Herzegovinian
Bosnian
Albanian
Armenian
French
Italian (part)
Roumanian
Spanish
Hellenic
Spanish-American. ...
Mexican, etc
Portuguese
Greek. .
/Hindu
Iranic
Arabic...
\Gypsy...
Arabian
Chaldaic
(Hebrew
\Syrian
Caucasus peoples
Basque
Euskaric
Sibiric
Sinitic....
Finnic
Tataric
Japanese
Mongolic
Chinese
( Finnish .
Lappish
j Magyar
[Bulgarian (part)
Turkish, Cossack, etc. .
Japanese, Korean
Kalmuk
[Chinese
East Indian (part,
[ i.e., Indo-Chinese).
/Pacific Islander (part).
\East Indian (part)
Negro
Ethiopian..
Ameri can
(Indian) .
American Indian
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 213
One feature of Doctor Folkmar's dictionary which is of particular
interest in a study of immigration is the data showing the numerical
extent and geographical distribution of the various immigrant races
or peoples. Xo reliable compilation of this nature was available and
its preparation required much research. The data are of value as
suggesting the possibilities of future immigration, and also as show-
ing the rate of immigration among the various races at the present
time. In some cases, notably those of the Slovaks and Hebrews,
where there is a high rate of emigration to the United States, it is
conceivable that the movement may become normal or, indeed, that it
may cease through an exhaustion of the home supply. On the other
hand, in the case of the Russians, Germans, Italians, and certain
other peoples the population is so great that although the volume of
emigration may be large the rate is low and the supply is practically
inexhaustible.
The estimated numerical strength of each of the principal races or
peoples in Europe, and the immigration movement of such races from
Europe to the United States in the fiscal year 1907, when immigra-
tion reached its greatest height, and also the average annual move-
ment for the twelve years ending June 30, 1910, are shown in the
table which follows. Reliable data respecting the number of Turks
and Syrians in Europe are not available, and consequently these
races are omitted. With these exceptions, however, the table in-
cludes all European races or peoples which in the years specified
contributed more than 2,000 immigrants to the movement to the
United States.
214
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 2. — Estimated population of certain races in Europe, compared to immi-
gration of such races from Europe to the United States in 1907, and also to
the average annual immigration for the 12 years ending June 30, 1910.
Race or people.
Estimated
population
in Europe.
Immigrants to the United States from
Europe.
Total
number,
1907.
Average
annual
number
12 years,
1899-1910.
Number per 1,000
estimated popu-
lation based on —
Total
number,
1907.
Average
annual
number,
12 years,
1899-1910.
Slovak
2, 250, 000
8,000,000
3, 600, 000
41,870
146, 409
47,317
238, 469
22,043
37, 715
137, 147
59,677
44, 240
25,764
23, 751
7,289
14,471
21,950
50, 510
26, 866
7, 16.3
13,507
9,232
19,016
61,797
2,560
91,059
12, 124
2,273
5,948
8,774
16,652
31,272
88, 232
27, 704
157, 300
17, 204
35,086
78,528
27, 848
17, 162
14,538
12,059
2,601
12, 436
24, 463
30, 453
7,872
5,831
8,301
5,919
6,782
37, 882
1,619
61,253
7,045
2,127
2,451
6,671
6,751
18.6
18.3
13.1
11.9
9.5
8.4
8.1
7.5
7.4
6.4
6.1
4.6
3.9
3.8
3.5
3.0
2.7
2.3
1.8
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.3
.5
.3
.3
.2
13.9
11.0
7.7
7.9
7.4
7.8
4.6
3.5
2.9
3.6
3.1
1.7
3.4
4.3
2.1
.8
2.2
1.4
1.2
.7
1.1
1.0
.8
.8
.4
.1
.2
(0
Hebrew
Italian South
20,000,000
2,311,000
4, 500, 000
17,000,000
8,000,000
6, 000, 000
4,000,000
3,900,000
1,573,000
3,700.000
5,727,000
14, 500, 000
9, 000, 000
2, 700, 000
6,000,000
5,000,000
10,000,000
35,300,000
1,700,000
72,200,000
9,000,000
5,000,000
20,000,000
39,000,000
77,200,000
Irishft
Polish
Magyar
Greek
Ruthenian c
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian
Finnish (Western)
Swedish d .
Italian North
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin
Danish e
Bohemian and Moravian
Portuguese
English and Scotch /
Welsh g
German ...
Dutch and Flemish
Armenian ^
Spanish
French
Russian (including Ruthenian or Little Russian of
Russia)
0 The population figures represent the total population of Norway, and the immigration figures the
total number of Scandinavians, mostly Norwegians, coming from Norway.
b The population figures represent the total population of Ireland, and the immigration figures the total
number of Irish coming from Europe.
c The population figures represent the number of Ruthenians in Austria-Hungary, and the immigration
figures the number of Ruthenians coming from Austria-Hungary.
d The population figures represent the total population of Sweden and the population of Swedes in
Russia (Finland), and the immigration figures the total number of Scandinavians, mostly Swedes,
coming from Sweden and Russia.
eThe population figures represent the total population of Denmark, and the immigration figures the
total number of Scandinavians, mostly Danes, coming from Denmark.
/The population figures represent the total population of England and Scotland, and the immigration
figures the total number of English and Scotch coming from Europe.
g The population figures represent the total population of Wales, and the immigration figures the total
number of Welsh coming from Europe.
h Includes Armenian population in Asia and Armenians coming from Asia.
1 Less than 1 per 10,000.
As previously stated, the dictionary treats of more than 600 sub-
jects. This abstract, however, concerns only the races or peoples
appearing in the classification used for statistical purposes by the
Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, the chief racial stocks
represented among immigrants, and some of the ethnical or political
terms most commonly used to designate immigrants. The races or
peoples recorded by the bureau in the order of their numerical impor-
tance as immigrants to the United States for the twelve years ending
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
215
June 30, 1910, with the number admitted during that period, are as
follows :
1. Italian, South.
1, 911, 933
21. Dutch and Flemish
87 658
2. Hebrew
1, 074, 442
22. Russian
83 574
3. Polish _ _ __
949 064
23 Roumanian
82 704
4. German
754 375
24 Portuguese
72 897
5. Scandinavian
586 306
25 Syrian
56 909
6. Irish
439 724
26 Spanish.
51 051
7. English
408, 614
27. Cuban
44 211
8. Slovak
377 527
28 Mexican
41 914
9. Italian, North _ _ _
372, 668
29. African (black)
33 630
10. Magyar
338, 151
30 Dalmatian Bosnian
and
11. Croatian and Slovenian
335, 543
Herzegovinian
31, 696
12. Greek
216, 962
31 Armenian
26 498
13. Lithuanian
175, 258
32 Chinese
22 590
14. Finnish
151, 774
83 Welsh
20 752
15. Japanese
148, 729
34 Turkish
12 954
16. Ruthenian (Russniak)__
17. Scotch
147, 375
136, 842
35. West Indian (except
ban)
Cu-
ll 569
18. French
115, 783
36. Spanish-American
10 669
19. Bohemian and Moravian..
100, 189
37. Korean _ _
7, 790
20. Bulgarian, Servian, and
38. East Indian
5,786
Montenegrin
97, 391
39. Pacific Islander
357
It will be noted that in several instances the bureau classifies cer-
tain races or peoples together. In such instances separate immigra-
tion statistics are not available, but in what follows each race or
people above enumerated is treated separately.
RACES OR PEOPLES.
ANGLO-SAXON. (See English.)
ARABIAN. One of the three great groups of the Semitic branch of the Cau-
casian race. The Arabians are related to the Hebrews and include Arabs proper
and the wandering Bedouin tribes of the desert. They have long since spread
out from the country that bears their name and settled in distant portions of
Africa and Asia, as well as penetrated into Europe. They have given their
language, through the Koran, to the vaster populations of Mohammedan faith.
They are not to be confounded with the Turks (see), who are Mongolian Ta-
tar, in origin and speech, rather than Caucasian. Neither are they closely
related to the Syrians (see), who are Christians and Aryans, not Semites; not-
even to the Berbers and the modern Moors of north Africa, who are Hamitic
rather than Semitic in origin. Yet Syrians and Moors alike have long used the
Arabic tongue. The Arab population of Arabia is between 3,500,000 and
5.000,000. Still more live in northern Africa. Very few come to the United
States.
ARMENIAN (called by themselves Haik). The Aryan race or people of
Armenia, in Asiatic Turkey. Linguistically the Armenians are more nearly
related to the Aryans of Europe than to their Asiatic neighbors, the Syrians,
Arabs, and Hebrews (Semites), and especially the Turks and Kurds, the in-
veterate enemies of the Armenians. In language the latter are more European
than are the Magyars, the Finns, or the Basques of Europe. The nearest rela-
tives of the Armenic tongue are the other members of the Indo-Iranic group of
Aryan languages, which includes the Persian, the Hindi, and the Gypsy. In
religion the Armenians differ from all the above-named peoples excepting the
Syrians in that they are Chrif-tian. They boast a church as old as that of Rome.
To add to the ethnical confusion they are related physically to the Turks,
although they exceed these, as they do almost all peoples, in the remarkable
shortness and height of their heads. The flattening of the back of the head is
noticeable at once in most Armenians. It can only be compared to the flattened
occiput of the Malay, often noticed in Filipinos.
Only a fraction of the Armenians are found in their own country, Armenia ;
perhaps 650,000 out of a total variously estimated at from 3,000,000 to 5,000,000.
Over 1,000,000 live in Russia, in the Transcaucasus (only 30,000 in Ciscaucasia) ;
400,000 in European Turkey ; 100.000 in Persia ; about 15,000 in or near Hun-
gary ; and 6,000 in India and Africa. Perhaps half their number still live in
different parts of the Turkish dominions. Large numbers of those who have
migrated did so because of the persecutions of the Turks and Kurds directed
against them. Only 26,498 Armenian immigrants were admitted to the United
States in the twelve years 1899-1910.
ARYAN, INDO-EUROPEAN, INDO-GERMANIC, INDO-CELTIC, CELTO-GER-
MANIC, JAPHETIC, or SANSCRITIC. The family of inflected languages spoken
by all the races or peoples of western Europe (with the exception of the
Basques) and throughout eastern Europe and southern Asia, with some excep-
tions, as far as eastern India.
Since four-fifths of our immigrants are of Aryan stock and their racial rela-
tionships to each other are determined by their languages, the student of immi-
gration will need some acquaintance with the results of philology as regards the
ordinary groupings of the Aryan tongues. Upon this, he will find, depends the
distinction, for example, between Slovak and Czech (Bohemian), or the relation-
ship of the Lithuanian to the Russian and the Old Prussian, or the very exist-
ence of Croatian, Slovenian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian, as distinct " races "
among our immigrants from the Balkan States. (See articles on these and
Slav for details.)
The Aryan is the most important family of all inflected languages. The
Semitic-Hamitic is the only other division of them. The only other type of
72289°— VOL 1—11 15 217
218 The Immigration Commission.
languages found in Europe is the agglutinative (see Finno-Tataric, Finnish,
Turkish, Magyar) ; and the only remaining forms of speech in the world are the
monosyllabic (see Chinese) and the polysynthetic, the language of the American
Indian.
It will be seen that the words "Aryan," " Indo-European," and the like are
linguistic rather than ethnological. Yet there has been much written, especially
among the earlier philologists, about an "Aryan race." Although no longer
strictly scientific, this expression will sometimes be used, for convenience, in this
dictionary to designate the group of peoples originally speaking Aryan tongues.
It must be admitted that there is greater diversity between eastern and
western Aryans than there is, for instance, between the Aryan Greeks on the one
hand and the Semitic Jews or Turanian " Hungarians " and Finns on the other.
As different as the latter are in language from ourselves, they share more
fully our modern science, literature, and civilization and they acquire more
readily our tongue than does the Aryan Hindu or the Persian. Physically, also,
they have become more like ourselves than are the darker and Asiaticized
Hindus.
As a matter of fact, there are at least three races, anthropologically speaking,
instead of one in western Europe. They are, as Ripley and others have shown,
the "Teutonic" or "Nordic" (tall, blond, and long-headed ) , the "Alpine"
(broad-headed), and the "Mediterranean" (brunette and long-headed). Hux-
ley long ago marked out in this field two distinct physical races, the " Xantho-
chroi" and the " Melanochroi," or light and dark Caucasians (see). The
Aryan, the German, the French, and the Italian are " races " from a linguistic
point of view that combine dissimilar portions of physical races. Yet, as has
been shown in the introduction, such use of words is unavoidable.
More questionable are innovations in the use of these terms to fit some social
theory. De Lapouge, for instance, limits the use of the word "Aryan " to the
blond, long-headed, or Teutonic race; and an active social propaganda in Ger-
many is built upon this supposed identification of races. Yet Sergi, as an Ital-
ian, holds that the original Aryans were dark and of Mediterranean rather than
of Teutonic stock.
Turning now to a less doubtful use of terms, it is safe to divide the Caucasian
grand division of mankind on the basis of language into the Aryan, Semitic,
Hamitic, Caucasic, and Euskaric stocks. The two last possess agglutinative
languages and are confined to the small areas of the Caucasus Mountains and
the Pyrenees. The word "Indo-European" is preferable to "Aryan" in scien-
tific usage. Germans are more inclined to use the term " Indo-Germanic," and
to use "Aryan " in the sense of " Indo-Iranian ; " that is, to designate the eastern
group of Indo-European languages.
The Aryan " races " comprise nearly half the population of the earth, say
700,000,000 out of a total of 1,500,000,000. Of course, a great multitude of those
are Asiatic Aryans, the most of whom are crowded into India. Still, the Aryans
of Europe are nearly double the Aryans of Asia in number, 520,000.000 as
against 280,000.000. This European stock also outnumbers the Chinese, the
greatest homogeneous population beyond all exception in the world.
The Aryan stock is divided as follows by Hickniann :
T> European
population.
Teutonic (German, English, Scandinavian, etc.) 131,000,000
Slavonic (Russian, Polish, Bohemian, etc. ) 127, 200, 000
Italic ( French, Spanish, etc.) 107, 300, 000
Hellenic 4, 400, 000
Lettic (including Lithuanian) 4, 000, 000
Celtic (Scotch, Irish, Welsh) 3, 200. 000
Illyric 1 , 500, 000
Armenic 300, 000
Indo-Iranic (Hindu, etc.) 300,000
These comprise practically all Europeans with the exception of the Magyars
of Hungary, the Turks of Turkey, and various Fiiino-Tataric peoples of eastern
;iinl northern Russia and of Lapland, while the Caucasus peoples in Turkish Ar-
menia, Asia, and the greater part of the countries eastward to the Ganges, also
are Aryan, excluding the large Dravidian territory in southern and central India.
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
219
Of American immigrants, as has been said, four-fifths are still Aryan, in
spite of the largely increasing numbers of non-Aryans now arriving from
eastern Europe — Hebrews, Magyars, Finns, and Turks.
AUSTRIAN. Not a race name and not used by the Bureau of Immigration
and Naturalization. It has no significance as to physical race or language.
There is no Austrian race in the sense in which we use the terms French,
German, Italian, Hebrew, or Bohemian. The term "Austrian " simply means
an inhabitant or native of Austria. Austria contains more different races or
peoples than any other country of Europe except Russia. Germans form the
largest ethnical group in Austria ; Magyars, the largest of Hungary. The fol-
lowing table shows the diversity of races or peoples represented by large p"opu-
iations in Austria-Hungary and the relative proportion which the Austro-
Hungarian section of these races contributes to the immigration from Europe
to the United States. For further details see articles on each of these races,
as German, Hebrew, Polish, Bohemian, Slovenian.
TABLE 3. — Population of Austria-Hungary, by race.
Race.
Population in 1900.
Immigration to United States.
Austria.
Hungary,
including
Croatia and
Slavonia.
Immigrants
from
Europe in
1907.
Immigrants
from
Austria-
Hungary in
1907.
Per cent
from
Austria-
Hungary.
German
9,171,000
a 5, 955, 000
2,135,000
91,000
13, 500
41,900
137, 100
23,900
| 47, 300
b 26, 900
19,000
59,700
288,900
450, 300
40,500
13,400
41,800
59, 700
23, 700
47, 100
66,200
18, 400
59,600
1,500
27,600
44.5
99.3
99.7
43.5
99.1
99.6
23.0
06.9
99.8
.5
6.1
Bohemian and Moravian
Slovak
2,020,000
Polish
4,259,000
Ruthenian
3,375,000
1,193,000
| 711,000
231,000
10,000
727,000
429,000
99,000
/ 1,679,000
\ 1,052,000
2,799,000
8,742,000
27,000
272,000
Slovenian
Croatian
Servian
Roumanian
Magyar
Italian and Latin
Others
Total . . .
c 25,632, 000
19,254,000
1,199,500
338,500
28.2
Hebrew d .
1,225, 000
851,000
146,000
18,900
12.9
a Including Slovak.
b Includes Bulgarian and Montenegrin.
c Excluding 518,000 foreigners, of whom over half are Magyars.
d Counted as German, etc., in language, but as Jews in the census of religions.
BELGIAN. A native or citizen of Belgium. Not the name of a race and not
used by the Bureau of Immigration. Southern Belgians are for the most part
Walloons, that is. French (see), and northern Belgians are Flemish. (See
Dutch and Flemish}.
BLACK RUSSIAN. (See Russian.)
BOHEMIAN and MORAVIAN (CZECH). It will be convenient to discuss these
races or peoples in one article. They are counted together by the Bureau of
Immigration.
Czech or Tsekh is best defined as the westernmost race or linguistic division
of the Slavic (with the exception of the Wendish fragment in Germany) ; or,
as the race or people residing mainly in Bohemia and Moravia, but partly also
in Hungary.
Bohemian is the westernmost division or dialect of the Czech and the prin-
cipal people or language found in Bohemia.
Moravian is that division of the Czech found in Moravia; that is, between
the Bohemians and the Slovaks.
Other definitions different from the above can be referred to good authority,
but are confusing and will be mentioned only at this point. Thus, some au-
thors reverse the meanings of Czech and Bohemian, making Bohemian the name
of the division which includes the Czech, the Moravian, and the Slovak. The
term " Moravian Brethren " is used in a religious sense as the name of a well-
known sect which is akin to the " Bohemian Brethren." Finally, " Bohemian "
220 The Immigration Commission.
in the current literary or artistic sense means one of unconventional or Gypsy-
like habits. It conies perhaps from " Bohemien," the French word for " Gypsy."
Gypsies were once ignorantly supposed to come from Bohemia.
The Czech is most nearly related to the Polish and Wendish languages,
which, with it, constitute the so-called Western Division of Slavic languages.
"Czech" generally covers also the Slovak (see), which in the Austrian census
is not separated from the Bohemian and Moravian. Although the total Czech
population, comprising Bohemians, Moravians, and Slovaks, is rather small,
about 8,200,000, Czechs, in 1907, stood sixth in rank as to the number of immi-
grants to the United States.
BOHEMIAN.
The Bohemian people appears on the ethnological even more than on the
political map as a peninsula intruding far into German territory, for Bohemia
is nearly cut off from Moravia by Germans of lower Austria pressing in from
the south and Germans of Prussia pushing down from the north. One-third
of the population of Bohemia itself is composed of Germans, who inclose the
Moravians on every side except the east. In early times the domain of the
Western Slavs extended farther, not only into Germany nearly as far as Berlin,
but on the south far beyond Vienna, into Carinthia. Here another intruding
race, Mongol in origin— -the Magyars— have divided the Western Slavs from the
Croatians and other Southern Slavs.
The long contact of the Bohemians with the Germans has profoundly modified
their civilization, if not their physical type and even their language. They are
the most nearly like western Europeans of all the Slavs. It may be fairly said
that they are the most advanced of all. This is in great part due to their native
endowment as Slavs. Their weight of brain is said to be greater than that of
any other people in Europe. At the same time the eastern Bohemians and Mora-
vians are among the most broad-headed — that is, Slavic or " Eastern " — in
physical type. They do not show the Asiatic element, Finnic or Tataric, found
in the Russians, but they show a Teutonic admixture in their being of greater
height than most Slavs and often in the presence of a blond element among
them.
Although the Bohemians and the Moravians form but a minute fraction of
the great Slavic stock, less than 2 per cent, they have contributed not a little
to its history. They were practically the first Slavs to come under the influence
of western civilization. Cyril and Methodius, apostles to the Slavs, gave them
their alphabet. Since the eighth century they have had a literature of their
own, which until the Hussite war was the most important of all Slavic liter-
atures. Huss, the Bohemian, a century before Luther, sounded the first note of
religious freedom in Europe. To Comenius, the Moravian, are due the begin-
nings of' modern education in Europe. During the long years of German
Catholic rule the use of the Bohemian language was proscribed. To-day it is
again flourishing.
While the Germans and the Bohemians have been strenuous rivals in this
corner of Austria, it is due to their joint efforts that Bohemia is now " the
brightest jewel in the Austrian crown." Its natural wealth and the industry
of its inhabitants have made it the richest province of the monarchy. The
Bohemians, like the Slavs in general, are preeminently a nation of agricul-
turists, but they also excel as miners and as craftsmen. In religion all but 5
per cent are Roman Catholic. In art they are leaders; as musicians they are
unsurpassed. They are equally renowned in the political and in the military
service of the monarchy.
MORAVIAN.
It is unnecessary to give much space to the Moravians. Their ethnical type
is much the same as the Bohemian, although we find here more dialectal varia-
tion and, on the east, transitional types that approach the Slovaks or the Poles.
The Moravians speak the same language as the Bohemians, notwithstanding
some difference in dialects. Both divisions are, therefore, to be considered as
constituting but one race in a classification of European races. The division
into two is political, geographical, and historical, rather than ethnical. Like
the Bohemians, the Moravians are surrounded only by Germans and their
Czechish kinsmen — excepting the Leks, or Waterpolaks, in the northeastern
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
221
corner of their territory. Some consider these last to be Poles; others, Mora-
vians. The Walachs, who live on the Slovak border in the Carpathians, are
more properly a division of the Moravians, although some call them Slovaks
(see). The^y are divided into the Javorins, the Pasekarsches, and the Zalerzaks.
The Horaks live in the western mountains of Moravia ; the Hanaks about the
center, on the river Hanna. The latter include the Blataci, the Moravcici, and
the Zabecaci. The Opovans and the Podhoraks also are Moravians. The
breadth of the head increases among the Czechs as we leave the German border
on the west, reaching among the Hanaks the remarkable index, for Europe,
of 86.
TABLE 4. — Czech population of Austria-Hungary.
Bohemia.
Moravia.
Silesia.
Hungary.
Miscella-
neous.
Total.
Total for 1900. . .
3, 930, 093
1 727 270
146 265
2 002 165
169, 245
7, 975, 038
Total for 1851
2,621,450
1,264,027
88,068
1,704;312
176,401
5, 854, 258
Bohe/nians...
2,621,450
14, 377
2, 635, 827
Moravians
I 190 150
88 068
1 278,218
Slovaks
73.877
1,704,312
35, 324
1,813,513
Czechs in army . .
126 700
126, 700
Outside of Austria- Hungary there are at the present time probably less than 200,000 Czechs in Europe
making a total ol about 8,200,000 for the race.
The foregoing table gives the Czech population of Austria-Hungary in 1900.
and also shows the famous distribution by races, estimated by Czornig from the
census of 1851, as similar details can not be found in the most recent census.
Including the Slovaks the total Czech population of Europe about equals the
total of Magyars or of Jews. The Bohemians alone constitute about half the
entire number, or 4,000,000, and therefore about equal in numbers the Lithua-
nians or the Dutch.
As immigrants the Czechs come to America at about the same rate per 1,000
of population as the Lithuanians or the Ruthenians of Austria-Hungary ; that
is, more rapidly than most Slavic races, although only one-third so rapidly as
the Hebrews. The high rate of Czech immigration is mainly due to the Slovaks,
whose rate of immigration according to the population is the highest of any
race or people. The Bohemians and Moravians, on the other hand, come at the
very low rate of less than 2 per 1,000 of population. With less than a third
of the Czech population, the Slovaks sent 377,527 immigrants to the United
States in the twelve years 1899-1910, as against 100,189 Bohemians and Mo-
ravians combined. In other words, the small Slovak people stands eighth
among immigrant races in arrivals, while the Bohemians and Moravians stand
nineteenth.
BOSNIAN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatians. (See Croatian.)
BRAVA. (See Portuguese.)
BULGARIAN. The native race or people of Bulgaria, belonging linguistically
to the Eastern branch of the Slavs, and therefore Aryan ; supposed to be Finnic
(Mongolian) in origin, although now European (Caucasian) in physical type.
It is probably the most numerous people in European Turkey also ; but its num-
bers are small compared with those of other Slavic races or peoples, and thus
far its rate of immigration to America is quite low.
The Bulgarians and their neighbors on the north, the Roumanians, are among
the rare races that are physically of one stock and linguistically of another.
Roth possess adopted languages. While the Bulgarians appear to be Asiatics
by origin who have adopted a Slavic speech, the Roumanians (see) are Slavs
who have adopted a Latin language. Since language is the test in a systematic
classification of European races, as explained in the Introductory (see), this
is the chief point that need be discussed in an article on the Bulgarians; and
there can be no doubt as to the position occupied by this tongue. The Bulga-
rian belongs in the Southeastern division of Slavic languages, and in many
respects stands between Russian and the Serbo-Croatian dialects. (See articles
on these, and especially Slav.) It so closely resembles the latter as to give the
222 The Immigration Commission.
Servian linguist excuse for representing most of the Bulgarians of Turkey to
J»e Servians. Yet, in an important sense, it is the predecessor of both Russian
and Servian. The Old Bulgarian was the earliest of the Slavic languages to
be written and persists even to this day in the liturgy of the Orthodox church
under the name of Church Slavonic. Its alphabet, the Cyrillic, i's the oldest
form of all modern Slavic alphabets, although some hold that an alphabet of
similar appearance, the Glagolitic, antedates it among the western Slovenians.
Although Bulgaria possesses the oldest Slavic literature, this dates back but
little over 1,000 years. It was not until the ninth century that Cyril and
Methodius, apostles to the Slavs, put it into written form. Apparently only a
century or two before this the Bulgarians spoke a Finnish language, which they
brought into Europe with them from Asia. While they adopted the language of
the Slavs, whom they conquered and organized politically, they were them-
selves swallowed up in the Slavic population. They lost not only their ancient
language but their physical type. While they are the most truly Asiatic in
origin of all the Slavs, they are Europeanized in appearance and character. In
some respects their life is more civilized and settled than that of some of the
Slavs farther west, as in Montenegro and Dalmatia. They are not only less
warriors in spirit than these, but are more settled as agriculturists. Yet they
seem to feel that they do not belong to the civilization of Europe, properly
speaking, for they say of one who visits the countries farther west that he
" L'oes to Europe."
The question concerning the physical type of the Bulgarians is more difficult
to solve. Less scientific work has been put upon this portion of Europe than
most sections, and there is still doubt as. to the movements of the race in pre-
historic times and therefore as to their place of origin. There can be little
doubt, however, that two physical types are found on opposite sides of Bul-
garia. , While those of the west are distinctly broad-headed, those on the east
are, at least in part, as distinctly long-headed. The western Bulgarians are
predominantly, it would appear, of the same Slavic type as their neighboring
kinsmen, the Serbo-Croatians. The Albanians, who adjoin them on the south-
west, are siim'larly very broad-headed, but are taller than the true Slavs.
The explanation of the long-headed type in the east is not so simple. Some
think it indicates the early Flanic origin. Others might argue that it is Italic,
or at least " Mediterranean," for there is no doubt this element is predominant
amongst the eastern Roumanians who adjoin them.
Bulgarians of the eastern type are predominantly brunette, with dark hair,
although it is said that 40 per cent have light eyes. The race is rather low
in stature and stockily built, but no distinctly Mongolian feature remains, un-
less it be the high cheek bones and rather narrow eyes which are common
amongst them. It must be assumed that the present Bulgarians have assimi-
lated Turkish, Greek, and Roumanian elements as well as Slavic. This is true
even of their language as well as of their blood. The Bulgarian is, in fact, the
most corrupt of all Slavic languages at the present time. Although it pos-
sessed the first Slavic literature, it now has almost none; and what it has,
has been developed within the last century.
Of Bulgarian dialects the most important to mention is the so-called Mace-
donian. Some have claimed that there is an independent Macedonian lan-
guage and therefore race or people. But this would appear to be one of the
patriotic misrepresentations not unknown amongst the partisan philologists of
this region. The other chief dialects are the Rhodopian and the Southern
Thracian or the Upper and Lower Moesian. The well-known Pomaks are^the
Mohammedan Bulgarians, a fine type physically. Less than 20 per cent of the
Bulgarians are Mohammedans; three-fourths are of the Orthodox faith. Bul-
garians themselves contemptuously call the mongrel people of the coast
" (Jagaous."
There would appear to be little doubt that the Bulgars came through southern
Russia to their present home in the time of the early migrations of the middle
ages. Some records locate them in the second century on the river Volga, from
which they appear to have taken their name. In fact, a country called " Greater
Bulgaria " was known there as late as the tenth century. If the common sup-
position be correct, the Bulgarians are most nearly related in origin to the
Magyars of Hungary and the Finns of northern Russia. After these they are
nearest of kin to the Turks, who have long lived amongst them as rulers/ But
Turks and Finns alike are but branches of the great Finno-Tataric family,
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 223
which had its origin in northern Asia, probably in Mongolia. (See articles on
these. )
The career of the Bulgarians thenceforward is well known. They were for a
time the most dreaded foes of the Eastern Empire. They played the part in the
east that the Teutons did in the west — first as the enemies of the higher civiliza-
tion, then as its allies and protectors against the barbarians living beyond;
finally as an independent and powerful people. In the tenth century the King-
dom of Bulgaria covered the most of what is now European Turkey and Mace-
donia. The Bulgarians were practically independent from 678 A. D. to 1392
A. D., when they were brought under subjection to the Turk; and within the
last generation Bulgaria has again obtained its independence from Turkey, and
more recently has received an added slice of Turkish territory — that portion
south of the Balkan Mountains, known as East Roumelia. Previously Bulgaria
was limited to the region between the Balkans and the Danube, with the excep-
tion of the Roumanian district lying between the lower Danube and the Black
Sea, which is called the Dobruja. On the west, as already intimated, Bulgaria
is bounded by Servia ; on the southwest, by Turkey.
The Bulgarians occupy a territory at least one-half larger than Bulgaria
itself. The most of this lies south of Bulgaria, in Turkey proper, especially in
central Turkey, extending westward to Albania. In fact, all of central Turkey
is Bulgarian in population down to the yEgean Sea, excepting a narrow strip
along the coast, and this is occupied, not by the Turks, but by Greeks. It is not
commonly understood that the Turks form but a small minority of the popula-
tion of European Turkey; some say but one-seventh of it. A census has never
been taken. Of course they are scattered everywhere in an official capacity, as
the Greeks are widely scattered as traders. And there are other races or
peoples in the portion of Turkey that in population is predominantly Bulgarian.
Especially in Macedonia is this list of races increased by the addition of Serbs
and other southern Slavs, of Albanians, and even of Roumanians, in consider-
able numbers. The last named, under the designation of Tsintsars, or Kutzo-
Ylachs, extend in a rather compact body from southwestern Macedonia south-
ward well into central Greece.
Putting the geography of the Bulgarian people in another way, it covers the
eastern third of the Balkan Peninsula. The western third is Serbo-Croatian;
the southern third, Greek and Albanian. All this has been carved out of the
older Turkish Empire; most, excepting Greece, in the partition of 1878. Bul-
garia itself contains nearly 500,000 Turks, including quite compact settlements
in the southern part of East Roumelia and in the northeastern part of Bulgaria
near the Black Sea. There are also considerable numbers of Gypsies, Rou-
manians, Greeks, and Spanish Jews — from 30,000 to 90,000 of each. The
Bulgarians themselves number 3,200,000 (census of 1905) in Bulgaria. The
total population is 4,000,000. The total number of Bulgarians in Europe has
been estimated variously at from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000. Of these, there are
probably 1,000,000 in Turkey. To-day they are found in but small numbers
elsewhere. The Russian census gives 170,000.
The number of Bulgarian immigrants coming to the United States cannot be
'ascertained for the reason that in immigration statistics they are combined
with the Servians and Montenegrins. The total immigration of the three
peoples during the twelve years 1899-1910, was 97,391.
CAUCASIAN, CAUCASICrETJROPEAN, ETJRAFRICAN, or WHITE RACE. (See
apanthochroi and mclanochroi races below.) The name given by Blumenbach
in 1795 to the white race or grand division of mankind as distinguished from
the Ethiopian, Mongolian, American, and Malay races. The term is now defined
more suitably for our purposes in a broader sense by Brinton and Keane,
namely, to include all races, which, although dark in color or aberrant in other
directions, are, when considered from all points of view, felt to be more like
the white race than like any of the four other races just mentioned. Thus the
dark Gallas of eastern Africa are included, partly on linguistic grounds, partly
because they have the regular features of the Caucasian ; the Berbers of north-
ern Africa because of the markedly blond and regular features found amongst
them; the dark Hindus and other peoples of India still more emphatically
because of their possessing an Aryan speech, relating them still more closely to
the white race, as well as because of their physical type; and possibly the
Polynesians, Indonesians, and Ainos of the Pacific because of their physical
characteristics, although in this discussion these will be excluded from the
definition. (See Pacific Islander.) The general opinion is that the Dravidians
224 The Immigration Commission.
and Veddahs, south of the Aryan Hindus in India, are not Caucasian. They do
not possess an Aryan tongue; and physically they more nearly approach the
Negro.
It will be seen from the above that the Caucasian race was by no means
originally confined to Europe. It has long covered the northern third of Africa
and practically all of southern Asia to the borders of Farther India. Although
called the " European " race, it more likely had its origin in Asia or even in
Africa than in Europe. Because of the latter theory, Brinton calls it the
" Eurafrican " race. It does not even now fill certain large sections, of Europe.
The Mongolian race not only occupies the most of eastern and northern Russia
but northern Scandinavia and the greater part of Finland, while the dominant
races of Turkey, of Roumania, and even of Hungary are Mongolian in origin.
While the white race would be supposed to be the one best understood, it is
really the one about which there is the most fundamental and sometimes violent
discussion. The word " Caucasian," for instance, is in nearly as bad repute as
"Aryan " at the present time amongst ethnologists. . Yet, as Keane has said of
the former term, both words may be preserved with conventional meanings as
are many of the early terms of natural history, although the early ideas asso-
ciated with their use be discarded. While the word " Caucasian " has refer-
ence mainly to physical characters, "Aryan " will be used here as applying
strictly to linguistic groupings. As explained in the Introductory, such use is
general and practically unavoidable in immigration statistics and in European
censuses. The English seldom use the word " Caucasian " in the narrow sense
as designating only the peoples of the Caucasus Mountains.
The Caucasian is the only grand division of mankind which possesses in-
flected languages. In two of its minor divisions, the Caucasic and Euskaric.
are also found agglutinative tongues. The scope of the word " Caucasian "
may be better indicated by naming the subdivisions of the race. The following
is substantially agreed upon by both Brinton and Keane, if the doubtful
Polynesians and Ainos of the latter he discarded. The larger linguistic divi-
sions or " stocks " are the Aryan, Caucasic, Euskaric, Semitic, and Hamitic.
(See classification in Introductory.) Both authors combine the two last named
under the term " South Mediterranean," a stock located south and east of this
great sea. Brinton applies the term " North Mediterranean " to all the rest,
while Keane prefers to use the terms " North Mediterranean," " North Euro-
pean," " Iranic," and " Indie " as equivalent to Brinton' s term "Aryan."
Brinton divides the Aryans into the Teutonic, Lettic, Celtic, Slavonic, Armenic,
Iranic, Illyric, Italic, and Hellenic groups.
Passing now from the classification found most convenient in immigration
topics, other schemes that are much discussed should be referred to here.
Forty years ago Huxley replaced the word " Caucasian " by two terms :
" Xanthochroi," meaning the blond race, and " Melanochroi," or the brunette
portion of the Caucasian race. Ripley has summed up in a masterly manner
all the physical classifications made since that of Huxley. He shows that the
great consensus of opinion thus far favors the distinction of three great races
in Europe, which he calls the "Teutonic," the "Alpine," and the " Mediter-
ranean." An attempt has been made in the introduction to correlate these,
terms with the more common linguistic classification of Brinton. (See table
on p. 212.) As pointed out in the Introductory, Ripley's classification is im-
practicable in immigration statistics and in censuses of races, and therefore it
need not be given extended discussion here. Moreover, it appears probable
that his classification must be largely modified by the studies of Deniker, now
in progress. The latter has added to the three classical races of Europe the
"Atlanto-Mediterranean," the " Oriental," and the "Adriatic," with possibly
three or four other " subraces." Ripley has practically admitted the existence
of the Adriatic as a distinct race. Deniker has wisely given as an alternative
classification to that of his physical types a classification of " peoples " based
on linguistic grounds which may be profitably compared, in a discussion of each
immigrant race, with those of Brinton and Keane here adopted (as in Intro-
ductory, table, p. 212).
In population the Caucasian race leads the world, with about 800,000,000
souls. Nearly 300.000,000 of these, however, are of darker branches of the
race, and live in Asia, 220,000,000 of them being Aryans of India. The Mon-
golian race numbers, perhaps, 200,000,000 less than the Caucasian, although
.extending far into Europe, as above noted. Asia, both Mongolian and Cau-
casian, has a population of nearly 900,000,000, as against the 400,000,000 in-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 225
habitants of Europe. Fully nine-tenths, or 750,000,000, of the Caucasian popu-
lation of the world is Indo-European, or Aryan.
CELTIC or KELTIC. The westernmost branch of Aryan or Indo-European
languages. It is divided into two chief groups, with several subdivisions, as
shown in the following table from Keane :
I. GAEDHELIC (GAELIC). II. KYMRIC.
Irish, Old and Modern. Old Gaulish, extinct.
Erse, or Gaelic of the Scottish High- Kymraeg, or Welsh.
lands. Cornish, extinct.
Manx, of the Isle of Man. Brezonek, or Low Breton.
Irish, because of its more extensive literature and greater antiquity, is con-
sidered to be the chief branch of the Gaelic group. Modern Erse or Scotch is
thought to be a more recent dialect of Irish. ( See Scotch. ) Manx is the dialect
spoken by a small number of persons in the Isle of Man. Welsh is the best
preserved of the Cymric group. It has a literature nearly if not quite as rich
as that of Irish, and is spoken by a larger population than any other Celtic
language found in the British Isles. (See Welsh.) Low Breton, or Armorican,
is the speech found in Lower Brittany, in France. It is spoken by nearly two-
thirds as many persons as are all other Celtic dialects combined. No Celtic
language has a current literature of any extent. Each succeeding census shows
a decrease in the number of persons who speak a Celtic tongue. In few places
is a Celtic language taught in the schools. Everywhere these languages are
being supplanted by English or French.
The term " Celtic " is used in different senses by the philologist and the
anthropologist. The former includes in it all peoples originally speaking a
Celtic language. The latter has^used the term to designate a broad-headed
physical type called "Alpine" by Ripley. As shown elsewhere (see Caucasian).
there are three great physical races in Europe which Ripley calls " Teutonic,"
"Alpine" ("Celtic"), and "Mediterranean." The first named is tall, long-
headed, and blond, and comprises most of the northern races of Europe. The
last named is short, long-headed, and very brunette, and includes the races
living on the shores of the sea whose name it bears. The " Celtic " is of
medium stature, broad-headed, and rather brunette. The eyes are more often
gray and the hair brown, though all variations are found, due to admixtures
with the Teutons and the Mediterraneans living on either side of them. (For
other names for this type, see table in Introductory. ) This " Celtic " race
seems to have had its main center of dissemination in the highlands of the Alps
of midwestern Europe.
Since the Celtic-speaking races, with the exception of the Breton, are not, as
was once thought, of one and the same physical type, Ripley recommends the
dropping of the word " Celtic " as a term to designate a physical stock and the
substitution of the word "Alpine" instead. While all Celtic-speaking peoples
are mixed races, those of the British Isles are distinctly long-headed and tall,
in fact, are among the tallest of all Europe. They are therefore to be classed
as Teutonic or " Northern," rather than as Alpine. The Bretons are the only
people having a Celtic tongue who are predominatingly of the Alpine physical
type. And even they have received much infusion of Teutonic blood, especially
in the coast districts.
The Bureau of Immigration places in the " Keltic division " three peoples
that speak a Celtic language — Irish, Scotch, and Welsh — and two that are dis-
tinctly of the Alpine or Celtic physical stock, the French and the Northern
Italian. Manx and Breton do not appear by name in immigration statistics.
As explained elsewhere (see Introductory and English), this dictionary uses
the term " Celtic " in the sense of the philologist and the term "Alpine " to
designate the so-called " Celtic " physical stock.
Celtic-speaking peoples are found in the western part of Ireland ; in the
mountains of Scotland and Wales; in Monmouthshire, England, which borders
on \Vales ; in the Isle of Man ; and in the western part of Brittany. It is im-
possible to give the population of the Celtic race — that is, of those whose ances-
tral language was Celtic — since most of its members now speak English or
French only. The census of 1901 of the United Kingdom reports 1,806,000 who
ian speak a Celtic tongue. Hickmann estimates the total Celtic population of
226 The Immigration Commission.
Europe at only 3.200,000 and that of the world at 9,200,000. However much
others may Increase this number, the Celtic population of the world is insig-
nificant when compared with that of other branches of the Indo-European
family, as Teutonic 131.000,000, Romance or Italic 107,300,000, and Slavonic
127,200,000.
Nevertheless, despite their small population, the Celtic races formed, until
the recent change in the tide of immigration to America, a very important ele-
ment. (For further details and immigration figures, see articles Irisli, Scotch,
and Welsh.}
CHINESE. The race or people inhabiting China proper. Linguistically, one
of the Siiiitic groups of the Mongolian or Asiatic race. The name Chinese is
also applied, erroneously from an ethnical standpoint, to all the natives of
the Chinese Empire, including China proper; that is, to the entire Sibiric
group. These are, on the northeast the Manchus, on the north the Mongols, on
the west the tribes of Turkestan and of Tibet. The name does not properly
apply to the other Sinitic peoples — the Cochin-Chinese and the Annamese of the
French colonies and the Burmese of the British colonies, all of whom border on
China on the south and southwest. (See East Indian.} The people of Man-
churia and of Mongolia are not so nearly related linguistically to the Chinese
as they are to the Japanese (see). All these "Sibiric" peoples have aggluti-
native languages, while the Chinese is isolating and monosyllabic, being more
nearly related to the languages stretching from Tibet southeast to the Malay
Peninsula.
The Chinese physical type is well known — yellowish in color, with slanting
eyes, high cheek bones, black hair, and a flat face. The eye is more properly
described as having the " Mongolic fold " ° at the inner angle. This mark is
found to some extent in all Mongolian peoples, in the Japanese, and now and
then in individuals of the European branches of this race in Russia and Austria-
Hungary.
Estimates of the population of China proper run from 270,000,000, an Amer-
ican official estimate, to 400.000,000. a Chinese estimate. The other peoples
of the Empire are comparatively small in numbers, the entire Chinese Em-
pire having a population of from 330,000.000 to 430,000,000. The Chinese are
spreading rapidly over the countries toward the south, replacing the Malay to
a great extent as a landowning class in the Malay Peninsula and other portions
of Malaysia, where they already number between 5.000,000 and 7.000,000, in-
cluding those in the Philippines. In the Americas and Hawaii there are about
140,000. Chinese laborers have been excluded from the United States since
1882.6 It is estimated that the total emigration of Chinese to the United States
has exceeded 200,000, of whom only 90,000 now remain. Still larger numbers,
350,000, have gone to the Dutch East Indies. Adding to these an emigration
of 130,000 to Singapore, 120,000 to Peru, and perhaps 30,000 to Australia, there
appears a total emigration within fifty years of over 800.000. This number,
however, is small when compared with emigration from several European coun-
tries during that period. In the twelve years 1899-1910, 22,590 Chinese were
admitted to the United States.
No doubt Manchus and others who can not strictly be called Chinese appear
as such in United States immigration statistics, especially students and other
members of the Manchu families who have long been a ruling caste in China.
American law defines the word "Chinese" in a political sense to include all
subjects of China. Koreans, Japanese, and East Indians (see these) are
counted separately.
COREAN. (See Korean.}
CROATIAN or SERVIAN, or, better, SERBO-CROATIAN, including the so-called
Croatian, Servian, Bosnian, Dalmatian, Herzegovinian, and Montenegrin (Tsrna-
gortsi) races or peoples. (Related words: Chroat, Khrobat, Carpath, Khorvat,
Horvath and Hervat or Hrvat; also Serb or Srp, Sorb, and Sorabian.
The Serbo-Croatian is a distinct and homogeneous race, from a linguistic
point of view, and may be defined as the one which, with the closely related
Slovenian, constitutes the Southern Division of the Slavic, the linguistic stock
which occupies the countries above indicated, including Slavonia. It is not an
ethnical unity in physical characters and descent, but a mixed race. It is
separated into the above so-called races on political and even religious grounds.
It forms an important subject in the present study, for it is typical of the newer
flood of immigration from southeastern Europe and contributes largely to it.
0 See Mongolian, p. 257. 6 See Vol. II, pp. 785-788.
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 227
GEOGRAPHY OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA.
Definitions of the Serbo-Croatian peoples depend so largely upon political
boundaries that a preliminary sketch of the Balkan States will conduce to
clearness. The southern part of the Balkan Peninsula is occupied by Greeks,
Albanians, and a minority of Turks. All the rest — that is, the greater part — is
Slavic. Roughly speaking, the eastern half of the Slavic territory is Bulgarian
(see). This race belongs to the Eastern Division of Slavs and occupies the
entire region from the Danube south nearly to the ^Egean Sea and Constanti-
nople itself. The main range of the Balkan Mountains is in their territory,
running eastward to the Black Sea. The Serbo-Croatians are west of the Bul-
garians, occupying all the territory to the Adriatic Sea. They are restricted,
therefore, to the northwestern part, or about one-third, of the Balkan Peninsula.
Once the Empire of Servia covered all the country southward to Greece.
If the northern boundary of the peninsula be considered a line running east-
ward from the head of the Adriatic to the Black Sea following the Save River
to the Danube and down the latter, it will include all the Bulgarians and the
Southern Slavs with the exception of the Slovenian territory, northern Croatia,
and Slavonia. These will also be included within the limits of the peninsula
if its boundary may be fixed a little farther north to the Drave. This article is
not concerned further with the countries of Greece, Turkey (including Albania),
and Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia), nor with Roumania, which lies
north of Bulgaria, and therefore outside the limits of the Balkan Peninsula.
( See article Roumanian for this race or people, kindred in physical type to the
Slavic, but possessing a Latin tongue.)
The remaining States constitute Serbo-Croatian territory. The Kingdom of
Servia, situated just south of the Danube and the Save, midway between 'the
Black Sea and the Adriatic, is the only independent State amongst them, ex-
cepting the small principality of Montenegro. The latter occupies the southern
angle of the Serbo-Croatian territory, with Turkey on the southeast and the
narrow territory of Dalmatia and the Adriatic on the southwest. The remain-
ing Serbo-Croatian territory belongs to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.
Herzegovina, northwest of Montenegro and similar to it in size, and Bosnia,
larger and extending north from Herzegovina to the Save and Slavonia, were
attached in 1878; Dalmatia, a narrow strip of coast land between these two
States and the Adriatic, is an older possession of Austria. Still farther north
are the former kingdoms of Slavonia, lying along the southwestern boundary of
Hungary proper, and Croatia, lying farthest to the northwest in the peninsula
next to Austria and the Adriatic. These two provinces now form part of the
Kingdom of Hungary. All the Southern Slavs — that is, the Serbo-Croatians
and the Bulgarians — were subject to Turkey only thirty years ago, excepting
those on the northern fringe inhabiting Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. If,
as is sometimes said, these are not Balkan States, all the Balkan Peninsula
excepting Greece was then covered by Turkey — as also was Greece itself a
century ago.
THE SERBO-CROATIANS IN GENERAL.
Ask a Bosnian his race and he will answer " Turk " if he is a Mohammedan,
" Latin " or " Croatian " if a Roman Catholic, and " Servian " if an adherent
of the Greek Church. Yet the race is the same in all cases because the language
is the same.a The case of the Bosnian is typical of the entire Serbo-Croatian
people, which is peculiar amongst all the races or peoples of Europe in appear-
ing to be divided into six or more separate ethnical branches; that is, as many
as there are political States if not religions in this region, while the scientist
can have no doubt but that all are of one race. Their case resembles that of
the Poles, who, since the partition of Poland, make part of three different
nationalities, or that of the Germans, constituting to a greater or less degree
the German, the Swiss, and the Austrian nationalities. In like manner. Bos-
nian, Dalmatian, Montenegrin, and Herzegovinian are only names of nationali-
ties or of political groups, while the corresponding race or people is Serbo-
Croatian.
Language, as explained in the Introductory, is the necessary basis of all
official classifications of European races. It is the one followed by all European
censuses of races, and is adopted in this dictionary. The Bureau of Immigra-
tion has found it desirable for practical considerations to subdivide and group
« See pp. 211 and 234-235.
228 The Immigration Commission.
the Serbo-Croatians as follows : The Servian and Montenegrin are counted with
the Bulgarian, the Croatian with the Slovenian, and the Dalmatian, Bosnian,
and Herzegovinian are given a separate column. Yet there can be no doubt that
the Bulgarians and the Slovenians are outside the Serbo-Croatian race, although
they are most closely related to it by language.
The confusion In Serbo-Croatian terminology has its origin in both politics
and religion. From a partisan standpoint it has become quite customary to
use only provincial names, like Croatian. To recognize the broader racial name
would lend weight to the sentiment for Serbo-Croatian consolidation and
the political independence of the Serbo-Croatians. Linguistic grounds are
sought by others for a broader union embracing the entire northern belt of
Balkan States from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, including both the Slovenian
territory on one side of the Serbo-Croatians and Bulgaria on the other. Re-
ligious rivalries likewise have led to ethnographical fictions. Not only has a
fraction of a race like the Bosnians been led to say that they are of three
races or peoples when they practically mean three religions ; these religions
have given them three alphabets for one speech. The Serbo-Croatians of the
west, who are Roman Catholic, can not read the publications of the eastern
Serbo-Croatians, who are Orthodox, although both have the same language,
for the former use the Roman alphabet or sometimes the strange Glagolitic
letters, while the latter use the Russian characters fostered by the Greek
Church.
The geographical limits of the Serbo-Croatians are not easily determined.
They are defined on the north by the Danube and the Drave ; that is, by Hun-
garian and Slovenian territory. On the east, also, they coincide with the
boundary between Servla and Bulgaria, except that northeastern Servia is occu-
pied by Roumanians. But as to the southern boundary the wildest and most
divergent statements are made by students of the question according to their
political bias. Some pro-Servians would claim Macedonia and the greater part
of Turkey, even to 1;he Black Sea, to be Servian by language; while it is gen-
erally held that the Slavic language found here is Bulgarian. A fair statement
would seem to be that northwestern Turkey is Serbo-Croatian, including a nar-
row strip of northern Albania, as well as the large districts known as Old
Servia and Novibazar. The last named lies between Servia and Montenegro.
Old Servia is farther southeast. These two Serbo-Croatian districts in Turkey
are about as large as Montenegro and Herzegovina.
As thus delimited, the Serbo-Croatians are inclosed on the west by the
Adriatic Sea ; on the northwest by the closely related Slovenians ; on the north
by the totally different Magyars or Hungarians, of Mongol origin ; on the north-
east by a more nearly related people, the Roumanians ; on the southeast by
distant relatives, the Bulgarians: and on the south by the Albanians, people
differing both in language and physical type from any other in Europe. The
region is aptly named the " whirlpool of Europe." The Balkans are the storm
center, and the " Eastern question " is always acute. Within a generation
European Turkey has lost half of its territory, and several new nations have
appeared upon the map of the peninsula. The keen rivalries between nationali-
ties and races have obscured scientific questions and rendered more difficult the
classification of peoples.
Even the choice of the term Serbo-Croatian is a comparatively recent expe-
dient to allay national jealousy. The language may as properly be called either
Croatian or Servian. It was once called the Illyrian, an ethnical misnomer for
which an excuse was sought in political history. But the ancient Illyrians
were an entirely different race. Few traces of them, it is said* can be found
among the Slavs now occupying the coyntry. The apostles of the " Illyrian "
propaganda would take into their fold Bulgaria on the east and the Slovenians
on the west. " Yugo-Slavic " — that is " South Slavic " — is a name more recently
adopted by other patriotic Slavs' in an attempt to inculcate a feeling of unity
between all Serbo-Croatians and Slovenians. It is pan-slavism on a small scale.
The historical and linguistic relations existing between widely separated
branches of the Slavs are often indicated or suggested by strange similarities in
their names. The terms Slav, Slovak, Slovenian, and Slavonian are discussed
in the article on the Slovenian. As there pointed out, Slavonian in the narrow-
est sense may mean the nationality (not a race) inhabiting the former kingdom
of Slavonia. The race or people living there is the Servian or Croatian. Curi-
ously enough, Croat, Hervat, and the related words given at the head of this
article are variations of an old word meaning highlands or mountains (cf. Car-
pathians) ; hence not strictly ethnical terms, although some immigrants insist
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 229
that Hervat and not Croatian is the proper name of their people. " Horvatok "
is the name given Croatians on the Magyar ethnographical map. In like man-
ner as the forms Hervat, Horvath, and even Kharpath come from Hrvat, so such
variations as Serb and Sorb came from Srp. In the Serbo-Croatian, as in other
Slavic languages, a vowel is not written with this " r." The "h" easily passes
into " kh " and " b " into " p " or " v." In these and similar words, therefore,
are indicated the ancient relationships existing between widely different divi-
sions of the Slavs; between the Serbs, Croats, or Hervats, and Slovenians or
Winds of the Southern Division on the one hand, and, on the other, in the north,
the disappearing Sorbs and Wends and the Slovaks, with their forerunners,
who left their name in ancient Chrobatia and the Carpathians.
The technicalities of the stho, cha, and kay dialects of the Serbo-Croatian
need not be entered into here. In a general way they correspond to: (1) The
southern, Servian, or, better, that spoken in Herzegovina, which has become the
literary form of the Serbo-Croatian; (2) the western, Croatian, the use of
which is gradually receding to the coast of Dalmatia ; and (3) that found on
the western border of Croatia, which is more properly called a separate lan-
guage, the Slovenian.
Of the numerous names borne by Serbo-Croatian dialects and divisions of the
population only a few need be given here. Some are merely names of political
divisions. Thus the " Cernagorians " are simply the Montenegrins, the two
words having the same meaning. " Tsrna Gora," in their language, means
" black mountain." The Ragusans are the natives of the old city of Ragusa ;
Dubrovcans is another name for these. Others are the Syrmians, sometimes
considered to be a fourth division of the Serbo-Croatians, named after a plain
in Croatia-Slavonia ; the Cices of Istria, and the Hranicares of the borders.
Skipetar is a name applied to the Slavonized Albanians of the coast. An
Istrian — that is, a native of Istria — may be of any race; more likely a Serbo-
Croatian, Italian, or Slovenian.
The Morlaks, who call themselves " Vlah " or " Wlach," may be, as some
claim, Slavonized Roumanians (Wallachs) ; but if so, the change has been quite
complete, for they might be taken to-day as the primitive Servian stock, not
only in physical appearance and dialect, but in character and customs. They
form a considerable population in northern Dalmatia and adjacent territory,
especially in Istria. Reclus says that they are amongst the least advanced
peoples of Europe. Certain other names found amongst Serbo-Croatians really
designate social groups rather than distinct races, dialects, or political divisions.
Thus the well-known word " Haiduk," meaning originally in the Turkish lan-
guage something like highwaymen or freebooter, was adopted by the Servians in
the sense of defender of the home land. Formerly Servians of the best families
became Haiduks and pillaged Turkish villages. The Tchetnitsi were a class of
these that made a specialty of taking the heads of their slain enemies. The
Uskoks were, like them, brigands before they settled down to agricultural pur-
suits. They fled from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Montenegrin mountains
for protection against the Turks.
The savage manners of the last century are still met with amongst some
Serbo-Croatians of to-day. Armed conflicts are not uncommon. Political feuds
are especially bitter. Murders resulting from private vendettas occur fre-
quently in some localities. Illiteracy is prevalent and civilization at a low
stage in retired districts. Yet some points like Belgrade, the capital of Servia,
are centers of literary activity and avid of all that makes up western civiliza-
tion.
In physical appearance the Serbo-Croatians are quite distinct from other
Slavs. In fact, they would seem to be, at bottom, not Slavic, or " Eastern," to
use Deniker's terms, but "Adriatic." The latter differs from any other race in
Europe in combining unusual stature with unusual breadth of head. Its purest
representatives are found a little farther south amongst the Albanians, a rem-
nant of the ancient Illyric race, using this word in its proper sense. In northern
Albania, and especially in Herzegovina, are found some of the broadest heads in
the world, with an average cephalic index of 87. The race is also one of the
tallest of Europe, averaging 5 feet 9 inches. This type shades off in every
direction, especially on the south, where both the Turks and the Greeks are
shorter. The ancient Greeks belong to the long-headed " Mediterranean " race.
On the north, the Albanian type is modified by the great Slavic wave of migra-
tion that brought with it the present Serbo-Croatian language of the country.
But while the average height of the Slav is considerably less, the head is broad,
230
The Immigration Commission.
as it is also in the "Alpine" race, farther northwest, into which the Serbo-
Croatian type insensibly passes. The type is brunette, but not of the darkest.
Although not so strong or stockily built as the tallest men of northern Europe,
the Serbo-Croatian is vigorous and well adapted to hard labor.
TABLE 5. — l)i*trilnttion of 8crbo-('r<><i1iun i>oi>i<lation in HMO.
Country.
Number.
2,102,000
565,000
ol,550,000
2,299,000
a 250, 000
Elsewhere
a],434,000
Total
a 8, 200, 000
« Estimated.
It is quite impossible to enter separate figures for the Servians in Turkey,
where no census has been taken. Some estimates, especially by Servian parti-
sans, place this number at over 500,000 ; others, as low as 40,000.
The foregoing statistics are significant because the Southern Slavs typify the
new character of American immigration that has replaced the tide from north--
western Europe. The Southern Slavs not only outnumber any other race in the
Balkan Peninsula, but they constitute about one-half its population if we add to
them the small Albanian population to which they are physically related. The
Greeks do not make up one-third of the population, while the Turks are hope-
lessly in the minority, estimated by some as only one-seventh as many as the
Slavs. Its 8.000,000 or 8,200,000 of population puts the Serbo-Croatian race
about tenth in rank among all European races as of size. It may, therefore,
be reckoned with as a steady and important source of future immigration. In
immigration statistics Croatians and Slovenians are counted together. During
the twelve years 1899-1910, 335,543 immigrants of both races were admitted
to the United States.
At present the Southern Slavic rate of immigration is high only in the most
northwestern group, that of Croatia, Slavonia, and the Slovenian territory.
In 1907 the Croatian-Slovenian rate of immigration was about 13 per 1,000
of population, exceeding that of any other race or people except two, the He-
brew and the Slovak. There are said to be already 270.000 Croatians in the
United States.
THE VARIOUS NATIONALITIES.
The terms " Bosnian," " Dalmatian," " Herzegovinian," and " Montenegrin,"
as shown above, are not names of races, but rather of nationalities found within
the Serbo-Croatian ethnical territory. The same is true, of course, of the
Servian, the Croatian, and the Slavonian as nationalities. Further details are
necessary concerning each, especially as to their ethnical and religious elements.
Keeping constantly in mind that by the so-called Servian and Croatian races
are generally meant only the Orthodox (Greek) and Roman Catholic divisions,
respectively, of the one Serbo-Croatian race, the reader will better understand
the following statistics from the Austrian and Hungarian censuses of 1900 :
TABLE 6. — Distribution of Serbo-Croatian^, by rclif/ioii.
Geographic division.
Catholic.
Orthodox.
Total.
Number.
Percent.
Number.
Percent.
Number.
Per cent.
Croatia-Slavonia
1,482,353
188, 552
61.6
1.1
607,381
434, 641
25.4
2.6
2,089,734
623, 193
87.0
3.7
Hungary proper
To these may be added the population of Bosnin and Herzegovina, 1,568.092,
of whom the 334,142 Roman Catholics may be counted roughly as Croatians and
the 673,246 Oriental Orthodox as Servians. But very few of the 548,632 Moham-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 231
medans are Turks, although generally calling themselves by that name. It is
said that the Bosnian nobility became Mohammedans in order to preserve their
feudal rights, but that they differ in more respects than race from Turkish Mo-
hammedans. For instance, they do not practice polygamy.
Of the Servian nationality — that is, of the citizens of Servia — 90 per cent are
Servian by race and 98 per cent Orthodox in religion. The Roumanians in
Servia number only 90,000. The Gypsies come next with half that number. The
Roumanians (see), like the Servians, are for the most part Orthodox. While
the Turks proper number only 1,000 in Servia, there are 15,000 Mohammedans.
The small independent principality of Montenegro has had no census. It is
estimated that nearly 90 per cent of the population of 250,000 are Orthodox.
The remainder are Roman Catholics or Mohammedans, the latter being Alba-
nians. In Dalmatia 96 per cent of the population is Serbo-Croatian by race
and 84 per cent Roman Catholic in religion. These probably all call themselves
"Croatian." Nearly all the rest of the people are Greek (not "United") in
religion. Less than 3 per cent of the population are Italians. These live along
the coast in cities like Ragusa. There are no Turks in Dalmatia according
to the census.
In the Hungarian provinces of Croatia and Slavonia, besides the Serbo-Croa-
tian population, which, as shown above, is 87 per cent of the whole, about 5
per cent of the population, or 134,000, are German, and 4 per cent " Hungarian."
This is the classification by mother tongue. Classified by religion, all the
Servians are " Oriental Greek," while 99 per cent of the " Croatians " are
Roman Catholic, as are also 80 per cent of the Germans and Hungarians. No
Turks or Mohammedans appear as such by name in the census. Finally, in the
Coastland, including Istria, while nearly one-half of the population is Italian,
the most of the remainder are Serbo-Croatians (143,000) and Slovenians.
Nearly 99 per cent are Catholic.
CUBAN. Defined by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization as fol-
lows: "The term 'Cuban' refers to the Cuban people (not Negroes)." This
definition covers, however, only 60 per cent of the population of Cuba — that is,
the native whites — for 13 per cent are Negroes, 16 per cent mulattoes. and 10
per cent foreign-born whites. It also excludes Indians. The term is generally
used in a wider sense to include all natives of Cuba, regardless of color, espe-
cially including those of mixed blood.
In race, therefore, the population of Cuba is mainly composed of pure Spanish
stock, if Catalans and Basques may be called pure Spanish, for these are the
most important stocks that have come to the island from Spain. It is popu-
larly supposed that there is much Indian blood in Cuba, as in Mexico and in the
countries farther south. This is not the case, for the sufficient reason that the
Indian aborigines were almost entirely killed off in war and at forced labor
within fifty years from the landing of Columbus. Negroes to some extent have
suffered the same fate, for it is estimated that fully 900,000 were brought to the
island as slaves. In 1817 they outnumbered the white population. •
The Cuban census of 1907 gives a total population, in round numbers, of
2,000,000, of whom 1,200.000 are native whites, 200,000 foreign-born whites,
270,000 Negroes, 330,000 of mixed race, and 12,000 Chinese. Of the foreign-born
whites, 80 per cent are Spaniards and 3 per cent (6,713) Americans. Cuba is
therefore distinctly Spanish, or "Latin," in its sympathies and civilization.
Comparatively few Cubans, not counting as such Spanish, English, and other
foreign-born whites coming from Cuba, have emigrated to the United States.
The same is true of immigrants from the rest of the West Indies. (See West
Indian, Mexican, Spanish- American, and Negro.) The number of Negroes com-
ing to the United States from Cuba can not be stated, but it is not large, for the
total Negro immigration in 1907 was only 5,235, of whom 4,561 were from the
West Indies, including Cuba. All aliens coming from Cuba are counted as
immigrants, although, in common with persons coming from Canada, Newfound-
land, and Mexico, they are for the most part exempted from the head tax.
CZECH. (See Bohemian and Moravian.)
DALMATIAN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatians. (See Croatian.)
DANISH. (See Scandinavian.)
DUTCH and FLEMISH (less accurately Hollander, Netherlander, and Belgian).
The two westernmost races or peoples on the continent of Low German or
Teutonic origin, the Dutch being the native people of Holland (the Nether-
lands) and the Flemish that of Flanders — that is, of the western part of Bel-
gium. The Dutch and Flemish languages are intermediate between English
232 The Immigration Commission.
and Scotch on the one hand and German on the other. The chief differences
between the Dutch and Flemish are those of political boundaries, customs, and
religion, rather than of language or physique. Hollander, Netherlander, and
Belgian are names of nationalities and not of races. Holland-Dutch is a term
vulgarly used in America to distinguish Dutch from German, while Pennsyl-
vania Dutch is a name wrongly given to the old Pennsylvania German families.
DUTCH.
Etymologically Dutch is simply the German " Teutsch " — that is, " Teuton " —
and. therefore, might be used -as a generic term to include all Germans. But in
scientific usage the term is now limited to the people of Low German descent
living in the Rhine delta. Germans themselves never extend the word
" Deutsch " to the Netherlands. The Dutch or Netherlandish language is de-
rived from Old Saxon, a division of the long extinct Old Low German. The
word " Dutch " is sometimes wrongly used, especially in the United States, to
mean the German language in all its forms.
Dutch is the literary and national language of Holland; it is also the lan-
guage of the Dutch colonists in South Africa (Boers), and in the East and
West Indies. Besides Dutch, there are other dialects of Low German origin
used in Holland : Frisian. Saxon, Friso-Saxon, and Friso-Frankish. Frisian
is said to have been the language of the early Teutonic people throughout
Holland. It had a literature of its own in the fourteenth century, but has
been pressed upon by the Saxon and Frankish until it exists to-day only as a
patois in the province of Friesland and on some of the islands of the coast.
Saxon and Friso-Saxon are spoken throughout the eastern and southeastern
part of Holland. Friso-Frankish is spoken in Zeeland — that is, the island
province north of Belgium, and in the western part of Holland. Dutch is
spoken in the provinces of North and South Holland.
Physically, the northern Dutch are for the most part long-headed, oval
faced, tallish, and blond. The Frisians also are good examples of this type.
Southward in the western part of Holland there is more and more of an
admixture of a round-headed brunette element, shorter and stouter than the
northern type, which is thought to be descended from the ancient "Alpine " race,
with more or less Teutonic admixture. Three-fifths of the people of Holland are
Protestants; most of the remainder are Catholics. There are about 100,000
Jews in Holland. In social customs the Dutch show greater affinity to the
English than to the German. They have been called the Englishmen of the
mainland. Like the English, the Dutch have been great colonizers.
Holland is an independent kingdom. It is now called the Netherlands, a term
formerly given to the lowland country comprising both Holland and Belgium.
It is one of the smallest countries of Europe, having a superficial area of only
12,000 square miles. Its ethnographical boundaries coincide with its topo-
graphical ^formation : the Frieslanders hold the alluvial plains, the Saxons are
confined to sandy tracts, while the lowlands of the delta of the Rhine have a
population' mixed in origin. The Dutch population of the world has been
variously estimated at from 4,000,000 to 6,300,000. The population of Holland
itself is 6,000,000, or 1,000.000 less than that of Belgium, and a third more than
that of Ireland. Rudler and Chisholm estimate 71 per cent of the population to
be Dutch, 14 per cent Frisian. 13 per cent Flemish, and 2 per cent other Low
German. There are about 400.000 Boers in South Africa and 75,000 Dutch
colonists in the East and West Indies. In Immigration Bureau statistics Dutch
and Flemish are counted together, and in the twelve years 1899-1910, 87,658
immigrants of these races were admitted to the United States.
FLEMISH. (
Philologists differ as to the jwsition of Flemish, linguistically. Some con-
sider it to be a branch of Old Low German, closely akin to Dutch, if not iden-
tical with it; others place it as a dialect of Dutch and say that it is now
nearly extinct; while still others consider it to be a dialect of equal rank
with Frisian and Saxon, but distinct from Dutch. The literary language of
the Flemish people is now Dutch.
Physically the Flemish are of the prevailing Dutch type — tallish, blond, and
round-faced — the type so often portrayed by Rubens. The Flemish occupy the
northern and western provinces of Belgium and the northeastern part of
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 233
France bordering on Flanders. There are over 3,000,000 in Belgium, 750,000
in Holland, and 200,000 in the northern .part of France, making a total of over
4,000,000 Flemish in Europe — that is, about equal to the number of Dutch in
Holland.
BELGIAN.
The term Belgian simply means a native or inhabitant of the Kingdom of
Belgium. It has no significance as to physical race or language. The Belgian
nation is represented by two chief linguistic stocks, a Teutonic (Flemish) which
occupies the plains and the coast lands, and a French (Walloon) which occupies
the uplands. The two peoples also differ in industries. The Flemings are char-
acteristically tenant farmers; the Walloons are small proprietary farmers,
miners, and manufacturers.
Belgium ranks eighteenth in superficial area and eighth in population amongst
European countries. It is the most densely populated country in Europe, having
a population of over 7,000,000 in an area of 11,300 square miles ; that is, of about
000 to the square mile. The Kingdom is not evenly populated, the Flemish
provinces being much more densely settled than the Walloon. Of the total
number, 42 per cent speak Flemish only and 38 per cent French only, while 12
per cent speak both Flemish and French, and 6 per cent speak Flemish, French,
and German. Both French and Flemish are official languages. All public docu-
ments are printed in both. Both are taught in the schools. At the University
of Ghent the professors lecture in both French and Flemish. The Belgians are
for the most part Catholics.
Despite its density of population Belgium is an exception amongst European
countries in that it has more immigration than emigration. About 90 per cent
of this movement is to and from Holland, France, and Germany. Only an
insignificant number come to America, less than 1 per 1,000 of the population.
In 1907 there were 4,162 emigrants from Belgium to the United States, of
whom 2,929 are reported by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization as
Dutch and Flemish. In number of immigrants the Dutch and Flemish taken
together stand twenty-first down the list — that is, above the French, but far
below all the principal immigrant races or peoples.
EAST INDIAN. (See also Hindu.) Any native of the East Indies. The
latter is a very broad and vague term which has come down from the time of
Columbus, and embraces the vast populations of India, Farther India, and
Malaysia ; that is, of all the countries south of the Chinese Empire and lying
between the Indus on the west and the island of New Guinea' on the east. The
last-named island falls to the domain, therefore, of the Pacific Islanders (see).
Etimologically the term " East Indian " has no meaning, although its con-
venience has perhaps justified its use while immigration to the United States
from this part of the world was very small. Geographically it comprises races
of the most diverse culture, from the dwarf Negrito of the Philippines, perhaps
the lowest race of mankind in degree of civilization, to the European-like Hindu,
who uses the Aryan speech and has a civilization older than our own. All the
five great races or divisions of mankind, with the exception of the American
Indian, are found represented in the East Indies. The great Caucasian popu-
lation of India has just been mentioned. The inhabitants of Indo-China, Burma,
and Siam are Mongolian. Those of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago are
Malay, with a small remnant of a true Ethiopian or black race, the Negrito,
scattered here and there. The Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization puts
all East Indians into the " Mongolic " grand division.
The population of the four great races found in the East Indies, with the
exception of the black race, is immense, certainly over 350,000,000, forming with
that of China about half the population of the entire earth. Of all the East
Indians, nearly six-sevenths are natives of India, and will claim chief atten-
tion here as a probable factor in future immigration. The peoples farther east
have shown little tendency to emigrate. Of these, the densest population is that
of Java, numbering nearly 30,000,000. Although the oldest in Malay civiliza-
tion, this people has neither the physical nor the mental energy of its kinsmen,
the Filipinos, and, unlike the Hindus, they have shown little or no tendency
to emigrate to other countries. The Indo-Chinese of the mainland, like the
Malays, have less energy and enterprise than the true Chinese and do not
migrate. Their country is not so densely populated. Practically none of these
populations, with the exception of the Filipinos, are Christian or greatly
influenced by western civilization.
72289°— VOL 1— 11— 1G
234 The Immigration Commission.
Of the 294,000.000 people of India, including Burma, it is unnecessary in this
work to especially consider the non-Aryan multitudes, a population nearly as
large as that of the United States. The dark Dravidiau element is much the
largest of these, numbering 60,000,000. Three-fourths of India, however, is.
like ourselves, Aryan — 220,000,000, a population nearly two-thirds as great as
that of all Europe. It is this Aryan population of northern India that is gen-
erally called Hindu, although the term also applies to a religion or to the people
having a certain social organization based upon Brahinanism. (See Hindu.)
One of the many " Hindu " tongues is Hindi, spoken, with its dialects, by about
100,000.000 persons. About 3,000,000 of these are Christians.
The Caucasian features of the northern Hindus are easily remarked, although
they are generally dark. They are often tall, although not so strong, energetic,
and aggressive as the Chinese in competition with Europeans. Some have been
educated in English schools or colleges in India. All are keen in trade, making
good merchants, and perhaps identify themselves with western civilization to
a greater degree than do the Chinese.
The population of India is one of the densest of the globe. The people must
emigrate or die by the million in the famines that periodically reduce their
numbers. The protection of the rest of the world against an Indian flood of
migration is their poverty, their inability to provide the cost of transportation,
and their lack of initiative.
India has sent out about 20,000 " coolies " or laborers annually in recent
years, largely to British colonies in the West Indies and South Africa ; in other
words, about as large an emigration as that of Russians, Scotch, or Lithuanians
to the United States. A few have been coming recently to British Columbia
and the western coast of the United States, but the total number admitted to
the United States in the twelve years 1899-1910 is only 5,786.
ENGLISH or ANGLO-SAXON; inaccurately BRITISH. The principal race or
people of England ; the westernmost European branch of the Teutonic stock ;
the race that first spoke the English language.
There is no necessity in this connection for discussion of a subject so well
understood by all as the character, social institutions, and other qualities of
the English as an immigrant people. It may be assumed that all Americans
understand the race which has given us our language and laws and political
institutions. Yet there may be some doubt as to the ethnical position of the
English — as to which of the present components of the mixed English nation
are to be considered as unassiinilated immigrant elements and which as truly
English. If it can be said, as some claim, that the new race now being formed
in America is already more German than English, perhaps even more Irish
than English, the student of races will realize that clear distinctions need be
drawn in the case of so composite a race as that in England. In the case, for
instance, of an immigrant from England who comes of Irish or Scotch descent.
how long a residence of his ancestry in England entitles him to be called Eng-
lish? The question goes deeper than this, namely, to the determination of what
constitutes a race in ethnology. It is perhaps convenient to consider, in dis-
cussing a race so well known as the English, the definition and classification of
races upon which this dictionary proceeds.
As explained in the Introductory (see), race is determined by language in such
phrases as " the races of Europe," but by physical qualities, such as color, hair,
and shape of head, when we speak of " the five great races " or grand divisions
of mankind. In either case the attempt is made to bring into a common class
all who have the same inheritance. But the term " race " is sometimes used in
other senses. Thus we may reach wider and wider " races," each including
the preceding, as when we speak of the English race, the Teutonic race, the
Aryan or Indo-European race, the Caucasian race, and, finally, the human race.
Not only is there this popular looseness in the use of the word, but its scientific
acceptation in the most exact of studies, namely, in national census taking, is
also variable. While in some European censuses race is determined by the
mother tongue of the individual, in other countries it is determined by the " lan-
guage of converse" or "customary language." It is evident that an Irish
family that has lived for generations in England would be called Irish by the
first test, English by the second. But how long a residence in England will
entitle an Irishman, or a Scotchman, or a French Huguenot, or one of Norman
French stock, to be called English if the mother tongue is the test? Evidently
this phrase must bo interpreted to mean the ancestral or family language in
dealing with a stock which has kept itself quite pure in descent. But since the
greater part of the English population of to-day is of mixed origin, a census
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 235
may adopt the arbitrary rule that the paternal line only shall determine the
race, or, what is evidently more difficult and more scientific, it may name the
mixed races as such, or consider the race to be determined by the preponderat-
ing element in the mixture.
Since all this is merely a matter of definition, so far as consistency in the
present dictionary is concerned, the following principles and definitions may be
given as those adopted and presumably scientific. In the narrow sense, the
race of an immigrant is determined by ancestral language, as above indicated.
The historical limit which determines the transition from one race into another
as thus defined varies with different races. It will be assumed in this article
that the English race is practically one thousand years old, since the essential
elements composing it were welded before or soon after the Norman invasion.
Still other definitions will conduce to clearness of thinking. Not only is a
distinction to be made between race and nationality, but the terms " English
people," " English stock," " English-speaking people," and, consequently, " Eng-
lish language " need definition also. The English nationality includes all native
and naturalized citizens of England. It, therefore, includes members of other
races besides Englishmen in the ethnical sense. The term " Englishman " may
mean merely one of English nationality. The " English stock " is a loose ex-
pression for the English race. A stock in ethnology generally includes several
races. The " English-speaking people," as is evident, includes all individuals
in all parts of the world who speak the English language. The term " English
language " is more capable of exact definition than all the foregoing, for, philo-
logically, it is impossible to confuse it with any other. It is only as old ag> the
English race. The expression " English people " is a loose one. By definition
in this dictionary it is the equivalent of the term " the English race," which
embraces the English in America ; it means also the people of the particular
country or nationality, England. Briton is a name applied to the ancient race
of England, by some supposed to have been of Celtic origin. The word is used
at times to mean any native of Great Britain. In this sense it includes different
races, as English, Irish, and Welsh. It, or rather North Briton, is the term by
which the Lowland Scotch prefer to be called instead of English. " British "
is a term of nationality rather than of race. It also means the Celtic language
spoken by the ancient Britons.
Linguistically, the English are Teutons. Although the English language is
very composite, the grammar and the spoken language are still characteristically
Anglo-Saxon, that is, Low German, notwithstanding that it has lost many of
its inflections. English is closely related to the dialects still spoken in
Flanders, in the Netherlands, and on the northern shores of Germany. It is
to-day the language of about 126,000,000 individuals living under a score of
different governments, among which are two of the greatest nations of the
world, the British Empire and the United States of America. No other Indo-
European tongue is spoken by so many persons. Russian ranks next with
90,000,000, then German with 76,000,000, Spanish with 50,000,000, French with
46,000,000, and Italian with 33,500,000 (Hickmann).
Physically, as well as linguistically, the English are a very composite product.
The prevailing English type is tall, long-headed, and generally blond, although,
as Beddoe has pointed out, there is no one type characteristic of all England.
He finds what he calls Anglo-Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, both Teutonic
in type, located in the northern, the eastern, and the southern parts of England ;
a short, darker type of marked " Celtic " character in the western part, border-
ing on Wales, and a still darker Celtic type, the Cornish, in Cornwall. The
Lowland Scotch (see Scotch), the people living south of the southern firths of
Forth and Clyde and on the eastern side of Scotland, are said to be nearly
identical in racial character and closely related in their dialect to the people of
the northern part of England. It has been variously estimated that the English
race is from one-fifth to one-half Scandinavian, if not, in fact, more Scandi-
navian than Anglo-Saxon. Freeman says " when we set foot on the shores of
Scandinavia and northern Germany, we are simply revisiting our ancestral
home."
In geographical distribution the English are more widely dispersed than any
other people, being found in all parts of the world. No exact figures can be
given as to the number of the English race. The population of England is
about 31,000,000. According to the Canadian census of 1901 there were in
Canada 1,260,899 persons of English race or origin. And, as is well known, the
English form no small part of the population of the United States.
236 The Immigration Commission.
The English hold high rank as an emigrating and colonizing people. They,
with the Irish, Scotch, Germans, and Scandinavians, gave the distinctive char-
acter to immigration to the United States prior to 1882. These races from
northwestern Europe then formed nearly 90 per cent of the total immigration
from Europe. Since then there has been a rapid decrease in the immigration
of the Celto-Teutonic peoples, but a still more rapid increase in that from the
countries of southeastern Europe, comprising especially Italy, Austria-Hungary,
Russia, and Greece.
Tfie United States was until 1900 the favored destination of British emi-
grants, the total number coming here annually from the United Kingdom being
greater than of those going to all other countries combined; but in 1905 the
curve of immigration to British North America rose and passed that for the
United States. During the twenty years 1883-1903, British emigration to South
Africa, Australia, and Canada was about equally divided, seldom rising above
20,000 per year to each, and never above 40,000. For some years past Austral-
asia and South Africa have attracted only about 10,000 to 15,000 annually.
In 1909 there were 39,021 English emigrants to the United States, of whom
26,203 came from the United Kingdom and 10,708 from British North America.
In absolute numbers the English in the twelve years ending June 30, 1910, held
seventh place down the list of immigrant races and peoples, the total number
admitted during the period being 408.614. Their rate of movement is much
lower than that of the Slovaks, Hebrews, or Irish. As compared with these
races, future immigration from England must relatively increase. The popula-
tion of the smaller races is so far below that of the English that they can not
long continue coming at the present rate.
FINNISH. Best defined for the purposes of this work from a linguistic point
of view in a narrow sense as the race or people of Finno-Tataric stock, which
now constitutes the chief population of Finland and embraces also the related
peoples of northwestern Russia, exclusive of the Lapps. The Finns may be also
called the " Finns Proper " or " Western Finns," and include the Esths, Livs,
Vots, Veps, Tavastians, and Karelians, together with the Ijores and Chudes,
subbranches of the last named. The Karelians extend nearly to the center of
Russia and are called by some " Eastern Finns." It would appear more signifi-
cant to reserve this latter name to designate the Ugro-Finnic peoples living in
Eastern Russia and in Asia. Although speaking languages similar to the West-
ern Finns or Suomi, they are widely different from the latter in blood, and to a
great extent in civilization. The Western and Eastern Finns are more unlike
than the North and South Italians, who are, for a similar reason, counted sepa-
rately by the Bureau of Immigration.
Finnish immigration has been larger in recent years than that of most races
so small in population. It is practically confined to the Western Finns or Finns
proper. These are Caucasian rather than Mongolian in appearance, while the
Eastern or Volga Finns, who are not known to come as yet to America, show
distinctly their Asiatic origin. They are divided from the Finns proper by a
broad band of Great Russians which extends through Central Russia from
north to south. The Lapps and Samoyeds, another very different stock, may be
called the " Northern Finns."
The term " Finn " or " Finnic " is equivalent to " Ugro-Finnic " when em-
ployed in a still wider sense to include all thus far mentioned and in addition
the* Magyars and possibly the Bulgarians (see). The former are linguistically
Ugro-Finnic ; the latter were so originally. The word " Finnic " is even used at
times to designate the entire Finno-Tataric division of the Sibiric branch of the
Mongolian race. It then includes'the Turks (see). Even the Japanese, Man-
chus, and Kalmuks belong to coordinate stocks. (See Finno-Tataric for the
relations of all Mongolian languages.)
Finally the term Finns is used in a fourth sense, narrowest of all, to desig-
nate only the Finns of Finland ; that is, little more than the Tavastians, consid-
ering the Esths and Livs, for instance, as distinct races. It is evidently neces-
sary to analyze further this complex subject.
The Eastern Finns number about 2,000,000; the Northern Finns, or Lapps
and Samoyeds, only 17,000 ; the Western Finns, or Finns proper, nearly 4,000,000.
Of the last named, 2,350,000 live in Finland. Certain districts in the western
p;irt of Finland are occupied almost entirely by the blondest of Teutons, Swedes,
wlio number not less than 350,000. The total population of the country is about
L'.xr.o.ooo. rntil ISO!) Finland was a part of Sweden, and before the dawn of his-
tory the Finns and Swedes were no doubt intermingling. This will account in
part for the prevailing blondness and European cast of countenance amongst
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
237
the Finns, which has led the Bureau of Immigration to put them into the
" Teutonic division " of races. But the entire Ugro-Finnic stock seems to have
been, in origin, lighter in color than most other Mongolians, perhaps as a result
of their northern residence. Formerly they were taken out of the Mongolian
grand division by certain ethnologists and put into a separate division of
" allophylian whites." Whatever their original stock, the Finns of Finland
are to-day the most truly European of any race possessing a Mongolic speech,
and in some respects their institutions are abreast of any in Europe.
Other branches of the Ugro-Finnic stock are classified as below in the census
of the Russian Empire for 1897. Since this census does not cover Finland, the
first item in the table is taken from the census of Finland for 1900. (See
article Russian for additional statistics.)
TABLE 7. — Finnic population of the Russian Empire, 1897.
Branches.
In Europe.
In Asia.
Total.
Branches.
In Europe.
In Asia.
Total.
Total
5,782,127
88,850
5 870 977
Eastern Finns — Con
989 959
00 000
1 02°, 841
Western Finns
3, 739, 947
6,513
3,746,460
Votyak
420 673
297
420 970
In Finland a „ .
2, 352, 990
2,352,990
Zyrian
144 369
9 249
153 618
Finnish. .
141, 184
1 884
143 068
Vogul
2 850
4 801
7 651
Karelian
208, 083
18
208, 101
Ostyak
19' 663
19 663
Esth
998 096
4 606
1 002 702
Ijore ....
13 774
13 774
5 752
11 931
17 683
Chude
25 820
5
25 825
1 812
i gj2
Eastern Finns
2,035,524
70, 349
2,105,873
Samoyed
3,940
11,931
15,871
Cheremiss
374,326
1,113
375, 439
Magyar
904
57
961
a Census of Finland for 1900. Subdivisions of Finns in Finland not given.
WESTERN FINNS.
Only brief additional data may be given concerning the above-mentioned and
other divisions of the Ugro-Finns. Chude is an old name once applied to all
Finns by the Russians. The census limits the name to those locally called
" Chotscher " or " Kaivan," who speak a Karelian dialect. They live in one
of the two Karelian provinces, Olonetz; that is, northeast of St. Petersburg.
The Veps are northern Chudes ; the Vots, southern Chudes. The largest Kare-
lian population is found in Tver Province, southeast of St. Petersburg. The
Karelians are the easternmost branch of the Finns proper, and show perhaps
more trace of an Asiatic origin. They are mainly agriculturists. The Ijores,
on the contrary, are found mainly in the city of St. Petersburg. They are
descendants of the Ingers, but no longer a pure Tavastian stock, and therefore
not good types of the Western Finns. Yet they apparently constitute the group
called " Finns " in the Russian census, as the latter live mostly in St. Petersburg.
The Finns of Finland are mainly Tavastians, or Hemes, and Savolaks. The
Kwaenes extend farther north and are in a transitipnal stage between the more
cultured Finns toward the south and the Lapps on the north. The Esths and
Livs do not differ much from the Finns of Finland in stock. They live south
of the Gulf of Finland and along the Baltic, forming about 90 per cent of the
population of Esthonia and 40 per cent of that of Livonia. The extinct Krevs
formerly lived near these in Courland, in Esthonia, and especially in Livonia.
The agglutinative language of the Finns is Modified by the radically different
Aryan speech of the Letts and Lithuanians (see), who adjoin them on the south.
In the Province of Pskof they speak a dialect called the " Verros." Other names
given to certain Baltic or Western Finns are the Lopari, the Evremeiseti, the
Savakoti, and the Izhora (Ijores) or Ingers. In religion nearly all the Western
Finns are Lutherans.
EASTERN FINNS.
The most of the Eastern Finns live in the middle Volga region of Eastern
Russia. Those farthest west are the Cheremiss, in Viatka and Kazan prov-
inces. Not long ago they were nomadic. Though nominally Orthodox, their
religion is corrupted with Tatar Mohammedanism and even Mongolian Sha-
manism. The Chuvashes, adjoining the Cheremiss on the north and the Kazan
Tatar on the east, have some of the characteristics of both. Many of them
238 The Immigration Commission.
speak Tiirki, the Tatar tongue. They are thought by some to be a branch of
the Mordvinians, but are counted in the Russian census as Tatars.
The Mordvinians form the largest division of the Eastern Finns, numbering
over 1,000,000. They are most numerous farther down the Volga basin, in the
provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Penza, and Saratov, reaching to within one
province of the Caspian Sea. They are also widely scattered through the Great
Russian and Tatar populations of other provinces, and are often Russified in
language and customs. The Erzu and Mokclia are two dialects of the Mord-
vinian.
The Votyaks, Permyaks, and Zyrians are the northernmost of the Eastern
Finns in Europe. The last named extend to the Sanioyed country on the Arctic.
Most of the Voguls and all the Ostyaks, who are nomads, live in Siberia. These
two peoples, small in number, may be called the Ugric division of the Ugro-
Finnic stock. They are nearly as Asiatic and primitive in their manner of life
as are the stunted Samoyeds and Lapps of the frozen ocean. Finally, the Bes-
sermans are a small group of Mohammedans distinguishable only by their
religion from the Votyaks, among whom they live, but related to the Voguls.
Finnish emigrants to the United States are all. so far as known, Western or
true Finns. Immigration has been rapid in recent years. In the thirteen years
from 1893 to 1905 Finland lost 128,600 by emigration. Nearly all of these came
to America— in 1905, all but 37. In the twelve years 1899-1910, 151,774 Finnish
immigrants were admitted to the United States, the race ranking fourteenth in
that regard among all races or peoples. The rate per 1,000 of the population of
Western Finns arriving per year (4 in 1907) was only half that of the Italians,
Irish, or Norwegians, and less than one-fourth that of the Hebrews or Slovaks.
FINNO-TATABJC ; synonyms, Ural-Altaic, Mongolo-Turkic, Sibiric, Scythian,
Turko-Ugrian, Altaic, TJralic, Mongolo-Tataric, TJgro- Altaic (in widest sense),
and formerly Tataric or Turanian. The family of agglutinative languages,
which distinguishes the Sibiric division of the Mongolian race from the remain-
ing or Sinitic division (Chinese, etc.), the latter possessing a monosyllabic
speech. (See classification of races, in Introductory, Mongolian and Finnish.)
These are more properly linguistic than ethnical terms, although " Finno-
Tataric," which is used in both senses, might well be reserved to designate the
peoples and " Ural-Altaic " to designate the languages they speak.
This is a subject of which the ordinary student of immigration may know but
little, and yet it is indispensable to a proper understanding of important immi-
grant peoples like the Magyars, Finns, Turks, and Japanese. (See articles
on these peoples.) It is not commonly known that these all derive their origin
from the same primitive Mongolian stock of northern Asia, and that, although
the western members of the stock have become more or less Europeanized in
blood, they still have languages of absolutely different origin and type from our
own. They are thus cut off from participation in our literature, and neces-
sarily, to a certain extent, from our ideals and institutions. The Finno-Tataric
languages are agglutinative, while our Indo-European languages are inflected
and the Chinese is monosyllabic. The only remaining primary division or fam-
ily of languages in the world is that of the American Indians, the Polysynthetic.
The term " Turanian," now generally discarded, was applied by Max Miiller to
nearly all Old World languages that are neither Indo-European nor Semitic. It
was soon loosely applied to all poorly understood languages and ethnical stocks
of Europe. Nor is the term " Scythian " in common use, although carefully lim-
ited by Whitney to the group now under discussion. The remaining terms sug-
gest localities and peoples.
The physical differences existing to-day between the Finno-Tataric peoples
can be best discussed in separate articles. (See Japanese and the rest.) Their
geographical extent is immense, being second only to that of the Indo-European
stock. They extend from the Atlantic (the Lapps of northern Norway) to the
Pacific (the Japanese), filling not only all of northern and western Asia down
to India, but much of eastern and southeastern Europe (the "Hungarians,"
Turks, Finns, and various peoples of eastern Russia).
The population of this stock is nevertheless small, perhaps 60,000,000, not
counting the 60,000,000 Japanese and Koreans. They are very thinly spread out
over 10,000,000 square miles, largely in frigid and desert regions of Siberia and
central Asia. Their migratory instinct threatened to submerge Europe in the
middle ages, but their numbers now count for little even when the proportion
that leave their homes is abnormally large, as in the case of the Magyars and
the Finns to-day (see). The entire Finnish population numbers less thaii
0,000,000 ; the Magyar population is about 8,500,000.
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 239
FLEMISH. (See Dutch and Flemish.)
FRENCH. The principal race or people of France; the northern branch of
the Romance-speaking peoples, including, besides the French of France, the
French Belgians, the French Swiss, the French of Alsace-Lorraine (now a part
of Germany), and the French Canadians of the New World. As thus defined
the French constitute about 93 per cent of the population of France, nearly one-
half of that of Belgium, about one-fourth of that of Switzerland, and nearly
one-third of that of Canada. According to the census of 1900 there were 395,297
Canadian-born French persons in the United States, and 436,232 native-born
persons one or both of whose parents were Canadian-born French. The French
is not a well-defined race ethnologically, being a mixture of the three chief pre-
historic races of Europe, the broad-headed "Alpine " or " Celtic " element
predominating. Linguistically French belongs to the Romance or Italic group
of the Aryan family. The French are put in the " Keltic division " by the
Bureau of Immigration, while they are usually classified with the Romanic
peoples.
The French Belgians are found mainly in the southeastern provinces of Bel-
gium. (See^article Dutch and Flemish.) They speak a dialect called the
" Walloon." They are supposed to be descended from the Belgaen Gauls of
Caesar, are tall and long-faced, and resemble the French of Normandy. The
French Swiss constitute the greater part of the inhabitants of the western can-
tons of Switzerland. They belong to the short-headed Alpine race, are brunette,
and much shorter in stature than the French Belgians. French Canadian (see)
is an expression used to designate the inhabitants of Canada, especially those
of the Province of Quebec, who are descendants of the French. They speak a
dialect which possesses many peculiarities developed on Canadian soil. Their
blood has been more or less mixed with that of the English-speaking Canadians
and has had some infusion of the Indian, though to a much less degree than is-
generally supposed.
The term "French language" may be used in a broad or generic sense to
include not only the modern literary French, but all the dialects of Old French
still in use, as the Walloon, the Provencal, and the Catalan. In a narrower or
restricted sense it means the " langue d'oil," which is now the literary as well
as the general and official language of France. Old French had two distinct
and equally important dialects — the " langue d'oil," spoken north of the Loire
and eastward to Berne, Switzerland, and the " langue d'oc," in the south. The
former is now spoken by about 22,500,000 persons in France. It is one of the
two official languages of Belgium, Switzerland, and Canada. It is the diplo-
matic language of many countries. Owing to its clearness and precision it is
the language par excellence of science and criticism. One of its dialects, the
Walloon, is still used familiarly by about 3,000,000 persons living in Belgium
and the northeastern part of France. This is especially characterized by a
large number of Celtic and German elements. Though it once had a literature
of its own, it is now assuming the character of a patois.
The Provengal, often called the " langue d'oc," is the native language of the
southern half of France. With the closely related dialects, such as the Gascon,
Limousin, Auvergnat, and Savoisin, it is spoken by over 12,500,000 persons in
southern France and by several hundred thousand in Switzerland and Italy.
The Catalan 'dialect, spoken on both sides of the Catalonian border, occupies a
place between Provengal and Castilian. (See Spanish.)
Physically the French are not a homogeneous race. There has been much
blending of racial elements even within historic times. At the present time
France presents three distinct ethnic types, whose persistence depends in part
on their geographical location and in part on more recent intrusions. France
appears to have been once occupied quite generally by a broad-headed, rather
brunette ("Alpine") race which still characterizes the central part of the
country, especially among the Auvergnats, and is found in considerable num-
bers in Brittany among the Bretons. It is estimated by Brinton that this
Alpine element forms fully three-fifths of the French race. A tall, long-headed,
Teutonic type predominates in the northeastern part of France, especially in
Normandy. Many of the inhabitants of this region are blond. In fact, it is said
that northern France is more Teutonic than is southern Germany. (See
German.) In the most southern part of France, especially along the Mediter-
ranean coast, the inhabitants are of the long-headed brunette or " Mediterra-
nean " type. These three types are fairly well amalgamated in the great cities
of France into what is generally recognized as the typical Frenchman. His
ethnic position is that of an intermediate between the northern and the
240 The Immigration Commission.
southern races. The Basques of southwestern France seein to be a peculiar
modification of the Alpine race of central France.
France is thus seen to present great diversities in language and physique.
It is the only place on the continent where a Celtic tongue is spoken — the
Breton. With Spain it is the habitat of the Basques, who speak a non-Aryan
tongue.
France has .a population of 38,500,000. French, using the term in the broad
sense, is spoken throughout France, except in four small districts — the western
part of Brittany, occupied by the Bretons (1,350,000) ; a Flemish section
(230,000) on the Belgian border; the extreme southwestern corner, occupied by
Basques (150.000), and a district occupied by Italians (330,000) on the Italian
border. Outside of France French populations are found in Belgium (nearly
3,000,000), in Germany (200,000), in Switzerland (730,000), and in the north-
western part of Italy (80,000). The total French population of Europe is, there-
fore, about 39,000,000. It is estimated that 4,000,000 more are found in Canada,
the United States, and the Antilles. According to statistics of the Bureau of
Immigration and Naturalization, the total French immigration to the United
States in the twelve years 1899-1910 was 115,783. Of these, 63,348 came from
France, 9,207 from Belgium, 4,668 from Switzerland, and 31,828 from British
North America. The last number is considerably too small, for the reason that
prior to 1908 little effort was made to record the number of immigrants coming
to the United States from Canada.
FRENCH CANADIAN. That section of the French race or people which lives
in Canada. According to the Canadian census of 1901 there were 1,649,371 per-
sons of French race or origin in the entire Dominion and of these 1,322,115 lived
in the province of Quebec, where they constitute a large majority of the popula-
tion. (See French for general description.) It need only be further said here
that the French language as commonly spoken in Canada has become considerably
modified during the two hundred years or more of its exile. There is also some
slight physical change going on in the race, although it is not widely intermin-
gled with Indian blood, as some misinformed persons think. The French Cana-
dians have been sending a large contingent to the States for a long period and
already form an important part of the population in many New England towns.
In 1884 Catholic statistics showed 326,000 to be living in New England. Ac-
cording to the census of 1890 there were 302,469 Canadian-born French persons
in the United States and in 1900 the number had increased to 895,297. Accord-
ing to immigration statistics, 31,828 French immigrants were admitted to the
United States from British North America in the twelve years 1899-1910. As
stated in the article on the French, however, the statistics in this regard are
incomplete.
GERMAN (incorrectly Dutch). The race or people whose mother tongue is
the German language in the narrower sense of the word; that is, excluding the
Dutch, Flemish, English, and Scandinavian divisions of the Germanic or Teu-
tonic group of languages, but including, the German dialects found in all other
countries, as in Austria and Switzerland; the race which uses the modern
literary German. Although this is the definition that tacitly underlies all emi-
gration and immigration statistics and censuses of races as taken in various
countries, the " race " so defined, is a somewhat arbitrary or artificial division
of mankind. Like many of the so-called " races " of Europe, it is not a unity
from a physical point of view. Nor will it stand even the linguistic test
adopted in this dictionary. (See Introductory and English.®) For, if the
mother tongue be the test, the Dutch and the Flemish are as much German as
are other Frankish or Saxon populations. Merely the historical or political acci-
dent that Holland and Belgium have established by law another literary stand-
ard than that of Germany leads to their being considered non-German in race.
Some German scholars have no doubt been influenced by pan-Teutonisin ;
that is, the ideal for a common bond of sympathy, if not of political unity,
among all Teutonic peoples, to overstate the linguistic unity of the Germans
with the Dutch, the English, and the Scandinavians. It is the same tendency
which is found in much more exaggerated form among the panslavists farther
east. English and the Scandinavian languages are often classified as divisions
of the Low German. It needs but a moment's reflection to realize that though
English may have been Low German in origin, it is now, especially in its vocabu-
lary, more like French or other Romance tongues than, like German. The ease
with which an Englishman learns the former proves this. The physical anthro-
a Pages 211 and 234-235.
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 241
pologist recognizes a still greater difference in type, and therefore in origin,
between the broad-headed and brunette southern Germans, "Alpine" in race, and
the typical English or especially the Scandinavians, who are the extreme of the
opposite type, long-headed and pure blonds. Some confusion may arise from the
fact that certain ethnical terms are used in opposite senses in the English and
the German languages. It has elsewhere been explained that the English word
" Dutch " (see) is never properly applied to a German, although the latter calls
himself by practically the same name, Deutsch. Again, English philologists
generally employ the word " Teutonic," which conies from the latter word,
Tcutxch, in the broadest sense of all, to include the " German," while German
philologists reverse the terminology and make "Germanic" (Germanish) in-
clude the Deutsch.
The Austrians and the Swiss Germans can not be considered non-German in
race by the test above applied to the Dutch. Although they may speak dialects
very different from the modern literary German, they make the latter the legal
language and really belong, themselves, to the High German division of dia-
lects, from which the literary German takes its rise. In other words, the
Austrian dialects are nearer the true German than are the North Saxon (Low
German) dialects. On linguistic maps the Austrian and the Bavarian group of
dialects are one in name and color. The difference in political affiliation and
otherwise does not justify us in speaking of an "Austrian " race, distinct from
the German, any more than we can speak of a " Swiss " race (see these).
The Swiss Germans are one, linguistically, with the neighboring population in
Germany, the Alemanni (Suabian). Their case is, therefore, the same as that
of the Austrian, so far as language is concerned. Their case is stronger sta-
tistically, for they constitute two-thirds of the population of Switzerland, while
the German Austrians number but little over one-third of the population of
Austria, not including Hungary. But in the popular mind, as well as scien-
tifically, the word Swiss may mean a Frenchman or an Italian as well as a
German. The term "Austrian " may also properly apply to the 25 per cent of
Czechs (Bohemians, etc.) or to the 35 per cent of other Slavs found in Austria.
Among the Austrian dialects are the Tyrolese, the Styrian, and the Carin-
thian. The Zips are certain Germans of northern Hungary. In eastern Hun-
gary, in Transylvania, is a large population of Saxons. Other names applied
to Germans on the ethnographical map of Austria are the Walser, the Alema-
nen, the Pinzgauer, the Pongauer, the Lungauer, and the Gottscheer. The
Frisians, a Low German stock, live in northern Holland.
The many other dialects of the German language need no discussion, for the
people speaking them are all admittedly German, in race. They are confined
mainly to Germany, that is, they are German in nationality as well as in race,
with the exception of minor segments which have spread over into Bohemia or
neighboring countries. Of course, all who speak these dialects call themselves
German in race. Of such are the Saxons, already mentioned, the Franconians
or modern Franks, the Hessians, the Suabians, the Thuringians, the West-
phalians, the Limburgers, and the Luxemburgers. Other Germans bear names
of purely political divisions, as the Hanoverians and the Pomeranians. The
names of others are sometimes used in two senses. Thus the Prussian, as a
term of nationality, is wider than the ethnical term Prussian, which applied
to a people of non-German origin, related to the Lettish, in eastern Prussia.
The Alsatian is properly a German dialect, as is the Tyrolese, yet Alsace, the
province, has also a large French population, as Tyrol has of Ladins (Rha^to-
llomansh), and other Latins (Italians). Finally, the Silesians are those who
gave their name to the two provinces called Silesia — the one on the Prussian
side, the other on the Austrian side of the border. These, the Prussians, and
all other divisions of the Germans living in the eastern part of Germany and
in German Austria, are intermingled with non-German peoples to a degree that
does not obtain in western Germany and on the southern border of the race,
adjoining Italy. In the northeast the Poles and. to some extent, the Letts are
pressing far over the German line, while the Germans, on the other hand, have
scattered settlements far into Russian and Austrian territory.
Properly speaking, there is no German race from the point of view of phy-
sical characteristics. It is true that this name, or, better, the name " Teutonic,"
has been given to the so-called " Nordic " type, one of the three great races of
Europe as described by physical anthropologists. But only a part of the people
Jiving in northern Germany, especially in the provinces nearest Denmark, are
pure representatives of this extreme type, blond, with light hair and blue eyes,
242 The Immigration Commission.
tall, and very long-headed. The type is far better represented by the Scan-
dinavians. The German race in Germany itself includes the most opposite
extremes in type from the Nordic, just described, to the so-called "Alpine "
race of Bavaria and Switzerland. Among these are some of the broadest-
headed men in Europe, as in north Germany are found some of the longest-
headed. A cranial index of 87 is found in Tyrol, as contrasted with one of 77
on the Danish border. The Alpine type, further, is brunette and short, although
not so dark as the " Mediterranean " type of southern Italy. A unique census
of school children by color of hair and eyes was taken some twenty years ago
by four countries having a large German population. The results show the
region in northwestern Germany already mentioned, and certain districts on the
Baltic coast farther east, as the only parts of Germany in which 50 per cent
are pure blond. Farther south from 20 to 40 per cent are pure blond; then
from 16 to 20 per cent are pure brunette; and finally, among the Germans of
the southern border and of Switzerland and Austria, 20 to 30 per cent are pure
brunette. On the average, however, the German population is decidedly of the
blond type.
Few of the so-called " races " of Europe include so many dissimilar elements,
especially from the point of view of language, as the Germans. The Swiss,
the Austrians, and the Mecklenburgers of northern Germany can not understand
each other; and were it not for the written language they might be called differ-
ent races as properly as the Dutch and Flemish. The Germans differ among
themselves," as regards language, more than the great Slavic races. As has
just been shown, they are also of different races physically. In many other
respects they are far from being a homogeneous people. Germany lacks the
unifying effect of a national religion, such as that of Russia. While the north-
ern and most of the central portions of Germany are Protestant, the eastern
border and the greater part of southern and western Germany are Catholic.
There is no need to speak of peculiarities in customs and the many important
elements which determine the place of the German race in modern civilization.
The German is too well known in America to necessitate further discussion.
The Germans of Europe number over 72,000,000 as against less than 40,000,000
English, Irish, and Scotch combined. They are larger in numbers than any
other European race, if the Great Russian (55,000,000) be considered as
separate from the Ruthenian or Little Russian (25,000,000), as is done in this
dictionary. The Italian or the French race is only about half as large. The
total German-speaking population of the world has been estimated at from
75,000,000 to 85,000,000 (see list below). It is exceeded only by the English-
speaking population, which, however, includes nearly as many individuals non-
English in race as there are" English. The German is one of the most widely
distributed of European races. As colonists, and especially as merchants, they
are found in nearly every country in the world.
TABLE 8. — German population of the ivorld.
[From Meyer's Konversations-Lexikon, 1909, Band 21.]
Geographic division.
German
population.
Europe:
German Empire . . . . ! 55, 766, 541
Austria 9, 170, 939
Hungary 2, 135, 181
Switzerland 2, 312, 949
Russia ! 2, 000, 000
Miscellaneous 834, 117
America:
United States 11. 000,000
Canada 309,741
B razil 400, 000
, Miscellaneous i 88, 400
Summary:
Europe j 72, 219, 727
America 11, 798, 141
Australia and Oceania 110, 035
Africa 61, 577
Asia 58, 687
Total I 84,248,167
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 243
Austria has the largest German population of any European country outside
of Germany itself, but the German population of America is still greater — in
the foregoing estimate nearly 12,000,000. The United States census of 1900
gives the German-born population of the United States at 2,667,000, while the
native-born of German-born parents number about 5,000,000 more. All of
" Central Europe," as defined by Partsch to include Holland, Belgium, Austria
proper, and all between, besides the greater part of Poland and Hungary, is
predominantly German (51 per cent). In this territory the most numerous of
the other races or peoples reach less than 7 per cent each. These are the Dutch
and Flemish, the Serbo-Croatians, the Magyars, the Poles, the Czechs, and the
Roumanians. This list, with the addition of the Italians and the French, in-
dicates the ethnical boundaries of the German people. Outside of Germany
itself no country is predominantly German by race, excepting Switzerland (69
per cent, or 2,300,000). Cisleithan Austria is 36 per cent German (9,000,000) ;
Hungary, 12 per cent (2,000,000) ; the little independent principality of Lux-
emburg is 93 per cent German (220,000). Russia has a large German popula-
tion, over 1,800,000 according to the Russian census, although this is only 1.5
per cent of the total population of that vast empire. Four-fifths of the Germans
of Europe are found in Germany itself.
In Germany 94 per cent of the population is German in race. In the remain-
ing 6 per cent the only race or people largely represented is the Polish. These
number about 3,400,000, mainly in Prussia, while the Danes, the Lithuanians,
and the Wends, number but little over 100,000 each.
During the period for which immigration statistics are available, 1820-1910,
Germany furnished 5,351,746 immigrants to the United States. This is the
largest number coming from any single country, although the United Kingdom
as a whole furnished 7,766,330. The greatest immigration from Germany oc-
curred in 1882, when 250,630 were admitted. The movement has decreased
rapidly, however, and at the present time more German immigrants come from
Austria-Hungary to the United States than from Germany itself — in 1907, 40,497,
as against 32,276. In the same year Russia sent us rather more than two-fifths
as many Germans as did Germany itself, and the little country Switzerland
sent about 3,000 immigrants out of its 2,800,000 German people. The next
largest source of German immigration to the United States was Canada, 1,121.
The total for the year from all sources was 92,936, and that for the twelve years
1899-1910 was 754,375, which places the German fourth down the list of immi-
grant races or peoples.
GREEK (sometimes Hellenic). The modern Greek race or people is that
which has descended, with considerable foreign admixture, from the famous
race of ancient Greeks, one of the oldest branches of the Aryan group
and the first to reach a high state of civilization. While the stock has changed
much, physically and otherwise, the modern language is more nearly like the
ancient Greek than Italian, for instance, is like the ancient Latin. The race
is now one of the smaller and comparatively unimportant peoples of Europe,
but it has recently developed a high rate of immigration to America.
Are the modern Greeks a different race from the ancient Greeks? Although
ethnologists differ upon this question, the answer would appear to be that they
are one and the same race when judged by their language, which is the test
applied in this dictionary to all European races; but that they differ in part
at least when judged by physical characteristics. Von Hellwald calls the
ancient race the Hellenic (HeUenen) and the later race the modern Greek
(Neugriechen). The ancient Greeks were of the so-called Mediterranean type,
long-headed, and of classic regularity of features. While this type still prevails
in Grece, the influence of admixture with alien blood has produced a type, in-
digenous to parts of the country, which differs materially from the ancient
Greeks in that they are broad-headed, broad-faced, and more heavily built,
although perhaps no darker than the ancients. Whether the latter were blond
or brunette is still a mooted question, with the probability that they were like
the " Mediterranean " race of the present day, deeply brunette. Amongst the
Greeks of to-day are found two distinct physical types more sharply separated
than in most nationalities : One, the ancient, long-headed type of Greece, with
a cephalic index of 75; the other, the broad-headed type that comes from the
Slavic, Albanian, or Turkish admixture, sometimes1 with the extremely high
index of 88. These, however, must be regarded as extremes, and Ripley says
that the cephalic index of the modern Greeks ranges with great constancy
244 The Immigration Commission.
about 81. All of the Greeks of Asia Minor are distinctly broad-headed, it is
said, like the Turks among whom they live.
To what degree the ancient and the modern races of Greece differ in char-
acter and civilization may be still more difficult to determine than their
physical type. The most contradictory accounts are given by partisans on
this point It can not be denied at least that the ancient Greeks were leaders
in the civilization of their own day, and laid the foundations of modern civili-
zation; while modern Greece is one of the weaker nations of Europe. The
ancient Greeks were preeminent in philosophy and science, a position not gen-
erally accredited to the modern Greeks as a race, although there is no doubt as
to their nimble intelligence. They compete with the Hebrew race as the best
traders of the Orient. If there be a great difference between the ancient and
the modern civilizations of Greece, the question still remains whether this
change should be explained as simply the decadence of an ancient race or
because of the debasement it has received, as did the civilization of the Roman,
through the incursions of barbarian hordes, and, in recent history, through the
long oppression of Turkish rule.
It is not generally understood that the language of the modern Greeks is
really the language of the ancient Greeks. The difference is only dialectal.
The literary language of to-day is but a continuation of the main literary dia-
lect of ancient Greece, the Attic, as modified in passing through the Byzantine.
It, or rather the modern vernacular, is sometimes called Romaic, a misleading
term, which found its origin in the period of Roman supremacy. To this day
the Greeks living in European Turkey are called Romnika. There are several
dialects of the modern Greek or Romaic, such as the Mainot, the Phanariot,
and the Cypriot, which need no further discussion in this connection. Of late
there is a tendency among Greek authors to return more closely to the ancient
form of the language. The spoken dialects of Greece vary more widely from
the older language, although the so-called Tsaconic, which is spoken on the
eastern side of lower Greece (Peloponnesus or Morea), closely resembles the
ancient Dorian. The modern language is much closer to the ancient than any
modern descendant of the Latin is to the ancient Latin. Greek is no longer
spoken by the Greek colonists of southern Italy, nor even by many of the
Greeks of Asia Minor. Crete is practically all Greek, and even southern Mace-
donia and the coast as far east as Constantinople itself, which has a larger
population of Greeks than of Turks. As has been explained in the article
"Turkish" (see), the Turks themselves form but a small minority of the
population of Turkey.
The Greek race of to-day is intensely proud of its language and its history,
and naturally wishes to be considered as genuinely Hellenic. The official title
of the country is now the " Kingdom of Hellas," and any citizen, however
mixed in race, styles himself a Hellene. The people are wide-awake on political
questions, are avid readers of newspapers, and, like the Greek of olden times,
eager to learn some new thing. Generally speaking, in customs, superstitions,
and folklore, the modern race is a continuation of the ancient. It shows in
other respects, as in the clothing now worn, the influence of the mixture of
races. As already intimated, the race is commercial rather than agricultural
in its instincts, and in that respect differs from the Slavic, by which it is sup-
posed to be modified. In religion it is Orthodox (Greek), which is also the
national church. of Russia and several other countries of eastern and south-
eastern Europe. It is from this expansion of the Greek religion that much
confusion has arisen in the use of the racial name. Even Ruthenians (see).
or Little Russians, in America sometimes call themselves Greeks, apparently in
contradistinction from their Slavic neighbors, who are Catholic. Statistics pub-
lished by Greek partisans are said to exaggerate the number of Greeks found
in Turkey by counting as such Bulgarians, Servians, and others who have be-
come Hellenized and are members of the Greek Church.
How many of the inhabitants of Greece itself are really non-Grecian in race
is a question difficult to answer. No statistics of the country are taken by race.
It is well known, however, that eastern Greece, even in the Peloponnesus, has
a large Albanian population, usually estimated at about 200,000. They are so
fully Hellenized that but 40,000 now speak the Albanian language. This is
perhaps the chief foreign element that is incorporated into the Greek race, al-
though special account must be made also of the Slavic, the Turkish, the
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 245
Roman, and the Gothic, and even the Roumanian (Kutzo-Vlach, or Tsintsar).
The last named is so recent in arrival that it is hardly yet incorporated into
the race. It has come in largely since Greece was freed from Turkish rule,
in 1830, and still forms large settlements extending from the central part of
northern Greece into Macedonia. The Slavic element is the oldest that has
profoundly modified the stock of ancient Greece. By the sixth century Greece
had been overrun time and again by Slavic tribes, to the very southern ex-
tremity of the country.
It may not be commonly known that the greater part of the Greeks live out-
side of Greece. The total population of the country numbers but 2,600,000, much
less than half the population of such small countries as Holland and Belgium.
Ripley, Cliisholm, and others say that the Greek race numbers above 8,000,000,
although the more common estimates place it under 4,500,000 in Europe, or some-
thing over 5,000,000 in Europe and Asia Minor combined. Chisholm says that
the Greeks living outside of Greece are twice as numerous as those in Greece.
Ripley says that they form a third of the total population of the Balkan States.
The latter number at least 20,000,000. Even the Statesman's Year-Book gives
the total number of Greeks as 8,850,000, divided as follows : In Greece, 2,200,000 ;
in European Turkey, 4,000,000 ; in Asia Minor, 2,000,000 ; in insular Greece, etc.,
G50,000. On the other hand von Hell wa Id says that of the population of Greece
itself only about 1,300,000 are truly Greek in race.
In the twelve years 1899-1910, 216,962 Greeks were admitted to the United
States, the race ranking twelfth in the number of immigrants furnished during
that period.
GYPSY: A well-known wandering people scattered throughout western Asia,
northern Africa, all parts of Europe, and even through parts of the Americas
and Australia. As indicated by the language he speaks, which is closely related
to Sanscrit, the Gypsy belongs to the Aryan race and is therefore Caucasian.
In his own language the Gypsy calls himself " Rom,"' whence comes Romany
as a name for the language. Special names are applied to Gypsies in the dif-
ferent countries where they are found. Some of these relate to the supposed
origin of this singular people, as Gypsy or Egyptian in the British Isles, Bohe-
mien in Prance, Gitano (Egyptian) in Spain, and Tatare in Scandinavia. In
some countries they are known by a term of contempt, as Heiden (heathen) in
Holland, Haraini (robbers) in Egypt, and Tinklers in Scotland, but in most
parts of Europe a local form of the word Zingani is used to designate them,
as Zigeuner in Germany, Cygany in Hungary, and Zingari in Spain.
The Gypsy or Romany language is now considered to belong to the neo-Hindu
group, on a level with Hindi and Marathi, but is full of foreign elements bor-
rowed from the various peoples met by the Gypsies in their migration west-
ward. Miklosich distinguishes thirteen Gypsy dialects in Europe: the Greek
or Turkish, Roumanian, Hungarian, Moravo-Bohemian, German, Polo-Lithua-
nian, Russian, Scandinavian, Finnish, Anglo-Scottish, Italian, Basque, and Span-
ish. These dialects become more corrupt as a rule the farther they are removed
from Turkey. Gypsies converse with strangers in the language of the vernacu-
lar of the people with whom they dwell. They have no alphabet, no written
literature, only a few songs.
Physically the Gypsy is a very mixed people, the chief characters of which
are too well known to need description here. They are supposed to have had
their origin in northern India and to have entered Europe by way of Persia
and Armenia in the early part of the fourteenth century. The exact relation-
ship of the European Gypsies to certain tribes of Asia — the Nats and Doms
of India, or the Luri and Karachi of Persia — has not been demonstrated by
scientists.
Everywhere the Gypsy resents the restraint of a higher social organization.
To him laws and statutes are persecutions to be evaded. He has no history, no
tradition, no racial religion, nothing but a remarkable instinct of blood relation-
ship which is manifested in the solidarity of race unequaled by even that of the
Jews. The total population of Gypsies in the world is variously estimated at
from 700,000 to 850,000, of whom three-fourths are in Europe. There are
200,000 in Roumania, 100,000 each in Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula,
50,000 each in Spain, Russia, and Servia, and 50,000 in Germany and Italy com-
bined. The number in the British Isles is variously estimated at from 5,000
to 20,000. There are thought to be 100,000 in Asia and 25,000 in Africa. Only a
246 The Immigration Commission.
few thousand are found in the Americas. They are included among " Other
peoples " in immigration statistics. They are supposed to have first come to this
country in the beginning of the eighteenth century. Simson says that many
were banished from the British Isles to America in colonial times and that
many more were sent to serve in the British army during the Revolution. He
found a number of settled Gypsies in the eastern States, and suggests that
many of the keepers of small tin shops and peddlers of tin, as well as many of
the fortune tellers of the great cities of the United States, are in reality of
Gypsy descent.
HEBREW, JEWISH, or ISRAELITE. The race or people that originally spoke
the Hebrew language: primarily of Semitic origin. Scattered throughout Eu-
rope, especially in Russia, yet preserving their own individuality to a marked
degree. Linguistically, the nearest relatives of the ancient Hebrew are the
Syriac (see Syrian), Assyrian, and Arabic languages of the Semitic-Hamitic
family. The last named constitutes one of the four great divisions of the Cau-
casian race. While the Hebrew is not so nearly a dead language as the related
Syrian, Aramaic, or the ancient Assyrian, its use in most Jewish communities is
confined mainly to religious exercises. The Jews have adopted the languages of
the peoples with whom they have long been associated. More speak Yiddish,
called in Europe " Judeo-German," than any other language, since the largest
modern population of Jews borders on eastern Germany and has been longest
under German influence.
Physically the Hebrew is a mixed race, like all our immigrant races or peo-
ples, although to a less degree than most. This has been fairly well demon-
strated by recent studies, notwithstanding the earlier scientific and present
popular belief that they are of pure blood. In every country they are found to
approach in type the people among whom they have long resided. The two
chief divisions of the Jewish people are the Ashkenazim, or northern type, and
the Sephardim, or southern. The latter are also called " Spagnuoli," after the
country, Spain, from which they were expelled in 1492. They are now found
mainly in the countries southeast of Austria. They consider themselves to be
of purer race than the northern Jews and in some countries refuse to inter-
marry or worship with the latter. Their features are more truly Semitic. The
" Jewish nose," and to a less degree other facial characteristics, are found well-
nigh everywhere throughout the race, although the form of the head seems to
have become quite the reverse of the Semitic type. The social solidarity of the
Jews is chiefly a product of religion and tradition. Yet, taking all factors into
account, and especially their type of civilization, the Jews of to-day are more
truly European than Asiatic or Semitic. The classification of the Bureau of
Immigration separates the Hebrews from the Semites and places them in the
Slavic grand 'division of the Aryan family, although, as is explained above, they
are not Aryan. Nine-tenths of our Jewish immigrants come, however, from
Slavic territory.
The total Hebrew population of the world is estimated at 11,000,000. Only a
remnant, less than 100,000, are found in Palestine ; perhaps 250,000 in all Asia.
About one-half of the Jews live in western Russia, about 2,000,000 in Austria-
Hungary, and 250,000 in Rournania. About one-fourth of the Russian Jews
live in Poland. The emigration from these countries during the last genera-
tion has been immense and has reached its culmination in the past five years.
The primary causes have been a desire for better economic conditions, and the
persecutions directed against the Jewish population.
Jewish immigration now exceeds in number annually that of any other
race with the exception of the South Italians. It forms a large part of the total
immigration from southern and eastern Europe, which now predominates to
th<> same degree that immigration from northern and western Europe formerly
did. (See article Caucasian for figures.) Jewish immigration in 1907 totaled
about 150,000, or 12 per cent of the immigration to the United States. In 190(5
it was more— 153,000. In the twelve years 1899-1910, 1,074,442 Hebrews were
admitted to the United States, a number exceeded by only one other race, the
South Italian.
Of the 20 races or peoples now contributing the chief tide of immigration to
America, the Hebrew and the Slovak stand at the head as regards the rate per
cent of population at which they come. In 1907 each of these races sent about
1-S immigrants to each 1,000 of its European population. The Croatian-Slove-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 247
nian group came next with 13 per 1,000; then the Irish, the Norwegians, the
Italians, and certain peoples of southeastern Europe with from 6 to 9 per 1,000.
Future Hebrew immigration, however, could not long compete numerically with
that from Italy, because there are less than 8,000,000 Hebrews left in Europe
as against 35,000,000 Italians.
As is well known, Jewish immigrants settle almost altogether in the cities
or towns. New York City has the largest Jewish population of any city in the
world, now estimated by some at about 1,000,000, or nearly one-fourth of the
total population. Large numbers are added annually. Among large cities,
Warsaw and Odessa have a still larger ratio of Jewish population, namely, one-
third. In London, on the contrary, only one-fiftieth of the population is He-
brew. The Jewish population of the entire United States is less than 2,000,000.
Jewish estimates place Pennsylvania next to New York with a Hebrew popula-
tion of 150,000; Illinois next, with 110,000; and Massachusetts next, with
90,000.
HERVAT, HORVATH, HRVAT, KHORBAT, CARPATH, KHROVAT, CROAT, or
CROATIAN. Different forms of an old Slavic word meaning highlands or moun-
tains (cf. Carpathians} ; hence not strictly an ethnical term, although some im-
migrants insist that Horvath, and not Croatian (see), is the proper name of
their people. Horvatok is the name given Croatians on the Magyar ethno-
graphical map.
HERZEGOVINIAN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatians. (See Croa-
tian.)
HINDU. In the broadest sense, any native of India; so defined for con-
venience in this dictionary. In the more ordinary religious sense this word
applies only to the two-thirds of the population who are " Hinduized " — that is,
who profess Hinduism and have a certain social organization based upon
Brahmanism. Ethnologically often defined in a still different sense as signi-
fying the three-fourths of the population in northern India who are of Aryan
stock (see) whether professing Hinduism or Mohammedanism.
In immigration questions, where the immense population of India is beginning
to arouse some concern, all natives of India are indiscriminately known as
" Hindus." Perhaps a few, as the Sikhs, are known by name because of their
prominence amongst the native troops. But it is not generally realized how
great a number of races and tribes there are in India, many of them extremely
low in civilization and approaching the Negro in physical characteristics. Such
are some of the Dravidas and Mundas, who occupy all of southern India. In
greatest contrast with these are the Aryan Hindus of the north, more closely
related in language, if not in physical appearance, to our northern Europeans
than are the Turks, Magyars, and various peoples of eastern Russia.
Hindi and Hindustani, the most widely spread modern languages or group of
dialects of India, are variously defined. Thus, while Hindustani is generally
understood in Europe to be the polite speech of all India, and especially of
Hindustan, the name is limited by some philologists to certain subdivisions of
the Hindi. Urdu is the form of the language which uses the Persian letters.
Other forms use letters of Hindu origin. Hkidi, in the wider sense of the term,
is spoken by 97,000,000 of people, mainly of northern India.
The population of India is one of the densest on the globe, reaching even in
agricultural districts 650 to the square mile. Including the 10,500,000 in-
habitants of Burma, it amounts to nearly 30'0,000,000 souls, or one-fifth of the
population of the world. The darker non-Aryans and Mongolians alone of
India nearly equal the population of the United States. There are 147 peoples
or tribes speaking different languages. The principal ones, as classified by the
census of 1901, are shown in the t;;ble next presented.
248
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 9. — Population of India, by language and geographical division.
Language.
Number
speaking.
Principal location.
All languages
294,400,000
221,200,000
Northern India.
Hindi and Bihari
97,000,000
Central part of northern India.
Bengali
44,600,000
Bengal.
Marathi
18,000.000
Western and central India.
Panjabi
17,000,000
Northwestern India.
Rajasthani
Gujarati
11,000,000
10, 000, 000
Western and central India.
Western India.
Oriya
9,700,000
Eastern India.
Jatkl or Lahnda
Sindhi ..
3,300,000
3,000,000
Northwestern India.
Western India.
Pahari
3,000,000
Northern border of India.
Assamese
1,350,000
Eastern India.
Pashto
1,200,000
Western border of India.
Kashmiri
1 000 000
Northwestern border of India.
Bhil
750. 000
Central and western India.
Others
300, 000
Dravido-Munda
59 700 000
Southern India.
Telugu
20,700.000
Eastern part of southern India.
Tamil
16,500,000
Southern India and Ceylon.
Kanarese
10, 400, 000
Western part of southern India.
Malayalam
Santali
6,000,000
1,800,000
Southern extremity of southern India.
Bengal.
Gono
1 130 000
Central India.
Kol
950, 000
Bengal.
Others
2,220 000
Indo-Chinese .
11,700.000
Burma.
Miscellaneous
1 800 000
As to religion, Hinduism predominates everywhere except in the northwest,
where it shades off into the universal Mohammedanism of the countries farther
west The latter religion is found to some extent in all other parts of India
as well, especially in the northeast. Christianity is nowhere strong except
among the darker and more backward tribes of the extreme south. Buddhism
is confined mainly to the Mongolian population of Burma. There are 8,500,000
who are still animists, that is, who worship the spirits of trees, of rocks, and
of most common objects about them. Emigration from India is still small.
(See East Indian for Hindu immigration and other details.)
HOLLANDER or HOLLAND DUTCH. (See Dutch.)
HTJN. A people that overran eastern Europe in the middle ages, supposedly
of Tataric origin. The modern Magyars or " Hungarians " are wrongly called
" Huns " in America. ( See Magyar. )
HUNGARIAN or HUNKY. (See Magyar.)
ICELANDIC. (See Scandinavian.)
IRISH. The principal race or people of Ireland; the race which originally
spoke Irish, one of the Celtic group of Aryan tongues. The term Irish is gen-
erally understood in a wider sense to include also the Scotch-Irish and even
the English who have settled in Ireland, with their descendants abroad; but
this is a definition of nationality rather than of race. This dictionary con-
siders those to be of the Irish race whose ancestral language was Irish even
though English has been the medium of intercourse for generations.
No other race or people of its size has emigrated so extensively to this
country. Like the English, the Irish come to the United States speaking our
own language and imbued with sympathy for our ideals and our democratic
institutions.
The difficulty in determining whether a given immigrant from Ireland is
Irish or English, or even Scotch, has already been referred to in the article
" English." The common understanding in America that the Irish race in-
cludes all of the Irisft nationality — that is, all who live in Ireland — is probably
not far wrong if we except Ulster Province, since the majority of the remaining
population are descended from those who spoke Irish. This language is a
branch of the Gaelic division of the Celtic group of the Aryau or Indo-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 249
European family (see). It is fast going out of use as a medium of communica-
tion. It is said that not 5,000 persons throughout all Ireland are able to read
a book in Irish ; that not a single Irish newspaper is published ; that no church
services are conducted in the language, and that it is not taught in the ele-
mentary schools. Irish was spoken in 1851 by 1,500,000 persons, that is, by
23 per cent of the population. In 1901 only 640,000 persons, or 14 per cent of
the population of Ireland, could converse in it — a loss of over one-half in
absolute numbers in fifty years. Only 4 in 1,000 of Ireland's population are
ignorant of English. Irish is now but little used except in the most western
part of Ireland.
The Irish type is known to all Americans — tall, long-headed, with dark-blue
or gray eyes, and hair more often dark than light. This type predominates
throughout the greater part of Ireland. Beddoe considers the Irish of to-day to
be at least one-third English or Scotch in blood, Teutonic ("Nordic") in type
rather than "Celtic" (see), notwithstanding the opinion long prevalent among
ethnologists.
From what has been said of the language and* physique of the Irish, it will
be seen that it is difficult to determine the population of the race. Reclus and
Hanna have pointed out, however, that in Ireland the statistics of religious con-
fession " bear a close affinity to those of the various racial elements of which the
population is composed : " that the Roman Catholics represent approximately
the Irish element; the Presbyterians, the Scotch or so-called Scotch-Irish; the
Episcopalians, the English or Anglo-Irish. In 1901 the Roman Catholics num-
bered 3,308,661— that is, 74 per cent of the population ; and there were 443,276
Presbyterians and 581,089 Episcopalians. On the basis of the number of persons
in England and Scotland who were born in Ireland, Ravenstein has estimated
the number of Irish in these countries to be 2,000,000. If Raveirstein and Hanna
be right, the Irish population of the United Kingdom is in the neighborhood of
5,000,000. It is generally given as less — that is, the number of the Celts in
Europe is given as only about 3,000,000 by Brachelli and Hickmann. But they
apparently count those only who speak Celtic languages. Longstaff estimates
that 22 per cent of the population of Canada, or nearly 1,000,000, are Irish.
THE SCOTCH-IRISH.
The term " Scotch-Irish " does not necessarily indicate, as many Americans
suppose, a mixed Scotch and Irish descent, although in many individual cases it
could be properly so used. It is an appellation given to the American descend-
ants of the Lowland Scotch, Presbyterians in religion, who emigrated in the
early part of the seventeenth century to Ulster Province, in northern Ireland,
and thousands of whom emigrated to America during the following century.
At first they called themselves Scotch. They speak an English dialect with a
peculiar accent closely akin to that of the northern part of England. Physically
they are a mixed race descended from the ancient Britons with later Teutonic
additions, especially of Scandinavian, Danish, and Anglian origin. It is claimed
by some that difference in religion, strong racial prejudice, and the policy of the
Government in land allotments, have all tended to keep the Lowland Scotch and
the Irish of Ulster apart. There is a difference of opinion as to the proportion
of intermarriages that take place; some say very few. Yet to the average
American, an Irishman and a Scotch-Irishman as found in the United States
look very much alike. The latter have contributed some of the greatest states-
men of American history.
The Irish were the first people to come to the United States in large numbers
as immigrants. During the thirty years 1821-1850 Ireland contributed more
than two-fifths of all immigrants, and more than one-third during the next ten
years. They came most rapidly during the decades of 1841-1860. Since then
they have fallen off both in absolute numbers and in relative proportion, drop-
ping to the third place in rank — that is, below the German and the English,
from 1861 to 1890. Since the rapid influx of immigrants from southeastern
Europe (see articles Slav and Caucasian) the Irish have fallen to the sixth
place down the list of immigrant races. The total number coming to the United
States for the twelve years 1899-1910 was 439,724. Their rate of movement,
however, is still high, being, in 1907, 8 per 1,000 of the population of Ireland.
This rate was not equaled in that year by any other race from northwestern
Europe except the Norwegian, but it was exceeded by some from eastern Europe,
72289°— VOL 1—11 17
250 The Immigration Commission.
for example, by the Hebrew and the Slovak, with 18 each per 1,000 of popula-
tion, and the Croatian-Slovenian group with 13. It is equaled by the Polish
and the Italian each with 8 per 1,000 of population.
The population of Ireland, about 4,500,000, is but little more than one-half
what it was sixty years ago. It is too small, when compared with the great
populations of the newer immigrating races, for Irish immigrants to ever again
hold first rank numerically for any series of years. As against Ireland's
population of 4,500,000, the Great Russians number 57,000,000, the Little Rus-
sians 25,000,000, the Poles 17,000.000, and the Italians 35,000,000. The census of
1901 for Ireland shows that there were 433,526 emigrants for the decade of
1891-1900, over 89 per cent of whom were destined to the United States, 4 per
cent to England and Wales, 2.4 per cent to Scotland, 2 per cent to Australia,
and 1.5 per cent to Canada.
The Irish are shown by the census of 1900 to hold second place among the
foreign-born in the United States. There are, in fact, more Irish of the first
and second generations alone in the United States than in Ireland — 1,618,567
who were born in Ireland, and 3,220,110 native-born of foreign-born parents.
ITALIAN. The race or people of Italy. The Bureau of Immigration divides
this race into two groups, North Italian and South Italian. These two groups
differ from each other materially in language, physique, and character, as well
as in geographical distribution. The former may be defined as including those
Italians who are natives of the basin of the Po (compartimenti of Piedmont,
Lombardy, Venetia, and Emelia) and to the Italian districts of France, of Swit-
zerland, and of Tyrol (Austria) and their descendants. All of the people of
the peninsula proper and of the islands of Corsica, Sicily, and Sardinia are
South Italian. Even Genoa is South Italian.
Linguistically, Italian is one of the grand divisions of the Romance group
of languages descended from the Latin stock of the Aryan family. It has many
dialects, the separation and preservation of which is favored by the geograph-
ical configuration of Italy. Hovelacque divides these dialects into three groups,
the upper, the central, and the lower. The first includes the Genoese, Pied-
montese, Venetian, Emilian, and Lombard dialects; the central group includes
the Tuscan, Roman, and Corsican, and the lower group includes the Neapolitan,
Calabrian, Sicilian, and Sardinian. These dialects diverge much more from
each other than do the dialects of English or Spanish. In fact, it is said that it
is difficult for a Neapolitan or a Sardinian to make himself understood by the
natives of the valley of the Po. Perhaps in no other country do the edu-
cated classes cling so tenaciously to the familiar use of the local dialects
in preference to the national literary form of the language. The latter is the
Florentine dialect of Tuscany as embalmed in literature by Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio in the fourteenth century. A number of the other dialects, however,
have quite a considerable literature, especially the Venetian, Lombard, Nea-
politan, and Sicilian. The last named is remarkably rich in poetry.
All the first group of dialects as defined by Hovelacque, except the Genoese,
are North Italian. They contain many Gallic or Celtic elements and show
affinities for the Provingal and the Rhaeto-Romansh (Ladin and Friulan) lan-
guages, which bound them on all sides except the south. The Genoese and the
dialects of the central and lower groups are used by South Italians.
Physically the Italians are anything but a homogenous race. The Apen-
nine chain of mountains forms a geographical line which corresponds to the
boundary between two distinct ethnic groups. The region north of this, line,
the basin of the Po, is inhabited by a very broad-headed ("Alpine") and tallish
race, the North Italian. The inhabitants of the eastern and western halves of
this basin show slight variations due to some Teutonic admixture in Lombardy
and to an infusion of Slavic blood in Venetia. All of Italy south of the Apen-
nines and all of the adjacent islands are occupied by a long-headed, dark, " Medi-
terrnean" race of short stature. This is the South Italian, supposed to be
descended from the ancient Ligurians of Italy and closely related to the
Iberians of Spain and the Berbers of northern Africa. Indeed, the foremost
Italian ethnologist, Sergi, traces their origin to the Hamitic stock of North
Africa. It must be remembered that the Hamites are not Negrotic or true
African, although there may be some traces of an infusion of African blood in
this stock in certain communities of Sicily and Sardinia, as well as in northern
Africa. The Bureau of Immigration places the North Italian in the " Keltic "
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 251
division and the South Italian in the " Iberic." Comparatively little admix-
ture has taken place between these two ethnic groups, although many North
Italians have found their way around the eastern end of the mountain chain
into middle Italy. Therefore, the line of demarcation between the Emilians
and the Tuscans is much less sharp than it is between the Piedmontese and the
Genoese.
An Italian sociologist, Niceforo, has pointed out that these two ethnic
groups differ as radically in psychic characters as they do in physical. He
describes the South Italian as excitable, impulsive, highly imaginative, im-
practicable; as an individualist having little adaptability to high organized
society. The North Italian, on the other hand, is pictured as cool, deliberate,
patient, practical, and capable of great progress in the political and social
organization of modern civilization. Both North and South Italians are de-
voted to their families, are benevolent, religious, artistic, and industrious.
Nearly all are Catholic in religion.
'Most of the Italian immigration to the United States is recruited from the
farming and the laboring classes of Italy. In America, however, they have
not attained distinguished success as farmers, although as fruit and wine
growers, especially in California, they rank among the foremost.
Bosco, the Italian statistician, admits that Italy still holds first place for the
number of crimes committed against the person, although these have greatly
diminished since the betterment of educational facilities and the large out-
flow of emigrants. After Italy in this respect come Austria, France, and, con-
siderably farther down the list, Ireland, Germany, England, and Scotland.
Niceforo shows from Italian statistics that all crimes, and especially violent
crimes, are several times more numerous among the South than the North
Italians. Gambling is common. The lottery is a national institution conducted
to fill the state coffers. Brigandage is now quite extinct, except perhaps in
some parts of the island of Sicily. The secret organizations of the Mafia (see
Sicilian) and* Comorra, institutions of great influence among the people, which take
the law into their own hands and which are responsible for much of the crime,
flourish throughout southeVn Italy. The chief difficulty in dealing with the crimes
of Italians seems to be their determination not to testify in court against an
enemy, but to insist on settling their wrongs after the manner of the vendetta.
It is significant that Italy is one of the most illiterate countries of Europe.
In 1901, 48.5 per cent of the entire population six years of age and over could
not read or write. In that year, in Calabria, the most southern compartimento
of the peninsula, the illiterate amounted to 78.7 per cent of the population six
years old or over. The smallest degree of illiteracy is found in the valley of
the Po among the North Italians. The Lombards and the Piedmoutese are the
best educated of all Italians. Conditions, however, have been gradually improv-
ing since the Government made education free and compulsory between the ages
of 6 and 9 years in communes where only lower elementary schools are main-
tained, and 6 to 12 years where there are schools of a higher grade.
The geographical boundaries of the Italian race are wider than those of Italy.
Considerable numbers are found in the adjacent countries of France, Switzer-
land, and Austria. The provinces of Tyrol and Istria, in Austria, are one-third
Italian. Large numbers of them are found in the New World. Italy itself is
nearly all Italian. It has a population of 34,000,000, and contains only small
islets of other races — some 80,000 French in the western part of northern Italy,
30,000 Slavs in northeastern Italy, about 30,000 Greeks in southern Italy, some
90,000 Albanians in southern Italy and in Sicily, and 10,000 Catalans (Spanish)
in Sardinia. There are a few Germans in the Italian Alps; perhaps fewer
than 10,000. Nearly two-fifths of the population of Italy is found in the valley
of the Po ; that is, in less than one-third the length of Italy. Roughly divided
by compartimenti, the population of this district, which is occupied by North
Italians, is about 14,000,000. This includes the Friulans of northeastern Italy,
who, although they speak a Latin language distinct from Italian, are hardly
distinguishable from the North Italians in race. Their number has been vari-
ously estimated at from 50,000 to 450,000. The population of the South Italian
districts is about 19,750,000, of whom 125,000 belong to other races. Most of
the Italians of France, Switzerland, and Austria are North Italian in race.
Those of Corsica, an island belonging to France, are South Italian.
252
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 10. — Estimated distribution of Italians: 1901.
Geographic division.
Italian
population.
Europe :
Italy
33, 290, 000
350,000
200,000
Austria
650, 000
300,000
Other Europe
300,000
Total
35,000,000
Else where: a
Brazil
1,000,000
Argentine Republic
620,000
140,000
Unitecl States
1, 200, 000
Africa
60,000
Total
3, 020, COO
38 000 000
a Estimates mainly from Franceschini.
In certain years since 1900, more than half a million Italians a year have
emigrated to different parts of the world. About one-half of this emigration
is to other European countries and is temporary in character, being composed
mostly of men. From 1899 to 1910, inclusive, 37.2,668 North Italian and
1,911,933 South Italian immigrants were admitted to the United States and a
large number emigrated from Italy to South American countries. .A large part
of those who come to the United States return to their former homes. Masso
estimates that the average time spent by Italians in this country is eight years.
The net gain, however, especially in New York and other States of the East,
is large.
The immense capacity of the Italian race to populate other parts of the earth
is shown by the fact that they outnumber the Spanish race in Spanish Ar-
gentina and the Portuguese race in Brazil, a "Portuguese" country. (See
Spanish- American.) Italian immigration to the United States is perhaps of
more significance in the study of immigration than any other at the present
time, not only because it is far larger each year than that of any other race,
nor merely because it stands high in the rate per 1,000 of the population now
coming to the United States. More significant still is the fact that this race
has a larger population than most other races which rank high in their rate
of immigration. In other words, out of its 35,000,000 population and the large
birth rate that characterizes the race, it can continue to lead in immigration
when the other races now contributing largely to the immigrant tide, the
Hebrews (population 8,000,000), the Slovaks (2,250,000), and the Croatian-
Slovenian group (3,600,000), are depleted, as, in fact, Ireland is to-day.
It is not generally realized that during the decade of 1890-1899 Italy was
already one of the five nations which led as a source of American immigration.
In the early eighties — that is, nearly thirty years ago — Italy had already begun
to gain upon the northern European countries in this regard. Yet it was not
until about 1890 that the United States forged ahead of South American coun-
tries as a destination for Italian immigrants. During the preceding decade or
longer Brazil received more Italians than did the Argentine Republic, although
the latter is wrongly supposed to have the largest Italian population in South
America. In 1907 the United States received 294,000 out of 415,000 Italian
emigrants to transatlantic countries. The total emigration to European coun-
tries for that year, mostly temporary, was 288,774.
The heaviest transatlantic emigration from Italy is chiefly from districts
south of Rome inhabited by South Italians. They come especially from Sicily
and Calabria, the least productive and most poorly developed portions of the
country. Very few emigrate from Sardinia. The compartimento of Liguria. the
home of the Genoese, also South Italian in race, contributes more emigrants
than any other province in northern Italy. The total American immigration
from certain compartimenti has reached phenomenal proportions, being several
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 253
times the natural increase of the population, with the result that some agri-
cultural districts are already partly depopulated.
JAPANESE. The people of Japan. With the exception of the "Arctic group "
the Japanese and Koreans form the easternmost group of the great Sibiric
branch, which, with the Sinitic branch (Chinese, etc.), constitutes the Mon-
golian race. As was said in the article on Chinese, the Japanese and Koreans
stand much nearer than the Chinese, especially in language, to the Finns, Lapps,
Magyars, and Turks of Europe, who are the westernmost descendants of the
Mongolian race. The languages of all these peoples belong to the agglutinative
family, while Chinese is monosyllabic.
Although many people may mistake a Japanese face for Chinese, the Mon-
golian traits are much less pronounced. The skin is much less yellow, the eyes
less oblique. The hair, however, is true Mongolian, black and round in section,
and the nose is small. These physical differences no doubt indicate that the
Japanese are of mixed origin. In the south there is probably a later Malay
admixture. In some respects their early culture resembles that of the Philip-
pines of to-day. Then there is an undoubted white strain in Japan. The Ainos,
the earliest inhabitants of Japan, are one of the most truly Caucasian-like peo-
ple in appearance in eastern Asia. They have dwindled away to less than
20,000 under the pressure of the Mongolian invasion from the mainland, but
they have left their impress upon the Japanese race. The " fine " type of the
aristocracy, the Japanese ideal, as distinct from the " coarse " type recognized
by students of the Japanese of to-day, is perhaps due to the Aino.
The social characteristics and importance of the Japanese people are well
known from recent history. It is generally well understood that Christianity
makes very slow progress. Shintoisni, a mixture of nature and ancestor wor-
ship, and Buddhism are the prevailing religions. The Japanese now number
about 48,000,000. Only about 150,000 live outside of Japan. Since the Russian-
Japanese war there are probably 40,000 or 50,000 Japanese resident in Korea.
Some 10,000 are found in British lands. From 1899 to 1910, inclusive, 148,729
Japanese were admitted to the United States. By agreement with Japan, how-
ever, Japanese laborers are now excluded from the country.0
JEWISH. (See Hebrew.)
KOREAN. The people of the Korean Peninsula. They and the Japanese
(see) form a distinct physical group, and are linguistically more nearly related
to European Mongolians than they are to the neighboring Chinese (see). Under
the new leadership of the Japanese they may be expected to make rapid prog-
ress. They number about 10,000,000. From 1899 to 1910, 7,790 Koreans came
to the United States, but at the present time Korean immigrants are prac-
tically excluded from this country.
LITHUANIAN, LITVA, or LETUVININKAI. The Aryan race of western Rus-
sia, which gave its name to the former principality of Lithuania, and which,
with the related Letts, Jmouds. and Old Prussians, forms a distinct subdivision
linguistically of the Aryan stock. This subdivision is variously called the
Lettic, Baltic, Letto-Lithuanian, or, less properly, the Lithuanian group, using
the last given name in the widest sense, and it is sometimes combined with the
Slavic (see) under the designation " Letto-Slavic." For convenience Letts and
Jmouds are counted as Lithuanians and are put in the " Slavic division " by
the Bureau of Immigration. They will be considered together in this article.
The Lithuanians are one of the three or four peoples now most active in immi-
gration from Russia.
There is a marked opposition between the conclusions of the philologists and
those of the physical anthropologists as to the relationship of the Lithuanians
to the Slavs. While the former consider them to be the most closely related
to the Slavs of all non-Slavic peoples, the anthropologists, as typified by Ripley,
place them at nearly the opposite extreme from the Slavs in European eth-
nology. The latter are put in the brunette, broad-headed, and wide-faced
"Alpine " or " Celto-Slavic " race, while the Lithuanians, and especially the
more typical Letts, are said to be " pure blond " and to " approximate quite
closely to our Anglo-Saxon model ; " that is, to approach the extreme of the
long-headed type, and therefore to belong to the " Nordic," or at least to the
" Sub-Nordic " race. No doubt both are right. To-day they stand as close
linguistically to their eastern neighbors, the Russians, as they do physically
a See Vol. II, p. 584.
254
The Immigration Commission.
to their western neighbors, the Swedes. What they were originally is the ques-
tion. Is their language or their physical type the last acquired? That it is
not the language might be argued from the fact that the Lithuanian is older
than perhaps any other Aryan tongue of Europe.
Leaving the ethnical center of the race in Courland, on the Baltic, it is
found that it shades off in every direction into the types of the surrounding
peoples. Toward the southwest, in Prussia, it has almost disappeared in the
German, as the Old Prussian, formerly spoken by the Lithuanians in that region,
has entirely disappeared — a dialect, by the way, which must not be thought
from its name to be Teutonic ; it is purely Letto-Slavic. On the southeastern
border it is difficult to draw the line, except in language, between the White
Russians and the Lithuanians. On the north, in the province 6f Livonia, there
is clearly an approximation to the Finnish type through intermarriage with the
Livs and Esths.
The Lithuanians are interesting historically. Although surrounded by ag-
gressive races, they long retained their own independence, thanks to their
impenetrable swamps and forests. But they retained also their pagan beliefs,
traces of which may be found even in the peasantry of to-day. Not till the
fourteenth century were they Christianized. Through their political union
with Poland, the Lithuanians proper and the Jmouds became Catholic, and are
to-day the northernmost people of that faith on the Continent. The Letts are
divided among the Lutheran, the Catholic, and the Russian or Orthodox
churches. The greater number (750,000), who adjoin the Protestant Finnish
population on the north and were united politically with it, are Lutherans;
toward the east 50,000 affiliate with the great mass of the Russian population
in the Greek church ; while farther south, in Vitebsk Province, which formerly
belonged, like the Lithuanian provinces, to Catholic Poland, the Letts are
mainly Catholic.
There are several divisions of the Lettic or Letto-Lithuanian group of lan-
guages. In the first place, Lithuanian is about as different from Lettish as
Latin is from Italian. Then there are subdivisions. The Jmoud, Zmudz, Jemai-
tic, Samogitian, or Low Lithuanian is a dialect of the Lithuanian. The Lettish
has three dialects, one of them called the Tahinian. Another people, considered
by some to be Lithuanian, is the black-haired Yatvyags, farther south, who are
probably a mixture of White Russians and Mazurs (Poles). These perhaps
have been included in the count of Lithuanians in Suwalki and other Polish
provinces by the Russian census. (See table.)
The Lithuanian is a small race numerically, only about 1 per cent of the total
population of Europe, or 34 per cent of the population of Russia. It does not
exceed 4,000,000 in numbers, and is therefore only one-fourth the size of the
Polish race, one-half that of the Hebrew, or one-fifteenth that of the Great Rus-
si:in, and is about equal to that of the Ruthenians of Austria-Hungary, or of the
Bulgarians. The Prussian census shows but little over 100,000 Lithuanians in
that country. In the six Lithuanian provinces listed below, the total population
is over 7,000,000. More than one-half therefore of the population is of outside
peoples, mostly White Russian, Polish, Hebrew, and, along the Baltic, German.
That the Letts come from quite different provinces from the Lithuanians proper
is evident from the following figures taken from the Russian census of 1897 :
TABLE 11. — Lithuanian and Lettish population of Russia.
Lithuanian-Lettish Provinces.
Letts.
Jmouds.
Lithua-
nians.
Total.
Northern:
Livonia
563 829
100
6 594
570 523
Courland
505,994
1,517
16 531
524 042
Vitebsk..
264, 0;i2
67
2 335
266 434
Cent nil:
Kovno
35,188
444, 921
574 853
1 054 962
Southern:
Vilna
471
157
279, 720
280, 348
Suwalki
74
54
304 548
304 676
Elsewhere
66,349
1 206
25 929
93 484
Total
1 435 937
448 022
1 210 510
3 094 469
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
In other words, the Letts are found mainly in the northern provinces of this
region, the Jinouds in the center, and the Lithuanians, although more scattered,
occupy the central and southern provinces. In Suwalki, a province of what is
to-day called Poland, the Lithuanians number one-half of the population. In
Kovno, adjoining it on the north, they constitute one-third, and the Jmouds,
or Low Lithuanians, another third of the population.
While the Lithuanians are small in numbers, they have been among the more
active races in immigration to America. In 1907 they stood tenth in rank as
to the rate of immigration, 6 per 1,000 of population. In this respect they were
surpassed by several Slavic peoples, the Poles, the Slovaks, and the Croatian-
Slovenian group. The Ruthenians from Austria-Hungary came in about the
same ratio, but the rate of Hebrew or Slovak immigration in that year was
three times greater. During the twelve years ending June 30, 1910, a total
of 175,258 Lithuanians were admitted to the United States, the movement being
more than twice as great as the immigration of Russians proper, although the
population of the latter race is fifteen times larger. As to the absolute number
of immigrants, Lithuanians stood thirteenth in rank during the period last
mentioned.
MACEDONIAN. (See Bulgarian.)
MAGYAR (pron. Ma-jar), Hungarian, Hun, or Hunyak in popular language.
The race, of Finno-Tatar origin, that invaded Hungary about the ninth century
and is now dominant there. Often called " Hungarian," although this is more
properly a political than an ethnological term and may be applied also to that
half of the population of Hungary which is not Magyar. " Huns " and " Hun-
kies " are names still more incorrectly applied to this race and to Slavs indis-
criminately in some parts of America. The Huns, properly speaking, were
a horde that overran parts of Europe in the middle ages and are supposed to
be more closely represented by the modern Kalmuks or Turks than by the
Magyars. The " Hunagars " and " Mogers " pushed later over the Asiatic border
and absorbed the earlier Mongol and other elements of what is now Hungary.
They became Christianized in the eleventh century, the earliest of all the
Finno-Tataric tribes of Europe. Thus it is that the Magyars, together with the
Finns, are the foremost branches of the Mongolian race, as measured by western
civilization.
As has been said elsewhere (see Finnish and Fmno-Tataric) , the Magyars
are related linguistically to the Turks and Japanese (see), all these belong-
ing to the great Sibiric stock possessing agglutinative speech. But physi-
cally the Magyars and the Finns of to-day are not Mongolian so much as
Caucasian. Because of mixture with Caucasian peoples, they have deviated
more widely from the ancient type than have the Turks. While these latter
are becoming southern European in type, the Magyars are often blonds, yet
not so generally as are the Finns. In short, while the Magyars have imposed
their speech and rule upon Hungary, they have taken on the physical characters
and the civilization of the subject peoples. Ripley says that they are " perhaps
one-eighth Finnic and seven-eighths Alpine " or " Celto-Slavic." They are not
included in one of the five grand divisions of races by the Bureau of Immigra-
tion, but find a place with Turks and Armenians among "All others."
The Magyars form a compact population with but minor subdivisions, such
as the Szeklers, of Transylvania. The race is confined to Hungary. Standing
like an island in the Caucasian population that surrounds them, they steadily
increase in numbers and spread their language among the peoples whom
they rule. While they constitute only half the population of Hungary, Magyar
is the language of three-fourths of the schools. The other principal peoples of
Hungary proper — that is, exclusive of Croatia and Slovenia — are the Rou-
manians, Germans, and Slovaks, who constitute, respectively, 17, 12, and 12
per cent of the population. In the entire kingdom there were in 1900 about
8,500,000 Magyars. More than half of these are Catholic and one-fourth are
"Evangelical." Magyar is also the language of 600,000 Jews.
From 1899 to 1910, inclusive, 338,151 Magyar immigrants were admitted to the
United States. This number was exceeded by only nine other races or peoples
during the period. In 1907 the rate of immigration among Magyars was 7 per
1,000 of the population.
MEXICAN. Any native of Mexico who is neither of Negro nor or Indian de-
scent. Defined thus for immigration purposes, because Negroes and American
Indians are listed separately regardless of nativity (cf. Cuban and Spanish-
American). The Mexican population, unlike that of Cuba, is mainly of Indian
256 The Immigration Commission.
or mixed origin and is therefore largely excluded from this definition. While
70 per cent of the inhabitants of Cuba are white, less than 20 per cent of the
people of Mexico are of pure white blood. About 40 per cent (5,000,000) are of
pure Indian blood, to whom must be added 43 per cent of mixed blood. The
total population is over 13,000,000. Mexico is Spanish as to official language, as
to the greater part of its white population, and as to type of civilization,
although the last named is perhaps influenced by the United States more than is
true of any other Latin-American republic.
For many years there has been a considerable immigration from Mexico to the
border States and Territories, but previous to 1908 statistics relative to the
overland movement were not recorded by the Bureau of Immigration. In that
year, 5,682 persons listed as "Mexicans" were admitted to the United States;
in 1909 there were 15,591, and in 1910 17,760. The great majority of these
were destined to Texas. A few immigrants of other races or peoples, including
German, Spanish, English, and Syrian, are annually admitted from Mexico.
The above figures do not include so-called " nonimmigrant aliens."
MONGOLIAN, MONGOL, MONGOLIC, MONGOLOID, ASIATIC, or YELLOW
RACE. That grand division of mankind which is typically, as to color, yellow-
ish, and as to origin, culture, and present habitat, Asiatic. An important sub-
ject in immigration. The Mongolian and the Caucasian (see) are the two
largest " races " or divisions of mankind, the latter being somewhat the larger
because it includes the greater part of the population of India. The term
"Asiatic " may be used in a geographical sense to include India. In this sense
the Asiatics are far greater in number than either the Mongolians or the
Europeans.
Just as the Caucasian race extends into southwestern and southern Asia, so
the Mongolian race extends far into Europe, embracing not only the Lapps of
Scandinavia, the Finns, Cossacks, and many other peoples of Russia, and the
Turks of southern Europe, but even the Magyars of Hungary, the most ad-
vanced of all the Europeans of the Mongolian stock. The main western branches
of the Mongolians, although Europeanized in blood as well as in culture, still
possess a Turanian speech.
The Mongolians have also extended from time immemorial over the Arctic
coast of North America, if we accept the view most generally held as to the
origin of the Eskimos. Indeed, many ethnologists so define "Mongolian" as to
include the entire American and Malay races. Huxley's term " Mongoloid " in-
cludes not only these, but also the Polynesians and " Indonesians," who are
considered by some to represent an ancient Caucasian element in the Pacific.
Huxley therefore finds no race but the Mongoloid on or near the Pacific Ocean,
with the exception of a " Negroid " element in Malaysia. The word " Mon-
golian " is sometimes used in a more restricted sense as equivalent to " Mongol,"
the name of a small group of Japanese-like people living northwest of China
proper in Mongolia. The term " Mongolic grand division " is used by the
Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization in the widest sense of all, to in-
clude the Malays, as well as the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans.
All of northern, central, and eastern Asia was originally occupied exclusively
by the Mongolian race, if we exclude from this grand division the doubtful
Eskimos near Bering Sea and the Ainos of northern Japan and the Malays and
Negritos of the Malay Peninsula.
Brinton divides the Mongolian race into two great branches, the Sinitic and
the Sibiric. The former is the more populous, and is confined to Asia, being
subdivided into the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetan groups. The Sibiric
branch includes all the invaders into Europe above mentioned, who are there-
fore more closely related linguistically to the Japanese than to the Chinese.
This branch includes, besides the Japanese, Arctic, and Tungusic groups, the
Finnic, Tataric, and Mongolic. It is the three last-named groups that are rep-
resented in Europe; the Finnic by the Finns, Lapps, Esths, Livs, Mordvinians,
and others of Russia and the Magyars of Hungary; the Tataric group by the
Kirghiz-Kazaks, Turkomans, and kindred tribes iii Kussia and the Osmanlis,
or Turks of Turkey, and the Mongolic group by the Kalmuks of eastern Russia.
Southwestern Asia is practically all inhabited by Caucasians, with the excep-
tion of the Turkish race in Anatolia (Asia Minor). West of the Hindus come
their Aryan kinsmen, the Afghans, Beluchis, Persians, Armenians, and Kurds,
many of whom are Mohammedan ; then come the Semites, including the Jews,
Arabs, and Syrians.
Among the many other definitions of " Mongolian race," which vary from
those given above, it is most important to notice those illustrated in the usage
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 257
of Keane and Linnaeus. These authors consider Blumenbach's Malay race to
be only a branch of the Mongolian, while they do not put the American Indian
into that category, as does Huxley. Furthermore, Keane, following De Quatre-
fages in having no Malay race into which he can place the " Indonesians " and
Polynesians of the Pacific, considers these to be an aberrant Caucasian stock.
Friedrich Miiller, the German ethnologist, considers the American (red) and
Malay races to be distinct from the Mongolian, but 'separates from the latter
a " Hyperborean " race, which includes the Eskimo and certain Siberian tribes.
Far more reprehensible was the tendency, once widespread, to find " Lappic "
skulls and vestiges of " Turanian " speech everywhere in Europe. Fragments
of the latter speech were even detected in America. The word "Turanian"
finally became discredited and was generally replaced by " Ural-Altaic." It is
sufficient at this point to say that this term denotes the agglutinative speech of
the Sibiric branch of Mongolians, the latter including, as just said, the Mag-
yars and others in Europe. The Sinitic branch, typified by the Chinese, pos-
sesses a monosyllabic speech. Both of these types of speech differ widely from
the inflected tongues of western Europe and southwestern Asia. In this par-
ticular the Malays resemble the Sibiric branch.
Passing to physical characteristics, but little need be said. The Chinese type
is well known. Close observation will show that the peculiarity of the " Mon-
golian eye " does not consist in its being set obliquely, but in having a fold of
the upper lid at the inner angle of the eye, which covers the caruncle. The
latter is exposed in the Caucasian eye and generally amongst the modified
Mongolians of Europe. This fold is found also amongst Malays. Finally, the
short, or brachycephalic, type of head is more characteristic of the Mongolian
and Malay races than of any other. The eastern Eskimos, however, like most
American Indians and Negroes, have long heads. The short-headed type of
Europeans found in central Europe is traced by some to an Asiatic origin. If
this view be correct, the type goes back to prehistoric times. It may be safely
said that no considerable invasion of the Mongolian race into Europe can be
proven except those of the Christian era, as above indicated.
The population of the Mongolian race will be best discussed in articles per-
taining to its most important divisions, such as the Chinese. As already indi-
cated, it rivals the Caucasian race in numbers, sometimes being estimated as
larger, but generally as about 200,000,000 less. A safe estimate of the total
Mongolian population is about 600,000,000. The population of Asia, however,
is nearly 900,000,000. It will be remembered that nearly 300,000,000 of these
are Caucasians, living mainly in India. While the density of the great popu-
lations of India and China is unparalleled in any equal area, it is only the
Chinese that have shown a great tendency to emigrate. (See Chinese.)
MONTENEGRIN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatian. (See Croa-
tian.)
MORAVIAN. (See Bohemian and Moravian.)
NEGRO, NEGROID, AFRICAN, BLACK, ETHIOPIAN, or AUSTAFRICAN. That
grand division of mankind distinguished by its black color and, generally
speaking, by its woolly hair. While the black, like the white and yellow races,
is accepted by practically all ethnologists as a primary division of mankind,
there is the greatest difference of opinion as to what should be included in it.
Some would put the Hottentots and Bushmen of South Africa into a separate
grand division. Still more would set apart the " Oceanic Negroes " — that is,
the Negritos of Malaysia and the Papuans of New Guinea, and especially the
Australians. Some call these doubtful branches " Negroid," a name applied by
Huxley to all Negroes excepting the Australians.
The only Negroes to whom practically all ethnologists are willing to apply
the term are those inhabiting the central and western third of Africa, exclud-
ing even the Bantus, who occupy practically all Africa south of the Equator.
The Bantus, well typified by the Zulu subdivision, are lighter in color than 'the
true Negroes, never sooty black, but of a reddish-brown. From the Negroes
proper of the Sudan have descended most American Negroes.
Excluding the 50,000,000 or more dark inhabitants of India, the Negro race
numbers perhaps 150,000,000, or about one-quarter the population of the Mon-
golian race. The total number of Negroes in the Americas is estimated at
20,000,000. Brazil alone numbers in her population between 6.000,000 and
7,000,000 Negroes and mulattoes, not much less than the colored population
of the United States.
258 The Immigration Commission.
There is a bewildering confusion in the terms used to indicate the different
mixtures of white and dark races in America. Thus, all natives of Cuba,
whether colored or white, are called " Creoles," as this word is loosely used in
the United States; but Creole, as more strictly defined, applies only to those
who are native-born but of pure European descent. This is the use of the
word in Mexico. In Brazil and Peru, on the contrary, it is applied to those
possessing colored blood in some proportion, to negroes of pure descent in Brazil,
to the issue of whites and mestizos in Peru. " Mestizo " is the Spanish word
applied to half-breeds (white and Indian).
Immigration statistics count as Negro, or "African (black)," aliens whose
appearance indicates an admixture of Negro blood, whether coming from Cuba
or other islands of the West Indies, North or South America, Europe, or
Africa. Only American-born immigrants of pure European blood are counted
as Cuban, Spanish-American, Mexican, and West Indian (see).
The immigration statistics of the race are of no significance so far as Africa
is concerned, for only 15 are recorded as having come from that continent in
1907. About nine-tenths of all Negro immigration in that year came from the
West Indies, where the mulatto population alone, it is said, is three-fifths of
the entire population. It may therefore be assumed that we get but few
Negro immigrants of pure blood. Perhaps such come in largest numbers from
Portuguese territory, including the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands, off the
coast of Africa, which, next to the West Indies, send the largest number of
Negro immigrants. This number, however, is of little consequence. During
the twelve years 1899-1910, only 33,630 Negro immigrants from all sources were
admitted to the United States.
NETHERLANDER and NETHERLANDISH. (See Dutch and Flemish.)
NORTH ITALIAN. (See Italian.)
NORWEGIAN. (See Scandinavian.)
PACIFIC ISLANDER. A native of those Pacific Islands which lie between the
Philippines, the Celebes, and Australia on the west and America on the east.
The Hawaiian Islands on the north are included. A loose geographical rather
than an ethnographical term. It is defined in a narrower sense by Brinton to
comprise only the Polynesians and Micronesians, excluding the Melanesia ns on
the west. It is more convenient, however, for the present purpose to include
in the term all islanders toward the west, with the exception of the Malaysians,
who are called East Indians (see). The term then corresponds to Oceania as
generally defined. But this latter term also is made by some to include
Malaysia.
De Quatrefages has said that all the types of mankind, white, black, and
yellow, are found in Oceania. It is possible at least to find types that resemble
these. Malaysia has the yellow race as represented in its offshoot, the brown
Malay. The Malayo-Polynesian speech, if not Malay blood, is found throughout
the easternmost islands as well. The eastern Polynesians, called by some
" Indonesians " or " Oceanic Caucasians," have, on the other hand, strong
Caucasian features which are regular and light in color, and they are often
tall. The Hawaiians and Samoans are good examples. Finally, the Melanesians,
the people of New Guinea and the islands immediately east of it, are almost
as black as Negroes, and have frizzled, though long, hair. Only the last-named
people possess languages that are not Malayo-Polynesian — that is, that are not
related to Philippine tongues. Micronesia shows a mixture of these three
racial types. All Pacific Islanders are put by the Bureau of Immigration into
the " Mongolic grand division."
Pacific Islanders are the smallest in number of all the " races " that come
to the United States as immigrants, only 357 having been admitted during the
twelve years ending June 30, 1910. Their entire population is only 1,500,000,
not counting the 40,000,000 "East Indians" of Malaysia. Hawaiians, like
Filipinos, are not counted as immigrants on coming to the States.
PERSIAN. The Persian race or people is quite different from the Persian
nationality. Linguistically, the Persian is the chief race of Persia speaking an
Iranic language, that is, one of the Aryan tongues most nearly related to the
Hindi (see these). Physically, the race is of mixed Caucasian stock. It is
almost entirely composed of Tajiks. The small section known as " Parsis " or,
incorrectly, " Fire worshipers," have for the most part emigrated to India. The
Armenians are so closely related to the Persians linguistically as to be put
with them by some into the Iranic branch. The Kurds, the Beluchis, and the
Afghans also belong to the latter.
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
259
Of the 9,500,000 estimated population of Persia about two-thirds are true
Persian or " Tajik." The other third is also Caucasian for the most part, includ-
ing Kurds (400,000), Armenians (150,000), and other Iranians (820,000), and
the non-Aryan Arabs (350,000). There are 550,000 Turks and 300,000 Mongols
in the Empire. The only Christians are the Armenians and a small group of
25,000 "Chaldeans," "Assyrians," or " Nestorians," really eastern Syrians,
about Lake Urmia, on the northwestern border.
In intellect, if not in civilization, the Persian is perhaps more nearly a
European than is the pure Turk. He is more alert and accessible to innovation.
Yet he is rather brilliant and poetical than solid in temperament. Like the
Hindu he is more eager to secure the semblance than the substance of modern
civilization.
POLISH (formerly called LECH; often incorrectly called POLACK in the
United States). The West Slavic race which gave its name to the former
Kingdom of Poland, now divided among Russia, Austria, and Germany. Of
high interest in an immigration study, for the Poles have risen to the third
place in point of numbers coming to the United States, being exceeded only by
the South Italians and the Hebrews.
The Poles stand physically and socially, as they do geographically, between
the Russian peoples of eastern Europe and the Teutonic peoples of western
Europe. They are neither the one nor the other. In language they are Slavs.
In religion they reject the Russian church and adhere for the most part to the
Catholic. Politically and socially they look upon Russia as their enemy, but
this is mainly a historical distinction. It must be said that their civilization
has lacked some of the stable qualities shown by nations farther west. Finally,
in their physical inheritance, they resemble the " Eastern " or Slavic race more
than that of northwestern Europe, although probably modified by racial inter-
mixture from the earliest times.
In more technical language, the Poles verge toward the " Northern " race of
Europe, although still more closely related to the Eastern race, especially those
speaking the Mazurian dialect. Deniker puts them in a race quite apart from
both these and names them after their chief river, the " Vistulau." He finds
them to be somewhat shorter than the Lithuanians and White Russians of the
Eastern race, and not quite so broad-headed. While darker than the Lithu-
anians, the Poles are lighter than the average Russian. In other words, they
show more of the Teutonic and little or none of the Asiatic element of eastern
Europe. In temperament they are more high-strung than are the most of their
neighbors. In this respect they resemble the Hungarians farther south.
The Poles are surrounded on the east by the White Russians and Little
Russians or Ruthenians; on the south by the Slovaks and Moravians, both of
them with languages more closely related to the Polish than is Russian ; and on
the west and north by the Germans, with the exception of the non- Slavic
Lithuanians, who touch their territory on the northeast (see articles on these
races). The Poles are now divided among Russia, Austria, and Germany.
Once their proud kingdom extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and rivaled
Russia. At one time or another it included the territory of the Lithuanians,
the Livs, the White Russians, the Slovaks, most of the Little Russians, the
Moravians, and even the Bohemians and the Germans westward to the vicinity
of Berlin. In 1795 came the final partition. Six-sevenths of Poland proper now
belongs to Russia, and only one-seventh of this fraction is called Poland to-day.
In this small territory reside nearly two-thirds of the Poles. The rest of the
estimated population of 17,000,000 or more are divided as indicated below :
TABLE 12. — Number and distribution of Poles.
Country.
Number.
Census
year.
Mainly in provinces of —
Russia
7 931 307
1897
Poland (6,621,497), White Russia (424.236), Little
4, 259, 152
1900
Russia (388,582), Lithuania (308,444).
Galicia (3,988,702).
Germany
a 3, 394, 134
1900
Posen (1,162,539), Silesia (1,141,473), West Prussia
Elsewhere in Europe
America
61,000,000
61,000,000
1900
1900
(546,322).
a Including 148,000 Mazurs, mainly in East Prussia, and 101,000 Kashoubs, mainly in West Prussia.
6 Estimated.
260 The Immigration Commission.
The Polish language has four dialects — the Great Polish, the Mazurian, the
Kashoubish, and the Silesian. The Great Poles live west of Warsaw province.
The Mazurian or Masovian is said in Poland to be but a corrupt form of the
Great Polish. It is spoken mainly in East Prussia and about Warsaw. The
Kashoubs, who call themselves " Kaszebi," live still farther northwest on the
Baltic. Those in West Prussia are Catholics; those farther west, in Pomerania,
are Protestants. The Silesian dialect is spoken in the German and Austrian
provinces of that name. The names Podhalians, Porals, and Gorals (that is,
"mountain dwellers") apply more properly to the Poles living north of the
Tatra Mountains, between Moravia and the main range of the Carpathians.
This population approaches the Slovaks in physical type, as they do geograph-
ically. They are said to be in part of German blood, like their neighbors, the
Gluchoniemcy, or " Deaf Germans," who also speak Polish.
Other names applying to subdivisions of the Poles are the Bielochrovats (the
same as the Krakuses or Cracovinians), the Kuyevs, the Kuprikes, the Lub-
linians, and the Sandomirians. Podolian is apparently a geographical term
applying to the Poles of Podolia, in southwestern Russia ; and Polesian is the
name of the mixed Polish population living farthest toward the east, in West
Russia. Finally, the name Polak* or Podlachian, applies only to the mixed
Poles living just west of the Polesians, in Grodno province. The Polabs are
extinct. They were not Poles, but Wends ; that is, of a related linguistic stock.
Of the population of Russian Poland only about two-thirds are Poles — that
is, 6,021,497. Next come the very large Hebrew population of 1,267,000, num-
bering nearly as many as the four other principal peoples of that country com-
bined, namely, the Germans, the Lithuanians, the Ruthenians, and the Great
Russians. While the last named are rapidly increasing in Poland, the Poles
themselves are gaining ground in Germany. The unusually large Jewish popu-
lation of Poland is its most remarkable feature and had its origin in the early
hospitality shown by the Polish government to this race. Warsaw was the
chief Jewish city of the world until New York recently succeeded to that dis-
tinction.
It is significant to the student of immigration that the Jews and the Poles
reside mainly in the same region. Excepting the Italian, these are the races
now coming in greatest numbers to our shores. They are therefore largely
representatives of the same type of civilization as well as the same expulsive
causes. About 1885 the Russian Government prohibited all emigration except
that of Poles and Jews. The Polish people may be supposed to be a more per-
manent factor than the Hebrew in future immigration, for although its rate of
immigration per 1,000 of population is less than one-half that of the Hebrew,
the number of Poles in Europe is twice that of Hebrews. The Polish is the
largest race in Russia next to the Russian itself, although it forms only 7 per
cent of the population. Russia furnishes the majority of Polish immigrants
coming to the United States. During the twelve years 1899-1910, the number
of Poles from all sources admitted to the United States was 949,064.
PORTUGUESE. The people of Portugal, including their descendants in Amer-
ica who are not of mixed Indian or Negro blood. (Cf. Spanish- American and
Mexican.) They are put into the " Iberic division" by the Bureau of Innui-
gation and Naturalization, together with the Spaniards (see), to whom they are
closely related m language. The language belongs to the Italic group of Aryan
tongues. The primitive Iberians and Basques of Portugal early received a
Celtic admixture. Later Arab and Hebrew blood is found largely present in
central Portugal, and even Negro blood in the south, resulting from the intro-
duction of many thousands of slaves. The people of northern Portugal, from
which emigration chiefly proceeds, resemble those of Spanish Galicia or the
Basques. The Portuguese are physically undersized, averaging 5 feet 4 inches
in the south and 5 feet 5 inches in the north.
The population of the mother country is only 5,000,000. The emigration of
the last fifty years to Brazil, to which important nation the Portuguese have
given their la nguage, was nearly 500,000. During the twelve years ending June
30, 1910, 72,897 Portuguese immigrants were admitted to the United States. A
large part of this movement originated in the Cape Verde and Azores Islands,
which belong to Portugal and are grouped with that country in Bureau of Imrni-
gratiun and Naturalization statistics showing sources of immigration. In New
, England, where a considerable number have settled, immigrants from the Cape
Verde Islands are commonly known as " Bravas."
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 261
ROUMANIAN, DACO-ROUMANIAN, VLACH, or MOLDO-WALLACHIAN, includ-
ing the Moldavians and Macedo-Vlachs ("Aramani, Tsintsars, or Kutao-
Vlachs ") of northern Greece. The native race or people of Rournania ; lin-
guistically the easternmost division of the Romance (Italic) branch of the
Aryan family tree ; physically a mixed race, of Slavic or " Eastern " type in
the west, but in the eastern part showing the influence of the old Roman colo-
nies from which it has received its name and language. The Roumanians are
the largest race numerically of southeastern Europe (not including the Rus-
sian), but have sent a very small stream of immigration to America as yet.
Like the Bulgarians south of them, the Roumanians are an exceptional people
in being linguistically of one race and physically of another, at least for the
most part. As in Bulgaria, also, it was apparently but a small body of invaders
who gave their name to the Slavs who were found in occupation of this region.
But while the Bulgarians, of Mongol origin, lost their language, exchanging it
for a Slavic tongue, the Roman soldiers who settled on the Danube gave their
speech to modern Roumania. The people are proud to call themselves " Ru-
mans," but their civilization and history are part and parcel of those of the
Balkan Peninsula. They are of the Balkan states, if not strictly in them.
Some geographers place them in that group topographically, as well as politi-
cally. But strictly speaking, it would appear more logical to consider them as
outside the peninsula, because they are north of the Danube. Like the Balkan
states proper, Roumania was until a generation ago a part of Turkey. The
race was, in fact, but little known until recently. It has even been supposed
that their language belonged to the Slavic group, because it was written, like
most of the latter, in the Cyrillic characters. This, with the fact that the
greater majority of the people are Slavic in appearance and civilization, is,
no doubt, what has led the Bureau of Immigration to place them, as it did the
Hebrews, in the "Slavic division." (See Slav and Caucasian.) As an immi-
grant type, they may well be placed there; but in conformity with the princi-
ples of classification elsewhere explained (see Introductory), this dictionary,
like all foreign censuses taken by race, places them in the Italic or Romance
group. (See Aryan..)
Since the Roumanians have adopted the Roman alphabet, which they did
recently, the language looks far more familiar to one acquainted with Romance
or Latin languages. The chief peculiarity that strikes the eye is the annexa-
tion of the article to the end of the noun. This is but rarely found among the
Aryan tongues. From the fact that it is found in the neighboring languages
to the southwest, the Bulgarian and the Albanian, it would appear to be a
survival of an ancient language common to all these, perhaps Dacian. The
language has indeed undergone profound internal changes, although in some
respects it reminds one forcibly of the ancient Latin. Two-fifths of the vocabu-
lary, however, is now Slavic, borrowed, of course, from the tongue of the pre-
dominant element in the population. While only one-fifth of the words can be
traced to the Latin, they are the words in most common use, the most signifi-
cant fact in determining the earliest form of the language.
Since community of ideas and, ultimately, the type of social institutions and
of the civilization itself, is profoundly dependent upon a community of speech,
we should expect the Roumanians to be more in sympathy with the Latin races
and civilization than with the Slavic. This will no doubt be more fully the
case when the people are more widely educated. Already their leaders are
found frequenting the universities of Paris and Rome. The progress of the
country has of course been retarded, like that of all the Balkan states, by the
generally unsettled condition of affairs in this region. Roumanians appear to
compare favorably with the races of the Balkans, although some say that they
are more backward. They are preeminently agriculturists, like the Slavs in
general, but they are prominent also in commerce, even in the capitals of Austria
and Hungary. In religion they are mainly Greek. In customs and traditions'
they show both their Latin and their Slavic origin. In temperament they are
more emotional than the Slav, less stolid and heavy than the Bulgarian.
It is concerning the physical anthropology of the Roumanians that there is
the greatest difference of opinion. They have not been as yet sufficiently
studied on the field. There would seem to be little doubt, however, that in
Roumania, as in Bulgaria, which adjoins them on the south, there are two dis-
tinct types. While that of the east reminds one of the Italian or " Mediter-
ranean " type, long-headed, dark, and slender in build, that far in the west,
262 The Immigration Commission.
in Hungary, is typically Slavic or "Hungarian" — that is, broad of face and
head, shorter, and lighter in complexion. Partisanship is bound to appear in
this question as everywhere in Balkan ethnography. There are those who
unduly emphasize -the Roman element in the origin and present type of the
Roumanians. Slavic writers, on the other hand, have been inclined to belittle
this element The medium position would seem more reasonable in recognizing
both constituents of the race. It is improbable that the 240,000 Roman colonists
who settled on the opposite bank of the Danube under Trajan could have peopled
the territory now occupied by.10,000,000 Roumanians, half of which extends
outside of Roumania itself int*feungary and Russia, especially since it seems
to be the fact that these colonists withdrew to Macedonia in the third century
and did not cross the Danube into Roumania until the thirteenth. It is, there-
fore, the theory of some writers that the Pindus is the real center of dispersion
of the Roumanians. It is in this region, in the central part of northern Greece,
that resides an important division of the race, the Kutzo-Vlachs or Tsinstars.
These are sharper in feature, although they too have deviated from the Roman
type through admixture with Albanians and Greeks. Even in the valleys of
the Carpathians, the northern Vlachs or Roumanians are often dark and short
and quite Roman in type of face. But the average cephalic index of the en-
tire race is nearer that of the Slavic. They are not only broad-headed, but
of medium height, as are the Northern and Eastern Slavs, much shorter than
the Serbo-Croatian or Albanian type along the Adriatic.
A word of explanation may be given to the many names borne by the Rou-
manians. They indicate political divisions rather than linguistic. Thus the
Moldavians and the Wallachians or Vlachs are found, respectively, in the
former principalities of Moldavia, which now constitutes northern Roumania,
and Wallachia, or its southern part. Combined they are called Moldo- Walla-
chians. Vlach is a familiar Slavic word, originally meaning horseman, and
sometimes applied to people of entirely different stock, as the so-called
"Walachs" of eastern Moravia. (See Bohemian and Moravian.) The Mor-
laks, a Serbo-Croatian stock living on the Adriatic, were formerly considered
by ethnologists to be Vlachs, whose name they appear to retain in another form.
The Macedo-Vlachs call themselves Aramani, that is, Romans, but are called
by others Tsinstars or Kutzo-Vlachs.
The Roumanians are the largest both in numbers (10,000,000) and in the
extent of territory covered of all the many peoples of the Balkan Peninsula and
Austria-Hungary combined, that vast territory which has been called " the
whirlpool of Europe." They occupy more space than all the Serbo-Croatian
peoples together (see Croatian), or than the Greeks, or the Bulgarians, or the
Magyars. They are nearly half as large in numbers as the Little Russians
who adjoin them on the north, nearly one-third as large as their linguistic kins-
men nearest them on the west, the Italians. The Roumanians occupy nearly
one-half of Hungary and number one-third as many as the Magyars themselves.
On the ethnographical map, the eastern point of Hungary and of the Carpa-
thian range stands in the very center of Roumanian territory. Here is found
the curious islet of eastern Magyars known as Szeklers, entirely surrounded
by the expanding Roumanians. The latter number over 1,000,000 also in Rus-
sia, mainly in the province of Bessarabia, which was formerly a part of
Moldavia. They extend across the Danube only near its mouth on the Black
Sea into what is known as the Dobruja. With this exception the Roumanian
territory is for the most part separated from the sea by Bulgarians, Little
Russians, and a few Tatars. The Little Russians of Russia and Ruthenians
of Austria-Hungary (one in race) border the Roumanians on the north; the
Bulgarians border them on the south ; the Servians on the southwest ; and the
Magyars, or " Hungarians," on the west.
These peoples, with the others found in the Balkan Peninsula, are the ones
that typify the newer flood of immigration to the United States. As shown
elsewhere (see Slav and Caucasian), they, with the Poles and other subject
races of western Russia and the Italians, who may be designated as South-
eastern Europeans in type, have replaced the Northwestern Europeans as our
predominant and typical annual accession. The Roumanians, however, con-
tribute a very small portion of this so-called Slavic flood. In this they resemble
the Bulgarians who are located on the eastern side of the Peninsula. They
stand almost the lowest of all the Slavs in their immigration rate per 1,000 of
population, while the Slovenians and Croatians, on the western side of the
Peninsula, together with the Slovaks and the Hebrews, lead all immigrant
races in this respect The Roumanian rate of immigration in 1907 was less
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
263
than 2 per 1,000 of the population; the Slovak and the Hebrew was about 18
per 1,000. The Roumanian immigration during the twelve years 1899-1910 was
82,704, placing it twenty-third in rank among immigrant races. The great
majority of these came from Austria-Hungary, with comparatively few from
Roumania and Turkey.
Nearly nine-tenths of the population of Roumania is Roumanian in race.
Among the rest are to be noted in the following tables the predominance of
Gypsies and Jews:
TABLE 13. — Population of Roumania: 1893.
[Estimates of Reclus.]
Race.
Number.
Race.
Number.
Roumanians
4, 700, 000
Turks and Tatars . .
3,000
Jews
300 000
Magyars
1,500
Gypsies
200,000
Foreigners .
80,000
Bulgarians
50 000
Miscellaneous
434,500
15 000
Russians
16 000
Total
5, 800, 000
TABLE 14. — Distribution of Roumanians: 1900.
Country.
Number.
Country.
Number.
i
Roumania
a 5 500 000
Turkey
b 2 800 000
Greece
I ol50,000
Austria
6 230, 000
Elsewhere
o60,000
a 1 170 000
Servia
b 90, 000
Total ("approximate)
50,000,000
a Estimated.
& Census.
RUSSIAN, GREAT RUSSIAN, VELIKO-RITSSIAN, MUSCOVITE. (See also
White Russian, or Bielo-Russian, and Black Russian below.) This article will
discuss, first, the Great Russian race, or the Russian proper; then all other
divisions of the Russian (in the wider sense), excepting the Ruthenian or Little
Russian, which is given a separate article (see), and, finally, the Russian
Empire as a whole, to present a general or statistical view of the hundred and
more other peoples and tribes who are Russian in nationality but not in race or
language.
Russian may be defined in the wider sense as the largest Slavic group of
Aryan peoples. Linguistically it belongs to the Eastern Slavic division and in-
cludes the Great Russian, the Little Russian, and the White Russian. Phys-
ically it may be placed in the " Eastern " (Caucasian) race, but it is extensively
mixed with Finno-Tataric and other elements.
GREAT RUSSIAN.
The Great Russian, or simply " Russian " in the narrower sense of the word,
is that division of the Russian group (see above) which is dominant in Russia
and which is the largest Slavic race numerically. " Yeliko-Russian " means
Great Russian. " Muscovite " is a name sometimes applied to the Great Rus-
sian people, because they first prominently appear in history as the race of the
early " Empire of Moscovy." Moscow was its capital until St. Petersburg was
founded by Peter the Great. The people of Moscow are still the purest in stock
of the Great Russian population.
The Great Russians, or Russians proper, emigrate to America to a smaller
degree in proportion to their population than any other Slavic people. Space
need not be taken here to repeat what has been said in the article on the
"Slav" (see) as to temperament, character, civilization, language, physical
type, and statistics of population and immigration, (excepting so far as to point
out in what the Russians differ from other Slavs. As is said in the article on
the Ruthenian (see), the Great Russian has usurped to himself the name Rus-
sian from the so-called Little Russians, as he has succeeded to their dominion.
He is perhaps of purer Slavic blood than they, although some claim that the
Great Russian is more of a Finn than the Little Russian is of a Tatar. Both
264 The Immigration Commission.
have more of this Mongolian element in the race than has the White Russian.
The most ancient race of Russia, that of the kurgans or mounds, was undoubt-
edly more long-headed than the present population. Indeed, according to cur-
rent tradition, " the founders of the Russian nation were Norsemen." So wrote
Nestor, the first historian of the race. At any rate, it is evident that the Asiatic
element in the race is of a later intrusion, which continued far into the middle
ages. As late as the fourteenth century Moscow was tributary to the Tatar
rule which was set up in southern Russia.
The Russian race of to-day is consequently more broad-headed or Asiatic in
appearance than .the typical peoples of northwestern and southwestern Europe.
It belongs mainly to the so-called "Alpine," " Eastern," or " Celto-Slavic " race,
which penetrates somewhat westward of Russia into the highland region of
Central Europe. As in the case of other Slavs (see), however, other European
races, as the " Northern " and the " Cevenole," are found represented among the
Russians. It is to the Northern or Teutonic race that the Western Finns belong
physically, in spite of their Mongolian origin, -and the Great Russians are more
modified by the Finnic stock than by any other. They are therefore, especially
in the north, more blond in type than are the Slavs farther south. Their neigh-
bors on the west, the Lithuanians, and even the Poles, approach more nearly
than they to the Northern type, and thus mediate between them and the western
Europeans physically as they do in language and in political sympathies.
In temperament the Great Russians are more practical and persevering than
are their racial brothers and competitors, the Ruthenians or Little Russians
of southwestern Russia and of Austria. The Great Russians have been said to
have approached the Finn in physical type but the Tatar in temperament, the
latter not so much through racial admixture as through their struggle with
the Tatar hordes of Asia. Their temper and their strength as a people have
been developed by struggle. Russia is a buffer state, as the early Slavs were
a buffer race between Europe and Asia. Little Russia was permanently weak-
ened by the tribute of her best men, whom she offered up in the strife.
In language the Great and the Little Russians differ less from each other
than do the High and the Low Germans. The Little Russian is sometimes said
to be only a dialect of the Great Russian, but this may be regarded as a
prejudiced statement. Philologists and anthropologists have often been drawn
into the strife for supremacy and leadership between rival Russian and Slavic
races. Panslavism, or the aspiration for a united Slavic people and state,
suffers from this cause. There can be no doubt that the primacy of the Slavs
belongs henceforward to the Great Russians, whatever be the sentimental
claims of the Little Russians, the Poles, or the Czechs. The supremacy of the
Great Russian language and literature must go with the Empire; the power,
the wealth, and the political expansion of the latter are the decisive factors.
The Russians even force the use of their language into Little Russian and Polish
territory.
In the religous world there is the same strife. The autocratic claims of the
Russian church have been successfully opposed by the Lutherans of Finland
and the Catholics of Poland. Even the Little Russians have succeeded in
establishing a church that is partly Russian and nominally Roman. . Among the
Great Russians themselves a large number are dissenters from the state
church. " Raskolnik " is the name applied to the schismatics in general, but
there is a great variety of minor sects. Of these sects the Dukhobors are per-
haps best known in America. They have emigrated to Canada in considerable
numbers and have gained notoriety by making pilgrimages without clothing
about the country, and by refusing to use animals, preferring to hitch their
womenfolk to the plow. The Dukhobors seem to have originated in central
Russia, to have flourished for over a hundred years, and to have received the
especial encouragement of Tolstoi.
Aside from the names of religious sects, such as Dukhobors and Mennonites —
the latter not confined, by the way, to Russia — there is no such list of subdi-
visions of the Great Russians needing definition as is found among Little Rus-
sians and Poles. The Great Russian territory is a homogeneous whole from
St. Petersburg to the Lower Don. Indeed, it extends north to the Arctic, a
vast region 500 or 600 miles wide, separating the Finns of Finland from their
kinsmen and the Tatars on the Asiatic border ; and it extends east to Asia
with the exception of the Finnic and the Tataric islets that dot the map of
Eastern Russia. The greatest expanse of European Russia that is not Great
Russian is southwestern Russia, and that is Little Russian. The " Cossacks of
the Don " were Great Russian ; those of the Dnieper, Little Russian.
Immigrant Races or Peoples 265
The Great Russians number nearly half of the total population of European
Russia, excluding from this term Finland, Poland, and Caucasia, as is done
in the official census. Over 5,000,000 of them live in Asia. In the entire
Empire there are 55,000,000 Great Russians out of a total population of 125,-
000,000 of all races.
The emigration of Great Russians is peculiar in that it is mainly from
Europe to the Russian possessions in Asia, not to America. The movement is
partly the result of the building of the great railway to the Pacific, but mainly
because southern Siberia has been found to be a pleasant country and capable
of supporting millions of population, while the Government is offering unusual
inducements to attract Russian immigrants. Southern Siberia is a wheat
country, resembling the Dakotas and western Canada. In its rapid develop-
ment it resembles in many respects our own West.
In 1907, immigration from Russia to the United States reached a total of
258,943. Of this number only about 16,000 are reported as Russian by race.
During the twelve years 1899-1910, 1,748,885 were admitted from Russia and
of these 77,321 were true Russians, while the total immigration of the race from
all sources was only 83,574 during the period, placing them twenty-second in
rank among all immigrant races.
WHITE RUSSIAN AND BLACK RUSSIAN.
" Black Russia " is a historical term that may be disposed of in a brief para-
graph. It appears on the fourteenth century map some distance north of the
Black Sea, directly east of Kiev and the Dnieper, and southeast of White Russia.
At that time it formed part of the important kingdom of Lithuania. It was
afterwards embraced in Poland, and is now swallowed up in Little Russia.
Ripley applies the term " Black Russian " to quite a different district, that of
the Gorals, or " mountaineers," of the Austrian Carpathians, and finds that the
name distinguishes the latter, as a very brunette stock, from the neighboring
" Red Russians " or reddish blonds. The western Gorals, however, are of
Polish speech.
The White Russian is one of the three distinct branches of the Russian lan-
guage and race, although of far less importance numerically and politically than
either of the other two. It is as much a " race " as the Great Russian (" Rus-
sian") or the Little Russian (Ruthenian), although usually considered simply
as Russian in America. Unlike the term " Black Russia," " White Russia " is
still found on the ethnographical map. It is a compact but small district roughly
corresponding with what is now called " West Russia," though reaching some-
what nearer Moscow on the east. It is bounded on the northeast and east by
Great Russian territory, on the northwest by Lithuanian, on the southwest by
Polish, and on the south and southeast by Little Russian. The White Russians
constitute over three-fourths of the population of Mogilef and Minsk provinces
and about half of Vitebsk, Vilna, and Grodno. In Kovno and Courland they
approach the Baltic.
The White Russians have long been in political subjection, first to Lithuania,
then to Poland, and, finally, to the Great Russians, although their lot now ap-
pears preferable to that of all the other subject peoples of western Russia. For
this reason, among others, we hear little of them as a distinct race. They are
said by travelers to be a distinctly weaker stock than the Great Russian, and
less prepossessing in appearance. They are usually considered to be of purer
Russian stock than either the Great or the Little Russians. Both the latter are
far more modified by Mongolian elements, Finnic and Tataric. The White
Russians are naturally more influenced by their Lithuanian and Polish neigh-
bors (see) on the west, and those, especially the former, as has been said else-
where, approach the blond Teutonic type more than the Slavs in appearance.
Yet the White Russians are truly Slavs in breadth of head. Their cephalic
index is 82, which is but slightly below that of the Little Russians. They are,
•therefore, of the purest type of the so-called " Eastern " or " Celto-Slavic " race.
But few subdivisions of the White Russian need be mentioned. The Polie-
chuks (see Ruthenian) are a White Russian population much mixed with Little
Russian and very broad-headed (cephalic index, 85). They live in Minsk and
Volhynia provinces; that is, on the border of Little Russia and near Poland.
The Zabludov, a transition dialect standing between the Little and the White
Russian, is found in this district.
The White Russians number less than 6,000,000, or but little over one-tenth
as many as the Great Russians. They are not counted separately as immigrants.
72289°— VOL 1—11 18
266
The Immigration Commission.
OTHER RACES OR PEOPLES OF RUSSIA.
The term " Russian " in the last United States census, and until recently in
United States immigration statistics, included more persons who were not of the
Russian race than those who were. In fact, not 5 per cent of the Russians of
the census of 1900 are true Russians, as defined above. They are merely citi-
zens of Russia. Probably over 50 per cent of them are Jews. Certain nation-
alities are grouped together to constitute the group of " Slavs," and New York
is made to appear as their chief residence. On the contrary, they are largely
Jews from Slavic countries, of whom it is estimated that 1,000,000 reside in
New York City. The common use of the term " nationality " instead of " race "
in public discussions has created an endless amount of confusion in the public
mind, if not of absolute misinformation.
It is deemed wise to indicate what a variety of peoples go to make up the
Russian nationality and which of them are the chief ones that come to America
(see table following). About 100 races are listed in the Russian census of 1897,
of which number perhaps 20 are confined almost entirely to Asia. In European
Russia itself there are as many Mongolian as Caucasian " races " or languages
represented. Of the Caucasians, most of the divisions speak, not Indo-European
or Aryan languages, like the Russian, but the peculiar agglutinative tongues of
the Caucasus, more different from ours than are the Semitic of Western Asia
and the Hamitic of North Africa. The great majority (about 80 per cent) of
the population, however, is Slavic, especially Great Russian (nearly 50 per
cent), Little Russian (20 per cent), and Polish (7 per cent). Next in numbers
come the Jews, Semites (5 per cent) ; then the Lithuanians, Aryans who resem-
ble Teutons more than Russians physically, if not in language (3 per cent) ;
then the Finns, Mongolian by language but Caucasian in appearance, especially
those who have long intermarried with the Swedes (nearly 3 per cent) ; and
finally the Tatars (also about 3 per cent).
The following table is taken from the only complete census of the Russian
Empire, that of 1897. Finland has a separate census (total population,
2,592,864 in 1900). For most non-Russian races of Russia only the group
totals are given. The peoples which are practically confined to Siberia natu-
rally need no discussion in a dictionary of immigrant races.
TABLE 15. — Races or peoples of the Russian Empire, exclusive of Finland: 1897.
Race or people (linguistic).
E uropean
Russia with
Poland.
Caucasus.
Asia.
Total.
Total
102,845,117
9,289,364
13,505.540
125,640,021
Aryans
89, 635, 187
4,901,412
5 794 917
100 331 516
Slavs »
83,514,884
3,183,870
5,390,979
92,089,733
Russians
75,428,814
3,154,898
5,349,855
83,933,567
Great Russians
48.825,881
1,829,793
5 Oil 795
55 667 469
Little Russians
20 750 '>03
1 305 463
324 885
22 380 551
White Russians
5,852,730
19.642
13,175
5 885,547
Poles
7.865,437
25,117
40 753
7 931 307
Other Slavic languages
220,633
3,855
371
224,859
Lithuanians . .
3.077,436
6,687
10 346
3 094 469
Latins
1,132 858
8 955
1 187
1 1^3 000
Germans
1,719,462
56,729
14,298
1,790,489
Armenians
49,511
1,118,094
5,491
1 173,096
Other Aryans
141,036
527.077
372 616
1 040 729
Jews ...
4, 982, 189
40, 498
40,469
5,063,156
Ural-Altayans
8,221,201
1.902,142
7,542 330
17,665 673
TJgro-Finns
3 417 770
7 422
76 955
3 502 147
Turko-Tatars
4.626,454
1,879,908
7,094 889
13 601 251
Samoveds
3,946
11 931
15 877
Tunguzes
1
66 269
66 270
Mongols
173,030
14,812
292,286
480, 128
Georgians
1.461
1,350,275
799
1 352 535
Other Caucasians
818
1 088 373
2 591
1 091 782
Chinese, Japanese, Koreans
53
15
86, 045
86,113
Hyperboreans
36 996
36,996
Others . .
4 208
6 649
1 393
12 250
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
267
TABLE 16. — Races or peoples of Finland: 1900.
Race or people.
Number.
Race or people.
Number.
Finns .... ....
2, 352, 990
Lapps
1,336
Swedes
349 733
Others . -
639
5 99
Germans
1 925
Total
2,712,562
RTJTHENIAN (synonyms, Little Russian, Malo-Russian, South Russian, Yugo-
Russian; in Austria, Russniak, Russine, Red Russian, Galician; in Russia, also
Ukrainian, Cherkasi; in addition some call themselves simply "Russian"
(Rusy) and, sometimes, in America, even "Greek"). The name Little Russian
would seem most available of all this list at present for a clear and scientific
definition. The Little Russian " race " or linguistic subdivision is that branch of
the Russian, a " Southern Slavonic " division of Aryan tongues, which is found
native throughout southwestern Russia and in Galicia (Austria). Physically
Little Russians are Caucasian, infrequently modified by a Mongol element
The Little Russians (Ruthenians) furnish more immigrants than any other
true Russian stock coming to America.
" Little Russia "is a literal translation of the term "Malo-Rossiya." " South
Russian" and, less frequently, " Yugo-Russian," and even "Cossack" or
" Cherkess " are among the many names which have been bestowed upon this
people by their more powerful kinsmen of the north, the Muscovites, who have
assumed to themselves the name "Russian" (see) and the hegemony of the
race. For similar, that is for political, reasons, Austria has found it convenient
to name her Little Russian subjects " Ruthenians," and this word is now
commonly, but loosely, applied, even in scientific usage, to all Little Russians,
including those of Ukrainia, in Russia. Still the Galicians call themselves
"Rusy" which is sometimes translated " Russine." " Russniak " is a less com-
mon equivalent of Ruthenian.
" Red Russian " is a historical term which still designates one of the three
dialects of the Little Russian language, the western. It appears that " Ruthe-
nian " comes from the same root meaning " red." Upon immigrating to
America, some refuse to acknowledge that they are Ruthenians, a name fas-
tened upon them as a subject people. In some communities they are known
as " Greeks " when they are of the United " Greek " Church, and thus distin-
guished from the Roman Catholic Poles and Slovaks of the community. Of
course there fe not a true Greek among them. Some American districts con-
fer still other names upon them, lumping them together with Magyars (see)
and perhaps with all Slavs under the title " Huns " or " Hunkies." The
"Ruthenian (Russniak)" column of our immigration tables apparently includes
all Little Russians, although but few are reported as coming from Russia. It
is to be- understood that all who bear the foregoing names are of one " race."
They read one and the same language, which differs both from the White Rus-
sian and from the Great or true Russian. The Ruthenian alphabet itself is an
earlier form of the Russian.
What has been said in the article on the Slavs and the Russians (see) ap-
plies in general to the Little Russians or Ruthenians so far as concerns their
physical qualities, their intellectual and emotional make-up, their civilization,
and the notable increase in their immigration. But little need be repeated here
except to make clear in what respects they differ from other Slavs.
The Ruthenians are still more broad-headed than the Great Russians. This is
taken to indicate a greater Tatar (Mongolian) admixture than is found among
the latter, probably as does also the smaller nose, more scanty beard, and some-
what darker complexion. While hardly so muscular as the Great Russians, they
are slightly taller. They are perhaps less practical, solid, and persevering
than their competitors of the north, and therefore have been less successful
as empire builders. But they often show a higher grade of intelligence and
taste, and once led the Russias in scientific work. Their literature and their
early history warrant them in claiming that they are the true Russian race
rather than the northern stock which has usurped the name and the rule— the
Great Russians. A large section of them have broken away from the Greek
or Russian Church and have united with the Roman Catholic under a par-
ticular dispensation which allows them peculiar features of the Greek service
and a married clergy. Hence the name " United Greek Church."
268
The Immigration Commission.
Although the Little Russians stand much closer to the Great Russians than do
the Polish, Hebrew, Lithuanian, and German elements in Russia's population,
nevertheless the use of their language has been discouraged and in a very
remote sense they are a subject people in Russia as well as in Austria.
Their ethnical subdivisions and intermixtures are difficult to disentangle, as
is the case with other Slavic peoples. The Boikos evidently belong to the Red
Russian division of the Ruthenians. They live in the Carpathians of Galicia
and Bukowina. The Huzuls or Guzuls, a very broad-headed people of Buko-
wina speaking a Red Russian dialect, have evidently grafted a Mongolian ele-
ment upon the Ruthenian stock. This element may have come down from the
extinct Uzes or Kumans (Tatars) who early penetrated this region, or it may
be of Daco-Roumanian origin. The Huzuls are not friendly to the Boikos, their
neighbors. The Touholtses, Ruthenians of Galicia, are very broad-headed like
the Huzuls. The Little Russian stock is also found mixed with the Roumanian
in the Pokutis and the Nistrovinians ; with the Polish in the Belsans; and
with the White Russian in the Poliechuks.
The Cossacks of the Dnieper have been an important branch of the Little
Russians historically. The Zaparogs, named from their geographical position on
the river, and the Chernomorishes are divisions of these. Little Russian popu-
lations have often received names because of some natural location or social
condition. Such are the Stepoviks (of the steppes), the Poliechuks (of the for-
est), the Werchowinci (of the mountains), the Haiduks (or "robbers"), and
the Lemkes (so called because of their pronunciation). The last named, who
live in the Beskids, call themselves " Rusnaky," that is, Ruthenians, although
they resemble the Slovaks in language and physical type. Finally, there
are' the self-explanatory geographical terms by which certain Little Russians
are known, as the Bukowinians, the Galicians, the Ukrainians, and the Bugnns,
or dwellers on the Bug. The Bugans are also known as the Lapotniki and are
of a distinct type.
It must r.ot be inferred that the majority of the inhabitants of Galicia, Buko-
wina, and the Ukraine are Little Russians. In Galicia they are surpassed in
numbers by the Poles; in Bukowina nearly equaled by the Roumanians. In
each of these districts the Germans stand third in population, with 210,000 and
160,000 souls, respectively. In the Ukraine many peoples are represented; the
Great Russians, the present masters of Little Russia ; the Poles, its former
masters; large colonies of Germans, with some Bohemians and more Bulga-
rians; Tatar communities in the south; Roumanians annexed with their terri-
tory on the southwest; and multitudes of Jews, besides Armenians, Greeks,
and Gypsies everywhere.
The Little Russians themselves are distributed geographically as follows:
TABLE 17. — Distribution of Little Russians (Ruthenians).
]
lumber.
Country.
Estimated
for 1897.
Census.
Chief location.
Total
25 000 000
Russia
20 750 000
20 750 000 (1897)
Little Russia
17 00(1 000
17 006 000 (1897)
B ss1 h'
Central Great Russia. .
2 180 000
2 180 000 (1897)
\Vhjii' Russia
E Isewhere
1 564 000
1 564 000 (1897)
Poland
Austria.
3 285 000
3 375 000 (1900)
Galicia
3 074 000 1900)
Bukowina
298 000 1900)
Elsewhere. .
3 000 1900)
Hungary
415 000
429 000 (1900)
Elsewhere in Europe
United States
50,000
500 000
Roughly speaking, one-half of Russia south of the latitude of Moscow
and eastward along the Black Sea as far as the Caucasus, the Kalmnks, and
the Cossacks of the lower Don, is Little Russian. The race also covers all
of eastern Austria— that is, Galicia and Bukowina— with the exception of
a small district about Cracow (Polish), and spreads out far beyond the Car-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 269
pathians into Hungary. Among the Slavic peoples their total population is
second only to that of the Great Russians. During the fiscal years 1899 to 1910,
inclusive, 147,375 Little Russians (or Rutheniaus, as they are designated in
immigration statistics) were admitted to the United States, and the race ranked
sixteenth among all races in this regar'd. Of these, 144,710, or 98.2 per cent,
came from Austria-Hungary, and only 1,034 from Russia, although, as will be
noted from the preceding table, there are approximately 20,750,000 Little Rus-
sians in Russia and only 3,700,000 in Austria and Hungary. Their large popu-
lation makes it appear probable that the Little Russians will be more largely
represented in the Slavic immigration of the future.
SCANDINAVIAN (sometimes Norse), including the Norwegian, Danish, Swed-
ish, and Icelandic races or peoples. The native, Teutonic, race or races of
Scandinavia in the wider sense. The name " Scandinavia " is sometimes
applied to the northern peninsula only — that is, to Norway and Sweden — but
it is also properly applied to Denmark and Iceland. The Scandinavian is
the most familiar in America of the older immigrant types from the continent
of Europe, with the exception of the German; that is, it is the most numerously
represented, especially in the North Central States.
The definitions of the subdivisions of the Scandinavian group are self-evident,
to wit, the Teutonic races of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland, respec-
tively. The term " Norse " is applied only to themselves by the Norwegians,
who are called "'Norsk " in their own language. But it is better justified in
international usage as a. name of the entire Scandinavian group of languages.
The Old Norse, or the early language of Iceland, was the predecessor of all
modern Scandinavian languages. It is hardly necessary to remind the reader
that the term " Norsemen " or " Northmen " was applied during the middle
ages to the viking rovers of all these countries, who established dynasties in
England, Russia, France (Normandy), and Sicily, settled Iceland, and without
doubt preceded Columbus to America. Nor is it necessary to remind the student
of ethnology that the Scandinavian is considered to be the purest type of one
of the three great races of Europe as divided from -a physical point of view ;
that is, of the " Northern " or " Teutonic " race in contradistinction from the
"Alpine" and "Mediterranean" races farther south. (See Caucasian and
Aryan. )
If races be divided merely by physical characters, all Scandinavians form
o homogeneous race more truly than any of the large populations or races
south of them. The English, and especially the French and the German, are
much more mixed in physical type. The typical Scandinavians average as the
longest-headed and most purely blond, if not the tallest people of Europe. In
height they appear to be surpassed only by the Scotch. Both the height and
the cephalic index increase as we pass from Denmark to Sweden and from
Sweden to Norway. The cephalic index in these countries rises in the order
named from 77.8 to 78, then to 78.5 ; the height from 1.68 meters to 1.70 meters,
and then to 1.72 meters. In English measures, the Norwegian average, the
last named, is about 5 feet 8 inches, which the Scotch exceeds by one-half inch.
It must be remembered that the small population of Lapps, 30,000, in northern
Scandinavia is of entirely different race, the very opposite of the Scandinavian,
in fact, both in language and in physical type. The Lapps still speak a Mongol
or Ugro-Finnic tongue — agglutinative in structure, instead of inflected, as is
the Aryan family of languages, to which the Scandinavian belongs. Physically
the Lapps are very short and indicate in their dark features and extremely
broad heads their Asiatic origin. Very little intermixture has taken place
with this stock considering the length of time the Scandinavians and Lapps
have lived in neighboring districts, unless a broader-headed and darker type of
Norwegians found in the extreme southwest indicates an ancient influence of
this sort. Ripley prefers to think it a survival of an early "Alpine" element
from Central Europe.
The character of the Norse element in America is well enough known to need
no detailed description. In Norway the rate of illiteracy is the lowest in
Europe. In religion the Scandinavians are Protestant almost to a man — over
99 per cent, according to the censuses of these countries.
NORWEGIANS.
The most difficult question that remains for discussion relates to the Nor-
wegian race or people and language. Are the Norwegians to be considered a
separate race or people from the Danes? Of course, as a nationality they are
270 The Immigration Commission.
different. In fact, there exists a separatist feeling among the three Scandi-
navian nationalities which persists to a degree even in America. But the
literary language of Norway and that of Denmark are generally supposed to
be one and the same. As 'has been repeatedly explained (see Introductory.
English, and German), this dictionary adopts the test of race which is followed
in all national censuses, namely, that of language; and it was found in the
case of the Dutch and the Flemish (see German) that only the literary lan-
guages, and not a difference in spoken dialects, justified separating them from
other " Germans."
A fair answer to the question just raised appears to be that the Norwegian
can now be called, technically, a different race or people from the Danish,
although this was not true a century ago. Of course, this is only an arbitrary
distinction and is one of the most artificial distinctions we are called upon to
make among the so-called European " races," as determined by language or by
any other standard. Physically, as already shown, the Norwegians and the
Danes are, to a remarkable degree, homogeneous. Furthermore, so far as
dialectal differences are concerned, there is no more reason for separating them
from one another than for dividing the Norwegians themselves into different
races.
The fact is that from 1397 to 1814, when Norway regained her independence
from Denmark, a modified Danish was not only the literary language of Nor-
way but was generally used in the cities and among the educated classes.
Since this date a new literary language, the " Dano-Norwegian," has been
rapidly developed at the hands of Norway's greatest litterateurs, including
Ibsen. While this language is based upon the Danish formerly in use, it has
incorporated 7,000 words from the Norwegian dialects, enough to suffice almost
for a language. Indeed, other writers, like Aasen, insist on using only Nor-
wegian dialect forms. The Norwegian may, therefore, in accordance with
the language test, be considered a separate people.
Norway has sent a larger per cent of its population to America than any
other country excepting Ireland. Considering the smallness of its population,
but little over 2,000,000, as compared with the 72,000,000 of Germans and
40,000,000 of English, Scotch, and Irish, it has done its full share in populating
America. Although Scandinavian immigration has greatly diminished in its
relative rank since 1885, the United States census of 1900 gives 336,985 of the
population as of Norwegian birth and 452,896 as children of parents born in
Norway. Counting these two generations only, the Norwegian population of
the United States is already more than one-third that of Norway.
DANISH AND ICELANDIC.
The two smallest in extent of the Scandinavian peoples may next be con-
sidered, those of Denmark and her insular possession, Iceland. They are en-
tirely different from each other in language, and therefore are distinct in race,
according to the usual test. While Denmark gave its language in recent times
to Norway, as has already been said, Iceland gave the Old Norse in written
form to all Scandinavia. During that period of the northern literature, Nor-
way took precedence of Denmark and of Sweden. The Sagas and the Eddas
belonged in a sense to her as well as to Iceland and gave to Scandinavia the
proud distinction of bequeathing to posterity an older and more famous litera-
ture than any of the German tongues farther south.
The population of Iceland is purely Scandinavian, but is so small in numbers
(about 80,000) as to be of no importance in immigration. Icelanders do, how-
ever, come to the United States and also to Canada. In Denmark itself it is
estimated that fully 97 per cent of the population is Danish, notwithstanding
the closeness of its relations to Germany. On the other hand, there are at
least 140,000 Danes living on the other side of the border in Germany. If one
may contrast the three Scandinavian peoples in a slight degree, it might be said
that the Norwegian is rather more of a democrat, slow, sturdy, and independent ;
the Swede, as he has been called, " the Parisian of the North ; " and the Dane,
the cosmopolite. The royal family of Denmark stands in extraordinary per-
sonal relations with those of a number of European powers. Members of the
family of the late King Christian are now rulers or consorts of rulers in
several European countries.
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
271
SWEDISH.
According to the language test the Swedes may be considered entirely distinct
in race from the Danes and the Norwegians. Their language is so different that
it can not be read by the Danes and Norwegians without some study. The
Swedes have expanded in Europe more than their sister Scandinavians. For
five hundred years Finland was ruled by Sweden. Although this rule ceased in
1809, Swedish is still the language of the higher classes of Finns and is used
in official and scientific publications in that country. Fully 350,000, or 13 per
cent, of the population of Finland is Swedish to-day. The Finns themselves, as
found in Finland, show a large admixture of Scandinavian blood, for they are
Teutonic in physical type, rather than Ugric. (See Finnish.) While there is
no doubt that they are Asiatic, Mongol, in origin, they are to-day of entirely
different type from the Finns of eastern Russia. In America they are often
taken to be Scandinavians, but are to be distinguished by their mother tongue,
which is absolutely different from any Aryan language, agglutinative rather
than inflected in type.
The Scandinavian population of the world is about 13,000,000. Their approxi-
mate distribution is shown in the following table :
TABLE 1& — Scandinavian population and immigration.
Country.
Number.
Immigration (1907).
Number.
Rate per
1,000.
Population of —
Denmark (1906)
2, 605, 000
2,311,000
5, 377, 000
7,163
22, 043
20,534
2.7
9.5
3.8
Norway (1905)
Sweden (1907)
Scandinavians in —
Finland (Swedes, 1900)
350,000
200, 000
78,000
2,000,000
79,000
Sleswick (Danes)
Iceland (1901)
United States (estimated)
Elsewhere (estimated)
It is interesting to note that the smallest of the continental Scandinavian
peoples in numbers, the Norwegian, doubles or trebles each of the others in its
rate of immigration. This rate, 9.5 per 1,000 of the population in 1907,
although much lower than it was twenty years ago, was surpassed in the year
mentioned only by the Slovak, Hebrew, Croatian and Slovenian, and the
South Italian. The Irish, which had nearly the same rate, resembles it also
in the large total immigration it has sent out of a very small population. The
Scandinavians, taken together, stood twice as far down the list of immigrant
races in their rate of 5 per 1,000 of population. In absolute numbers, Scandi-
navian immigration is fifth in rank, 586,306 for the twelve years 1899-1910,
being exceeded only by that from the much larger populations of the Germans,
South Italians, and Poles, as also by the Hebrews. The English, Irish, and
Scotch taken separately rank below it.
The Scandinavians differ from the British, naturally, in coming to the
United States almost entirely to the neglect of the British colonies. It is
probable that more Scandinavian farmers per year now emigrate from our own
Northwestern States into Canada than come direct to Canada from Europe. It
is possible for the Scandinavian element to increase in future American immi-
gration more than, for instance, the Irish, for there are 11,000,000 Scandi-
navians in Europe as against only 4,500,000 Irish.
SCOTCH (including Highland Scotch or Gaelic). A term applied (1) in the
wider sense to both races of Scotland, the Celts of the north (Highlanders) and
the Anglo-Saxons of the south (Lowlanders) ; (2) in a narrower sense, only to
the Celtic race of Scotland, the Highland Scotch. Gaelic is another name for
the latter. The word " Scotch," as a linguistic term, means the language spoken
by Scotchmen. When unqualified it means the dialect of English spoken by the
Lowland Scotch. Highland Scotch is a synonym for Scottish Gaelic, the most
northern branch of the Celtic group of Aryan, or Indo-European languages
(see), The words "Scotch" or "Scotchmen," used as terms of nationality,
272 The Immigration Commission.
include all citizens of Scotland, and therefore other peoples besides the High-
laud Scotch and the Lowland Scotch. " Scots " is a synonym used in Scotland
for Scotchmen generally. In deference to common usage this dictionary must
deviate from the linguistic principle of classification elsewhere explained (see
Introductory and English) and consider Scotch to include both the Highland
and the Lowland Scotch. To avoid confusion, however, the term " Highland
Scotch " will be generally used for the Celtic linguistic people of the Highlands
and " Lowland Scotch " for the English-speaking population of the Lowlands.
HIGHLAND SCOTCH.
The Highland Scotch language, the modern Erse or Gaelic, is said to be a
much more modern language than Irish. These two Celtic tongues are said to
differ from one another no more than the English of the Lowland Scotch does
from ordinary English. Highland Scotch is meager in its literature and is fast
losing ground as a speech. English is rapidly replacing it in commerce, in
church services, in the schools, and even in the home. It is only in the most
western part of Scotland and in the islands of the Hebrides that Highland
Scotch is still spoken by a majority of the population.
There are partisan views as to the origin and racial afpnities of the High-
land Scotch. Some contend that they are descended from the ancient Cale-
donian Picts ; others that they are the descendants of the so-called " Scots "
(Irish) who emigrated to Scotland from northern Ireland about the sixth cen-
tury and gave their name and language to the new country as did the Angles
to England. Perhaps the more reasonable view is that of the physical anthro-
pologists, who say that the Highland Scotch are a mixed people, a product of
Pict, Irish, and Scandinavian. The prevailing type, as among the Irish, is tall,
long-headed, and harsh-featured. But there is a greater proportion of blonds,
especially of the red-haired and freckle-faced type. Dark eyes, rare among the
Irish, are quite common among the Highlanders. Contrary to the time-honored
opinion of ethnologists of the linguistic school, physical anthropologists now
state that the " Celtic" or "Alpine" (see) physical type, one of the three great
physical divisions of the races of Europe, is rarely found in either Scotland or
Ireland. Most of the brunette individuals found in these countries are long-
headed and are thought to be representatives of the " Southern " or " Mediter-
ranean " rather than of the broad-headed "Alpine " race.
Geographically the Highland Scotch originally occupied the northern islands
and all the territory north of the southern firths of Scotland, the firths of
Clyde, and of Forth; that is, the territory north of the cities of Glasgow and
Edinburgh. But as Saxons and Danes pressed upon them from the south and
Norwegians from the north they were driven into the Highlands of Scotland.
These are generally understood to comprise all the territory northwest of a
line drawn diagonally from the Clyde to Aberdeen on the eastern shore. This
territory occupies more than half the area of Scotland, but is sparsely settled.
And even the entire eastern part of northern Scotland has become Anglicized.
Only about 5 per cent of the people of Scotland can now speak Gaelic, and of
this small number, about one-half, or 112,000, live in three counties in the
heart of the Highlands. Less than 500 persons of the Lowlands speak Gaelic
only. Highland Scotch is practically extinct in the northern islands.
LOWLAND SCOTCH AND NORTHERN ISLANDERS.
The people of the Lowlands and of the northern islands bear certain re-
semblances to each other. Both have been Teutonic in language for centuries.
Both have been much modified physically by Scandinavian elements. Both
now belong to the English people (see) linguistically. The term "Lowland
Scotch " is a name given to the people of the Lowlands of Scotland. They
speak a dialect of English known to every schoolboy through the ballads of
Burns. It is closely related to the Northumberland dialect of the northern
part of England, but contains more Celtic and Scandinavian elements.
Physically the Lowland Scotch are very mixed, being descended chiefly from
Scandinavians and Saxons, but also from Picts, Celtic-Scots, and Norman
French. These various elements do not seem, however, to be as thoroughly
amalgamated as in the case of the English. A type largely represented ap-
proaches that of the Englishman, long-headed, with light eyes, and with hair
varying from light brown, but taller, heavier, and more muscular. The fea-
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 273
tures are rounder and the cheek bones less prominent than those of the High-
land Scotch. This Lowlander is the type sometimes pointed out as the one
toward which the American people is evolving. The chief racial elements of
the mixture have been much the same in either case. The Norse type also has
many representatives. It is tall (the tallest of all Europe, over 5 feet 8 inches),
very long-headed, with light eyes and hair flaxen or sand colored. This type
is found not only in the Lowlands, but is predominant in the northern islands,
the Shetlands, and the Orkneys. It is also found in the Hebrides. So thor-
oughly did the Norwegians invade these islands that not only were they domi-
nant there for centuries, but their language was in use in the Hebrides from
the eighth to the fourteenth century, when it was replaced by Gaelic, and still
longer in the northern islands, where it survived until superseded by the Eng-
lish, in the eighteenth century.
From what has been said it will be seen that the English-speaking populations
of Scotland now occupy the entire lowlands, the islands of Shetland and Orkney,
and the northeasternmost county of Scotland. They are bounded on the west
by the Highland Scotch and on the south by the Northumberland dialect of
English. The population of this territory is about 3,850,000, practically all of
whom except some 50,000 (Highland Scotch) are English linguistically.
The Scotch, both Highlanders and Lowlanders, are too well known in other
respects as American citizens to need further discussion here. Topographical
conditions have had much to do in developing their differences. The Highlander,
living in the unfertile mountains covered with rocks and heath and barren of
mineral wealth, is given to sheep herding and cattle grazing. The Lowlander,
having rich fields and mines of coal and iron, is an agriculturist, a miner, and
a manufacturer. The population of his district is five times as dense as that of
the Highlander.
The population of Scotland in 1901 was 4,472,103. Outside of Scotland, the
Scotch, using the term to include both Highlanders and Lowlanders, are found
in considerable numbers in Ulster province in Ireland (see Irish), in England,
in the United States, and in the British colonies. There are 600,000 of the first
and second generation only in the United States. Longstaff says that Canada is
to a great extent a Scotch country. He estimated that there were (1881) about
700.000 Scotch in Canada. In religion the Scotch are for the most part Protest-
ants. There are about 400,000 Catholics.
During the twelve years 1899-1910, 136,842 Scotch immigrants were admitted
to the United States. This places them seventeenth on the list of immigrant
races or peoples. Their rate of movement from Europe in 1907 was 4 per 1,000
of the population of Scotland. This was nearly four times that of the English,
but qnls about half that of the Irish or the Norwegian, whose rate of movement
was the greatest of all northwestern European peoples. It was, however, less
than one-fourth that of the races having the highest rate of movement, the
Hebrew and the Slovak (18 per 1,000 of the population in 1907).
SCOTCH-IRISH. ( See Irish. )
SERB, SRP, SORB, or SERBO-HJORVATIAN. Same as Croatian (see).
SERVIAN or SERB. Same as Croatian (see). A political and ecclesiastical
division of the Serbo-Croatians.
SICILIAN. Not the name of a race and not used by the Bureau of Immigra-
tion. Any native or inhabitant of the island of Sicily. This is inhabited for
the most part by South Italians, who speak a dialect peculiar to the island
called " Sicilian." The population is very mixed physically, being at bottom
Ligurian or Iberic, but much modified by the many invading peoples, including
even North Africans.
The Sicilians are vivid in imagination, affable, and benevolent, but excitable,
superstitious, and revengeful. Prior to 1860, when it became a part of United
Italy, the island of Sicily was a part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It is
now a compartimento of Italy. In 1901 Sicily had a population of 3,529,799,
which was greater than that of any other compartimento except Loinbardy.
The population of Sicily, excepting about 15,000 Albanians, is Italian. About
50,000 speak the Lombard dialect. The Albanians, locally known as " Greci,"
speak their own language, and observe special religious rites. The Sicilians
proper are nearly all Catholic.
The population of the island is being rapidly depleted of its younger blood
by voluntary emigration. As many as 100,000 in a single year have emigrated
to the Americas. To what extent they are coming to the United States can not
274 The Immigration Commission.
be accurately determined, as they are listed as " South Italian " in immigration
statistics. Immigrants are not listed by provinces.
SLAV (SCLAVE), SLAVIC, or SLAVONIC; sometimes wrongly called in the
United States "Hun" (see Magyar). To be defined as that Aryan "race" or
linguistic group which occupies the greater part of Russia and the Balkans.
The Russian and the Polish (see) are its leading tongues. The Slavic, the
Teutonic, and the Italic or " Latin " are the three great stocks that furnish the
most of the population of Europe as well as of our annual flood of immigrants.
Of these three, the Slavic and the Italic have been rapidly replacing the Teu-
tonic in American immigration, and the Slavic is perhaps the most significant
for the future because of its great population. ( See also Caucasian and Aryan
and cf. Slovenian.)
Physically, and perhaps temperamentally, the Slavs approach the Asiatic, or
particularly the Tatar, more closely than do the peoples of western Europe. In
language they are as truly Aryan as ourselves. Of course, languages do not
fuse by interbreeding; physical races do. There is some truth in the old say-
ing, " Scratch a Russian and you find a Tartar," especially if he come from
southern Russia, where once lived the Mongol conquerors of the Russias. Yet
the common conception of the Slav as dreamy and impractical does not seem
to fit with the greatness of the new nation which impresses the imagination of
the beholder more than any other in Europe. The fact is that we do not know
the Slav. Unfortunately the unlikeness of the language to those of western
Europe, perhaps even the unfamiliarity of the alphabet used, has delayed the
study of what must soon be regarded as one of the great languages and litera-
tures of civilization. Its spread, like that of the Russian Empire, has 'been
more rapid than that of any other in the present century.
If the Slav be still backward in western ideas, appliances, and form of gov-
ernment, it is nevertheless conceivable that the time is not far distant when he
will stand in the lead. The race is still young. Its history is shorter than
that of any other important people of Europe.
As to the Slavic temperament and character, it will no doubt be safest to
generalize what has been said of the Russian by a Russian sociologist, Novicow.
Roughly condensing a chapter into a paragraph, the Slav may be said to be
inequable or changeable in mood and in effort — now exalted, nqw depressed,
melancholy, and fatalistic. Much goes with this : Fanaticism in religion, care-
lessness as to the business virtues of punctuality and often honesty, periods of
besotted drnnkelmess among the peasantry, unexpected cruelty and ferocity in
a generally placid and kind-hearted individual.
It will conduce to a clearer comprehension of the many-sided Slavic stock if
we first analyze it into the numerous " races " which comprise it. The follow-
ing classification is based upon that of Pypin :
Classification of Slavic tongues.
{Moscow.
Novgorod.
Don Kossack,
Siberian.
White Russian.
Little Russian (Ruthenian)
[Carpathian.
Bulgarian /Old Bulgarian (Church Slavonic).
""\New Bulgarian.
[Servian.
Serbo-Croatian J Croatian.
| Dalmatian.
[Syrmian.
Slovenian fCarinthian.
"\Styrian.
(Tsekh.
Bohemian i Moravian.
[Slovak.
fMazurian.
I Great Polish.
Eastern and Southern Di-
Western Division . . .
ISilesian.
IKashubian.
©SS fs
Polabish Polabish (extinct).
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 275
Many variations from this scheme might be cited. We should recall first of
all the system adopted for practical reasons by the United States Bureau of
Immigration and Naturalization. In it the Serbo-Croation group is increased
by the Bosnian and the Herzegovinian, which are counted together with the
Dalmatian, and by the Montenegrin, which is put with the Bulgarian and the
Servian into one column. The Oroatians and the Slovenians are counted to-
gether. Instead of " Bohemian " as a group name, the Bureau uses " Czech,"
and in this it has good scientific support. Serbo-Croatian is called by Miklosich
" Serbo-Horvatian," which illustrates the identity of Croatian and Horvatian.
"Macedonian" is recognized by others as a dialect of Bulgarian. "Wend" is
another name for Lusatian. '•»
All these languages are said to be more closely related to one another than
are the Teutonic tongues. Difliculties have been made in their mutual study
by the use of three different alphabets — the Roman, the Cyrillic, and the Glago-
litic. The Cyrillic, which is a modified, or more properly a mutilated, Greek
alphabet, is used by the largest population., namely, by the Russians, the Bul-
garians, and the Servians, or at least by those Servians who belong to the
Greek Church. The alphabet question is mainly a question of religion. The
use of the Glagolitic has been encouraged by the Catholic Church in the Catholic
parts of Servia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. It is said to be now used only in the
liturgical writings of the Dalmatians. While this alphabet is losing ground, the
use of the Roman is increasing. The Poles and the Bohemians have always
used the latter.
The foregoing classification is of Slavic languages, not of physical races.
The Bulgarians belong there only by adoption. They are mainly of a Mongol
or " Turanian " stock which borrowed a Slavic tongue. Just the opposite is
the case of the Roumanians (see) or " Moldo-Wallachians," who are mainly
Slavs by blood but Latinized in speech.
Turning to the physical characteristics of the Slavs, it is found that there is
not, properly speaking, a Slavic race. The "Alpine" type predominates; that
is, the broad-headed, brunette type, which extends westward from Asia through
the uplands of Central Europe. We find this type accentuated as we proceed
from north to south in Russia. Deniker, with his more minute classification,
says that no fewer than five European races are represented among the Slavs,
besides Turkic and Urgic or Mongolian elements. These are the fair, but
broad-headed and short, " Eastern " and " Vistulan " races, in Poland and
White Russia especially ; the dark, very broad-headed, and short " Cevenole "
peoples among the Little Russians of the south, the Slovaks, and some Great
Russians ; and the taller, but still dark and broad-headed "Adriatic " and
" Sub-Adriatic " races amongst the southwestern Slavs or Serbo-Croatians and
some Czechs and Ruthenians. In the northwest the Russians have been modi-
fied by the blond or Teutonized Finns, in the northeast by the dark Finns, and
in the southeast by the Tatars ; but all such alike are broad-headed Mongolians
in origin. With the exception of these Asiatic remnants and the related Mag-
yars and Turks, and the Greeks, all of Europe east of Germany is filled with
Slavs. They occupy more than one-half of the continent of Europe.
All these peoples of eastern and southern Europe, including the Greeks and
the Italians, are the ones that give character to the immigration of to-day, as
contrasted with the northern Teutonic and Celtic stocks that characterized it up
to the eighties. All are different in temperament and civilization from our-
selves and this difference is accentuated as we go south. Statistics have been
given in the article Caucasian which compare Slavic immigration with that of
the Teutonic and Italic races and throw into startling relief its changed charac-
ter. Of the total immigration to the United States about one-fourth is now
Slavic, over one-third comes from eastern Europe, over three-fourths comes from
eastern and southern Europe.
It only need be added here that the Slavic race numbers over 125,000,000 as
against about 130,000,000 of the Teutonic race (including Great Britain) and
110,000,000 Greco-Latins.
It is interesting to note that the Western and Southern Slavs and those
associated politically with them — the Hebrews, Magyars, Lithuanians, and
Finns — are making their descent upon America at the most rapid rate per 1,000
of population. All these emigrating multitudes are subject peoples, unless
we except the Magyars, who have fallen at least into economic subjection
276 The Immigration Commission.
to their landlords. The Great Russian and the Hebrews, standing at the
two extremes politically in Russia, are found also at the two extremes as to
rate of immigration to the United States. During the twelve years ending June
30, 1910, Hebrews from Europe came to the United States at the rate of 11 per
1,000 of population, while the rate of immigration among the Great Russians
was less than 1 per 10,000 of population. Compared with the regularity of
migration among the Slavs, the remaining immigrant peoples of Europe show
great dissimilarity in their rate of movement. (See table, page 214.)
SLOVAK (called Totok, that is, "Slavs," by Hungarian Magyars). The
easternmost division of the Czechish-speaking peoples ; the " race " occupying
practically all of northern Hungary excepting the Ruthenian territory in the
northeast; also densely settled in southeastern Moravia. A small population,
but of considerable interest to America, since in their rate of immigration they
outrun any other race or people.
" Slovakland " is a political dream and probably an unrealizable one. Un-
like Bohemia or Moravia it has no definite boundaries. In physical type, also,
no dividing line can be drawn between the Slovaks and the Moravians. Even in
language it is often claimed that Slovaks speak only a dialect of Bohemian.
It is only in their social and political condition that they are sharply distin-
guished from their Czech brothers on the west. Properly speaking, they are
hardly a distinct " race " even in the sense in which the Germans and the Dutch
of Holland are different races. They are merely those Moravians who were
conquered by Hungary, says Colquhoun.
Much of what has been said in the article Bohemian and Moravian (Czech)
applies here and need not be repeated at length. As there indicated, the eastern
Czechs, including the Slovaks, are among the broadest-headed of all the peoples
of Europe, not excepting the Asiatic Tatars and Turks. They are of medium
stature, some rather low; but they are well built, and, like most Slavs, make
excellent farmers. In their own country most are engaged in agriculture and
herding.
There is much difference of opinion on the subject of their language. Here,
as is often the case, scientific discussions have been influenced by religious and
political considerations, it being denied in some quarters that the Slovaks are
Bohemians or even Czechs. On the other hand, Protestant leaders, and philolo-
gists, even, have claimed that Slovak is merely Old Bohemian and have urged
the use of Bohemian as the sole written language. To this day, it is said, the
Bible has not been translated into any purely Slovak dialect The connection
of the Slovak Protestants, that is, of one-fourth of the population, with the
Moravian and Bohemian Brethren is, therefore, close. On the other hand,
Catholic writers have urged the literary development of various dialects spoken
by the Slovaks. One fact is clear, that Slovak, as a distinct written language
and literature, is not 50 years old. Even to this day where the population is
uniformly Slovak, that is, over the western border in Moravia, Slovaks are
taught only Bohemian in the schools, and all of the people use it in reading and
writing.
In the Slovak districts of Hungary the Magyars have attempted to replace
this Slavic tongue, distantly related to our own, with one of Asiatic or Mongol
origin, agglutinative, totally different in type, the Magyar. Here, in three-
fourths of the elementary schools, Magyar is taught ; in one-half of them Magyar
alone. One-eighth only of the schools of " Slovakland " are conducted entirely
in the Slovak tongue. In the 200 or more higher schools the use of the Slovak
tongue, even as a medium of conversation, is still more restricted. Forty per
cent of the population of North Hungary are counted as Magyars because they
use that language. The Slovaks say that in this way the census misrepresents
their actual number.
Among a people so long and so largely deprived of a written language of
their own, there is not only an extraordinary degree of illiteracy — 50 per cent
but a great divergence of spoken dialects. To an unusual extent these dialects
are modified by surrounding languages of the most opposite type. Thus we
find in the west, Moravian-Slovak ; in the north, Polish-Slovak, sometimes called
Sotak ; and in the east, Ruthenian-Slovak ; all purely Slavic. But in the west,
on the border of Austria, one finds the German-Slovak, a more heterogeneous
composition, and in the south even Magyar-Slovak. These names indicate \vhat
languages border on the Slovak country. The Serbo-Slavic dialect is not so
easily explained. Safarik, a competent linguist, although ultrapatriotic, finds
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 277
three chief groups of dialects: (1) The pure Slovak, (2) the Moravian-Slovak,
and (3) the Polish-Slovak. He includes among Slovak dialects not only the
Trpak, the Krekach, and the Zahorak, but the Hanak, the Walach, and the
Podhorak of Moravia. (See article Bohemian and Moravian (Czech) for these
dialects and for a general view of Slovaks themselves in their linguistic rela-
tions. ) Serres, an older writer, gives the name of Charvats to the " Slovaks
of Moravia," including the Walachs, who, in turn, include the Chorobats and
the Kopaniczars. As explained in the article on the Bohemians and Moravians,
these Walachs are considered, on the authority of Czornig, to be Moravians.
The Charvats and Chorobats of Serres are probably fragments of the old Khro-
vats, or Carpaths, that is, " mountaineers," from whom the modern Croatians
(see) derive their name.
In civilization " Slovakland " lies, as it does linguistically, between the east
and the west of Europe — between the Teutonic and the Slavic worlds. Its
culture is rather primitive. Less advanced than Bohemia, its people partake
of some of the solid qualities of that admirable branch of Western Slavs. They
are industrious, but they are desperately poor, partly because of the character
of their mountain home. In fact they have been called the poorest people of
Europe.
Their rate of immigration, 18 per 1,000 of the Slovak population in 1907, sur-
passed even that of the Hebrews and was double that of any other race or
people excepting the Croatian-Slovenian group (13 per 1,000) and the South
Italian (12 per 1,000), and treble that of most Slavic peoples, although the last
named are now among the chief contributors to the movement of population
from Europe to the United States. Like the Irish population, however, the
number of Slovaks that remain in the old country is small. They can not long
continue coming at the present rate. There are less than 3,000,000 Slovaks in
all, only 2,000,000 in Hungary, according to a census that is accused of par-
tiality. The population is smaller than that of the Irish or the Flemish, per-
haps nearly half that of Holland. There are said to be already one-fourth as
many Slovaks in the United States as in Europe.
Slovak ^migration affects its own country more than it does America. As in
Italy, some villages are becoming depopulated; others are living largely on
American money. In places wages have increased 100 per cent. And, finally,
the Hungarian Government is taking steps to regulate, if not to restrict, the
exodus. During the twelve years 1899-1910, 377,527 Slovaks were admitted to
the United States. Although so small a people, the Slovak stands only eighth
down the list as regards the total number of immigrants. (See article Bo-
hemian and Moravian for other details, especially Slovak population statistics.)
SLOVENIAN; called also, in part, Krainer and Carinthian (Khomtan) ; by
Germans, Wind or W6nd; and by Magyars sometimes, but wrongly, Vandal;
also sometimes called, together with the Croatian (see), Illyrian. The western-
most branch of the Southern or Balkan Slavs; located in southern Austria be-
tween Hungary and the Adriatic, especially in the province of Carniola (Ger.
Krain). The Slovenians or Southern Winds are, with the exception of the
Northern Wends of Germany, the smallest " race " in numbers of the Slavic
(Slavonic) division of Aryan peoples, and are therefore of little consequence in
American immigration although their rate of immigration is high.
There is considerable confusion of thought concerning the above terms and
the relation of the Slovenians to other Slavs. In the first place, the Slovenians
are not to be confounded with the Slovaks, an entirely different people. They
are separated from the latter by the Magyars, the Slovenians living southwest
of Hungary between the Magyars and the Adriatic, while the Slovaks live on
the northern border of Hungary. In language they belong to different branches
of the Slavs — the Slovenians to the Southern Division, with the Servians and
the Croatians, and the Slovaks to the Western Division, with the Poles and the
Bohemians.
In America Slovenians are sometimes called Slavonians under the mistaken
impression that they come from the neighboring province of Slavonia. The
word Slavonian may be used in two senses. It may mean any inhabitant of
Slavonia, but it is then a political term, denoting nationality, not an ethno-
graphical term denoting race; and the Slavonians in this sense are Serbo-
Croatians (see Croatian), not Slovenians, although closely related to the latter.
In the second and more usual sense, Slavonian is the equivalent of Slavic, and
refers to the great race of eastern Europe of which the Russians and the Poles
are the northern branches and the Slovenians, Servians, and Bulgarians are
278 The Immigration Commission.
the southern divisions. Of course, the words Slovenian, Slavonian, Slovak, and
Slav all come from the same early name of the Slavic race. But the Slovenians
are by no means to be taken as the best modern representatives of that race,
although they claim to be one of the first branches of it to be introduced to
western civilization in the middle ages.
It is, at the least, confusing to call the Slovenians Winds or Wends, as some
scientific writers do. For this word is generally used to designate a distinct
people of the Slavic group which belongs, with the Poles, to the Western Divi-
sion, not to the Southern, as the Slovenian does. The Wend population is found
only in Germany, where it is also called the Sorb, or, from its location, the
Lusatian. It has dwindled to only a fragment: It is, of course, not Serb, that
is, Servian. The name Illyrian is a still greater misnomer, although used in
the last century by the Slavs themselves in this region. The name comes from
that of the ancient province of Illyria and was given great vogue under Napo-
leon, when the naticfnal spirit of the Slovenians, in union with the Croatians
and the Dalmatians, received a great impetus. An older name, Corutani, corre-
sponds to that of a modern province of Austria, Carinthia, which is now more
German than Slovenian. In like manner the geographical or provincial name,
Istrian, signifies an Italian more often than a Slovenian. Krain, as the Aus-
triaus call Carniola, is the only true Slovenian province. Except in southern
Styria, Styrian, like Carinthian, means one of German descent.
These provinces are the only ones in Austria that can be called Slovenian
even in part, if we except a small district which centers in Goriz, on the Gulf
of Istria, at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Here also the Slovenians extend
slightly over the border into Italy, as they do on the east somewhat into Hun-
gary. Altogether the Slovenian territory is not over 150 miles in length by 100
in breadth. The only considerable linguistic " island " in it is that of the
Gottshees, a curious German stock in southern Carniola near the Croatian
border.
To sum up, the Slovenian territory is bounded on the north by the German
of Austria, and on the south by the Croatian, while it touches the Magyar on
the east and the Italian on the west, or, rather, its sister language, the Ladin
of Friuli. In this territory, mainly Austrian, Slovenian is spoken by about a
third of the population. German predominates in Carinthia and Styria, but
in the central province of the Slovenians, Carniola, Slovenian is spoken by
95 per cent of the population. It is the language of only 32,000 inhabitants of
northern Italy and of 95,000 in Hungary.
The linguistic position of the Slovenian is probably evident from the fore-
going. Its nearest relative is the Serbo-Croatian speech. Together they con-
stitute the Southern Division of the Slavic. Although distinct, they shade
into each other on the border. Thus the language of a Targe portion of western
Croatia, called the " Provincial," is considered by some to be Croatian, by
others Slovene-Croatian. The dialects of the Slovenian are numerous, and
are differently named by different writers. Those spoken by the largest num-
ber are the literary dialect of the Krainer, of Carniola, together with the
Gorenci and the Dolenci; next, the dialects of the so-called Winds, eight in
number, found in Styria. Then come the dialects of the smaller Istrian groups,
the Berkins, Savrins, and Polks, and those of the so-called " Vandals " of
Hungary. The Resian is spoken on the Italian border.
In physique the Slovenians mediate between the Germans north of them
and the Croatians on the south. Perhaps the tall, broad-headed, and dark
type to which the most of them belong should be called " Illyric," rather than
Slavic. Deniker gives it a separate name, the "Adriatic." Broad-headed as the
Slavs, the Illyrians are of greater stature than the latter. Their features often
suggest an ancient Mongol element.
Notwithstanding their position on the western Slavic vanguard, the Slo-
venians have not attained so high a development as have the Bohemians or
the Poles, perhaps because they are weaker and have had a greater burden to
share with the Serbo-Croatian in the struggle against the Turk. Their litera-
ture has been overshadowed by that of the greater body of Serbo-Croatians.
Being Catholics, they use the Roman alphabet, like the Croatians, not the
Cyrillic of the Orthodox Servians. In early days they were quite unique in
the use of the Glagolitic letters, which were somewhat like the Cyrillic or
Russian.
Perhaps the Slovenians are more distinct in character and custom than they
are in physique. One of their marked traits is sociability, which leads them to
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 279
reside in villages more than on separate farms. They are said to have become
Germanized and denationalized more rapidly than any other Slavic people of
Austria. Even the use of the spoken Slovenian has been largely exchanged for
German. Literature and science are at a low ebb. The population of about
1,200,000 is one of the smallest in Europe, less than one-third that of Bohemia
or one-fifth that of Holland.
The rate of Slovenian immigration to the United States is probably very
high, even for a subject Slav people. It can not be measured exactly, because
iii immigration statistics the Slovenians are counted with Croatians. Together
the Slovenians and Croatians sent 335,543 immigrants to the United States in
the twelve years 1899-1910, placing them eleventh on the list of immigrant races
or peoples. (See Croatian for further discussion.) Measured by the rate per
1,000 of population, the immigration rate of the Slovenians with the Croatians
(13, in 1907) was surpassed only by that of the Slovaks and the Hebrews.
SOUTH ITALIAN. (See Italian.}
SPANISH. The principal people of Spain, a branch of the Romance group of
the Aryan family ; in general usage and in the practice of the Bureau of Immi-
gration, the people of Spain and their descendants of pure blood in other coun-
tries, with the exception of the Spanish Americans, Mexicans, West Indians, and
Cubans (see these). Even Basques and Moors who have lived in Spain a long
time are considered as Spanish for convenience. The national language, Span-
ish, is native to only a part of the Kingdom of Spain. Other native languages
spoken by considerable numbers in Spain are the Basque, the Catalan, and a
dialect of the Portuguese. As an ethnic group the people of Spain present a
remarkable unity. They are descended from the ancient Celt-Iberians, with
considerable infusion of other stocks, including perhaps even Teutonic elements
(Visigothic) dating back to the middle ages. They resemble the South Italians
in head form and in many psychical characters. They are for the most part
Catholic in religion.
The term " Spanish language " may be used in a broad or generic sense to
include several closely related native dialects of Spain — Castilian, Asturian,
Leonese, Aragonese, and Andalusiau. In a restricted sense it is the Castilian
dialect which has been crystallized in literary form and is the cultured and
court language of Spain. It is considered to be more closely related to Latin
than is Italian, but contains a number of Teutonic and Moorish elements. It is
the native language throughout Spain, with the exception of a narrow- strip on
the eastern coast (Catalan), the small Basque provinces in the north, and the
provinces lying north of Portugal. It is the prevailing language in Cuba, Mex-
ico, Central America, and the countries of South America, excepting Brazil, and
among the cultured in the Philippines. In these islands, however, it is being
rapidly replaced by English. It is estimated that Spanish is the mother tongue
of about 50,000,000 persons, more than two-thirds of whom live outside of Spain.
Of the other linguistic groups of Spain, the Basques, although smallest in
numbers (500,000), are perhaps the most interesting. They are one of the most
ancient stocks in Europe, if not the most isolated. They occupy a small district
in the northern part of Spain in the Pyrenees on the French border. They
speak a non- Aryan tongue totally different from any other in Europe. Although
once thought to be related to the Mongolian Finnish, their language is now
known to resemble the Berber of North Africa. They present a peculiar face
form, very wide at the temples and narrow at the chin.
The Galicians and the Catalans have much larger populations. The former,
also called " Gallegos," live in the provinces in the northwestern part of Spain
north of Portugal. They speak a dialect of Portuguese (see) which is quite
closely related to Spanish. Even Portuguese was once considered a dialect of
Spanish, although it has now attained recognition as an independent idiom.
The population of the Galician provinces is about 2,000,000. The Catalans
occupy a narrow strip along the eastern coast of Spain and the Balearic Isles.
Their language is unintelligible to the Castilian-spealdng peasants. It is con-
sidered by some to be a separate Romance tongue on an equal with Spanish and
Provengal, by others as an offshoot of the latter, which it resembles much more
than it does Castilian, the neighboring dialect of Spanish. It has quite a rich
literature of its own which is especially fostered by the people of Barcelona. It
is the language of over 3,500,000 persons of eastern Spain and the Balearic
Isles. The Moors (60,000) and the Gypsies (50,000) are scattered throughout
Spain and are comparatively unimportant, The total population of Spain is
nearly 20,000,000.
280 The Immigration Commission.
Physically the Castilians, Catalans, Galicians, and even Basques and Moors,
of Spain, are quite homogeneous. The entire Iberian Peninsula is, in fact, one
of the most uniform in physical type of any large region in Europe. The head
form of the people of to-day is apparently that of their prehistoric ancestors,
the ancient Iberians. They are among the most long-headed of all Europe.
They resemble the South Italians more than the French, but are taller and 1-ess
brunette than the former. The Catalans are the tallest of Spaniards and the
Galicians are the heaviest. The typical Spaniard is long-headed, of medium
stature (average, 5 feet 5 inches), rather brunette, and spare. Ripley places
him in the " Mediterranean " group along with the South Italian, the Greek, and
the Berber of North Africa. The Spanish are put in the " Iberic division " by
the Bureau of Immigration.
The Spanish have long been an emigrating and colonizing people, but seem to
have reached their zenith in this direction. Less than 100,000 emigrate an-
nually. Most of these go to Spanish-speaking countries. Immigration to the
United States from Spain has never been large, only about 69,000 for the entire
period 1819-1910. A total of 51,051 immigrants of the Spanish race were ad-
mitted during the twelve years 1899-1910, but a large proportion came from
Spanish-America. Immigration from Spain to the United States has increased
somewhat since the Spanish-American war; 5,784 persons from Spain were
admitted in 1907, while before the war the number rarely reached 1,000
annually.
SPANISH-AMERICAN. Defined by the Bureau of Immigration, " the people
of Central and South America of Spanish descent." Those of Negro or of
Indian descent are listed separately, as are also Mexicans, West Indians, and
Cubans (see). The definition apparently excludes the chief people of Brazil,
the Portuguese, as it does the Italians, Germans, and the like, of all South
American countries. Like other terms applied to immigrants from the Ameri-
cas, it does not connote, strictly speaking, a race, but a geographical subdivision
set apart for practical convenience. The race, of course, is Spanish (see),
although the language may have changed, as in Brazil, to Portuguese.
An extended discussion of the Spanish-American people is unnecessary, as
their immigration to the United States is small, only 10,669 in the twelve years
1899-1910.
SWEDISH. (See Scandinavian.)
SWISS. The term Swiss simply moans a native or inhabitant of Switzerland.
It has no significance as to race. There is no Swiss race in the sense in wrhich
we use the terms Frenchman, German, Italian, but only a Swiss nation. The
Swiss are represented by four linguistic groups, one Teutonic (German) and
three Italic (French, Italian, and Romansh.) Two-thirds of the population of
Switzerland are German, about one-fourth are French, and only one-fifteenth
are Italian. Besides these large populations of German, French, and Italian
there are about 40,000 Romansh. The total population of Switzerland is
:J,4<;n,000. The Romansh live in the sequestered valleys of the canton of
Grisons, the Italians in the valleys of the Ticino, and the French in the western
part of Switzerland. In the greater part of Switzerland the speech is German.
About two-fifths of the Swiss are Catholics and three-fifths Protestants.
SYRIAN (not SIRYAN). The native Aramaic race or people of Syria. Not
Arabian, although practically all Syrians to-day speak Arabic and a considerable
part of the present population of Syria is Arabian. Most often distinguished
from Arabs by their religion, Syrian immigrants generally being Christians,
although many of their kinsmen in Syria are Mohammedan. The influence of
American missionaries and schools in Syria evidently explains in part why our
immigration from that country is of Syrians rather than of Arabs. Physically
the modern Syrians are of mixed Syrian, Arabian, and even Jewish blood.
They belong to the Semitic branch of the Caucasian race, thus widely differing
from their rulers, the Turks (see), who are in origin Mongolian.
Linguistically they are not so closely related to the Aryans or Indo-Europeans
as are their fellow-subjects of Turkey, the Armenians. Their ancient language,
the Syriac, a form of the Eastern Aramaic, has Hebrew for its nearest relative.
A little more distant is the Arabic tongue. Even the Abyssinian speech is
more closely related to it than is the ancient Assyrian, with which it is some-
times confounded. These, with the Coptic dialects of Egypt, are the chief
languages of the non-Aryan, Hamitic-Semitic stock of Syria. ^Chaldee, Chaldaic,
and Syro-Chaldaic are other names applied to the form of this language which
was spoken by Christ and His disciples. The Neo- Syriac, Palmy rene, and
Immigrant Races or Peoples.
281
Nabatean dialects are said to be the only modern forms of the Aramaic, and
are spoken by only a small population of villagers under the stimulus of mis-
sionary zeal. These reside for the most part east of the main population of
Syria.
Syria is an ancient rather than a modern term, although used, in a narrower
sense, by the Turkish Government. It properly comprises all the region lying
between the eastern end of the Mediterranean and the desert and is about 430
miles long by 100 wide. Palestine constitutes only one-tenth of it. Of the
3,000,000 (estimated) population of Syria, the Syrians probably outnumber the
Arabs, Turks, and Jews, although there are more Mohammedans than Christians
in Syria. The Christians number 900,000. The population of Palestine, 800,000,
consists mainly of Arabs, notwithstanding the recent colonization of Jews in
the Holy Land.
Among other inhabitants of Syria closely related to the Syrians, if not of
the same blood, are descendants of the Phoenicians, inhabitants of the coast
districts ; the Maronites, Christians of the Lebanon ; the Druses, half pagan
and unfriendly neighbors of the Maronites; and the Nusarieh or Ansarieh,
descendants of the Nazarini, who are called Fellahin in Syria, and who do
not seem to be orthodox in their Mohammedanism.
The total Syrian immigration to the United States for the twelve years 1899-
1910, was 56,909. 'The race stands twenty-fifth in rank among immigrant
peoples.
TEUTONIC. A great branch of the Aryan (see) family of languages and
" races," including all those of northwestern Europe excepting the Celtic (see).
Its many subdivisions are shown in the following table from Keane, with the
exception of Dutch and Flemish, which are variously classed as Low Frankish
or Low Saxon :
L o w
GERMAN.
HIGH
GERMAN
The Teutonic grouy.
W . Branch Old Norwegian .
E. Branch.
Danish.
Swedish.
NIEDER-DEUTSCH. .
MITTEL-DEUTSCH . .<
ODER-DEUTSCH.
Anglo - Saxon (Eng-
lish)
Continental Saxon.
Anglisc (Northern)..
Midland.
Saxon (Southern).
(ex-
Salic Frankish
tinct). •
(Rhenish.
Riparian Frankish ^E. Frankish.
iHessian.
(Upper Saxon.
Thuringian <
(.Meisse'n
(Bernese.
Burgundian Swiss -JHazli.
I Appenzell.
Neuhochdeutsch (lit-
erary standard).
Alsatian.
Wiirtemberg.
Baden.
/Tyrolese Kjal,
Icelandic.
W. Dalecarlian.
Jametlandish.
Faroic.
Bornholm.
Normanno-Jutish.
Dano-Jutish.
E. Dalecarlian.
Gothic.
Scanian.
W. Fr. Groningen.
E. Fr. Saterland.
N. Fr. Helgoland, Sylt,
etc.
Old Saxon of the "Hel-
liand."
Westphalian.
Hanoverian.
Brunswick.
Pomeranian, etc.
Northumbrian.
Lowland Scotch.
Shetland, etc.
Lincoln.
Yorkshire.
Derby, etc.
(Cornish.
I Somerset.
1 Dorset.
[Kent, etc.
Alemanno-Suabian. . .
Bavarian
• | Austrian...
Zips, etc.
72289°— VOL 1—11-
-19
282 The Immigration Commission.
TURKISH. In the narrow sense, the people now dominant in Turkey ; called
by themselves " Osmanlis," that is, Ottomans. Immigration statistics are to
be understood in this popular sense of the word, although some ethnologists
define the word " Turkic " in a much broader sense to include all the Tataric
group of the Sibiric branch of the Mongolian division of mankind. In this
sense it includes not only the Osmanlis of Turkey, but other peoples of eastern
Russia, such as the Tatars, the Kirghiz-Kazaks, and the Turkomans, and also
the older relatives of this group stretching across Asia from Turkey to central
Siberia, such as the Yakuts. While we apply the name " Turks " only to the
Osmanlis, they themselves apply it only to provincials ; and we do not apply it
to the Tatars, although the latter call themselves " Ttirki." With all the fore-
going may be combined the Lapps, Finns, Magyars, and other non-Caucasian
Europeans to make up the larger group variously known as the " Finno-Tatar,"
the " Turanian," or the " Ural-Altaic."
The linguistic relationship of all these peoples is much closer to-day than
the physical. The languages are agglutinative, like the Japanese, not inflected
like the speech of the Arabs, Syrians, Armenians, and Hebrews subject to
Turkey. Physically and in culture the Turks have become Europeanized,
though to a less degree than the related Finns and Magyars. Instead of be-
coming blond, as the Finns, they have approached the brunette type of southern
Europe, probably in part through their frequent intermarriages with the Cir-
cassian and other Mohammedan peoples of the Caucasus. In fact, to-day they
are not so much Turkish by blood as Arabian, Circassian, Persian, Armenian,
Greek, and Slavic. They prefer to be considered as Arabo-Persian in culture
rather than as Turkish. In religion they are almost universally Mohammedan.
They are not included in one of the five grand divisions of the Bureau of Im-
migration, but are put under the term "All others," along with the Magyars
and Armenians. W^e may put under the term "All others " also the Tataric
peoples of eastern Russia and other races of the Caucasus, who are rarely found
among our immigrants. (See Russian.)
The Turks are in the minority in their own country, especially in the Euro-
pean part of Turkey, where the Turks, Greeks, Albanians, and "Slavs" (Bul-
garians and Servians) are said by some writers to be found in nearly equal
parts. The first three named have been estimated to constitute 70 per cent of
the population. No census of Turkey has ever been taken. The following esti-
mates are compiled from various sources. The entire Ottoman Empire, ex-
cluding states practically independent, has a population of about 24.000,000.
Of these, 10,000,000 are Turks. In European Turkey, 1,500,000 out of a popula-
tion of 6,000,000 are Turks. Here they are without doubt decreasing in num-
bers. In Macedonia, the geographical center of European Turkey, the Turks
number about 500,000 out of a population of 2,200,000. Of the latter number,
however,, only about 1,300,000 are Christians. In the capital itself, Constanti-
nople, the Turks constitute only about one-half of the population of 1,200.000.
In Turkey in Asia, on the other hand, the Turkish race is in the majority. The
Mohammedans number perhaps 10,000,000 in a total population of 13,000,000 in
Asiatic Turkey and Armenia. There are about 500,000 Turks in Bulgaria out
of a total population of 4,000,000. The Mohammedan population of Bosnia and
Herzegovina— 550,000 out of a total of 1,600,000 — is mainly Slavic rather than
Turkish. In Servia and Greece there is practically no Turkish population.
Only 12,954 Turkish immigrants were admitted to the United States in the
twelve years 1899-1910. Only about 1 out of 5 of our Turkish immigrants
comes from Turkey in Europe. Occasionally an immigrant from Turkey insists
that he is a Macedonian rather than a Turk, Bulgarian, Greek, or Albanian;
he may be a Tsintsar, Vlach, or Aromuni, names applied to those who speak a
Macedonian dialect of the Roumanian. The Tsintsars number about 90,000, of
whom about 3,000 are Mohammedans.
WELSH. The principal people of Wales; linguistically, a division of the
Cymric branch of the Celtic group of Aryans (see) ; physically, a mixed race.
The term " Welsh " is also used to mean any native or naturalized inhabitant
of Wales, but thus used it is a term of nationality, not an ethnical one.
The Welsh language is the most important member of the Cymric division of
Celtic tongues (see). It is an ancient and distinct tongue so far as history
carries us, and since the eighth century has had a literature nearly, if not quite,
as rich as that of the Irish, which is the most important division of the other
branch of Celtic tongues, the Gaelic. In modern literature the Welsh excels all
other Celtic languages, for there are several quarterlies, monthlies, and weeklies
Immigrant Races or Peoples. 283
printed in it, some of which have thousands of subscribers. It is the fireside
speech of nearly half the population of Wales, and is used in the churches and
the church schools. The Welsh eisteddfod, or musical and literary meeting, is
very popular, not only in Wales, but in large Welsh colonies in the United States
and in Australia. Nevertheless, the Welsh language, like all other Celtic tongues,
is losing ground. Its nearest kinsman, the Cornish, became extinct a little over
a century ago. Ravenstein says that 70 per cent of the population of Wales
for 1871 could speak Welsh. The census of 1901 shows only about 50 per cent
of the population able to speak Welsh.
Yet, as compared with other Celtic tongues, Welsh is still quite vigorous.
For, while less than 1 per cent of the populations of Scotland and Ireland can
speak a Celtic tongue only, 15 per cent of the population of Wales speak Welsh
only. Only in Brittany, France, is another Celtic language, the Breton, so ex-
tensively used.
Physically, the Welsh are anything but homogeneous, for Beddoe finds at least
two physical races in Wales not yet thoroughly amalgamated. One is the
" Northern," whose representatives are tall, long-headed, light-eyed, darkish
haired — a type that reminds one of the Irish (see). The other presents quite a
contrast. It is short, compactly built, broader-headed, of dark complexion, with
dark eyes. This type is thought to belong to the "Alpine " race, called by some,
perhaps hastily, the "Celtic" (see) physical type. Here again is a difference
between the Cymric people of Wales and the Gaelic peoples of Ireland and
Scotland, for in the latter physical anthropologists fail to find evidence to war-
rant an "Alpine " origin. In religion the Welsh are, for the most part, Protest-
ants, dissenters from the Church of England.
Geographically, the Welsh are found in Wales and in that part of England
immediately adjoining Wales, especially in Monmouthshire. The population
of Wales in 1901 was 1,720,600 and that of Monmouthshire was 230,800. Not all
of these, however, are Welsh, for many of English blood now reside in Wales.
Nearly 1,000,000 persons speak the Welsh language.
The Welsh do not form numerically an important element in American im-
migration. Only 20,752 came to the United States in the twelve years 1899-
1910. This places them near the end of the list of immigrants. Their rate of
movement is low, 1.4 per 1,000 of the population of Wales in 1907.
WEST INDIAN. Defined by the Bureau of Immigration thus : " ' West In-
dian' refers to the people of the West Indies other than Cuba (not Negroes)."
Those of Indian blood also are counted separately. (Cf. Indian, Negro, Cuban,
Mexican, Spanish-American.) "West Indian" is therefore rather a geograph-
ical term than strictly ethnological. It does not include the original West
Indian aborigines but only the native whites or " Creoles " of the islands, and
does include such dissimilar ethnical elements as Dutch, English, French, and
Spanish colonists. The last named have given the dominant character to the
civilization of this tropical country, and have left their language not only
in the islands which until recently belonged to Spain, as Cuba and Porto Rico,
but also in Santo Domingo and portions of the Lesser Antilles. English, French,
and Dutch are spoken in some of the smaller islands. Reclus says that three-
fifths of the population of the West Indies are mulattoes. Excluding the
3,000,000 inhabitants of Cuba and Porto Rico, the rest of the West Indies con-
tain about 3,000,000. Nearly one-half of these are in the three English islands
of Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados. Naturally the white immigration to the
United States from these populations is small. Only 11,569 West Indians were
admitted to the United States as immigrants in the twelve years 1899-1910.
WHITE RUSSIAN. (See Russian.)
ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
IMMIGRANTS IN MANUFACTURING AND MINING.
For the complete report on immigrants in manufacturing and mining see
Reports of the Immigration Commission, vols. 6-20.
285
CONTENTS.
SCOPE AND METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION.
Page.
Geographical extent of the investigation 293
The principal branches of mining and manufacturing studied 293
Extent of information secured 294
Field methods employed 295
Preparation of data 295
The present discussion 296
SUMMARY OF DATA SECURED ACCORDING TO PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.
Iron and steel manufacturing 297
Slaughtering and meat packing 298
Bituminous coal mining 300
Glass manufacturing 301
Woolen and worsted manufacturing 302
Silk goods manufacturing and dyeing. 303
Cotton goods manufacturing 304
Clothing manufacturing 305
The manufacture of boots and shoes 306
Furniture manufacturing 307
Collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing 308
Leather tanning, currying, and finishing 309
Glove manufacturing 310
Oil refining 311
Sugar refining 312
The manufacture of cigars and tobacco 313
STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
Explanation of methods of presentation 315
Households studied 315
Members of households 317
Racial composition of operating forces of mines and manufacturing establish-
ments at present time 320
Racial composition of the operating forces of 16 selected industries 335
Period of residence in the United States of foreign-born employees and mem-
bers of their households 348
Industrial condition abroad of members of immigrant households studied 357
Principal occupation abroad of immigrant wage-earners 361
Principal occupation in this country at the present time of industrial workers
and members of their households 363
Average weekly earnings according to general nativity and race of employee . . 366
Average daily earnings according to general nativity and race of employee 370
The range of weekly earnings according to general nativity and race of employee . 374
The range of daily earnings according to general nativity and race of employee. 379
Average weekly earnings according to industry and general nativity and race
of employee 383
Average daily earnings according to industry and general nativity and race of
employee 396
Average daily earnings according to industry and general nativity of employee . 401
Average hourly earnings 'in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry,
according to general nativity and race of employee 403
287
288 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
Annual earnings of male heads of families 405
Annual earnings of male wage-earners in the households studied 407
Annual earnings of female wage-earners in the households studied 409
Annual family income 412
Sources of family income 413
The immigrant and organized labor , 417
Rent in its relation to standard of living. 419
Boarders and lodgers 422
Size of apartments 426
Size of households 428
Congestion 430
Literacy - 438
Conjugal condition 447
Visits abroad 461
Age classification of industrial workers 463
Ownership of homes '. 467
Status of children in the households studied 470
Ability to speak English 474
Citizenship 484
THE INDUSTRIAL SIGNIFICANCE OP RECENT IMMIGRATION.
Recent expansion of American industry 491
Increase in the number of wage-earners 491
Employment of immigrant labor 493
Reasons for the employment of recent immigrants 493
Conditions which made possible the extensive employment of recent immi-
grants 494
Present-day industrial communities .- 495
Salient characteristics of the recent immigrant labor supply 498
Effect of the competition of recent immigrants upon native Americans and
older immigrant employees 500
Racial displacements in the various industries 502
Bituminous coal-mining fields : 503
New England cotton mills 507
Woolen and worsted goods manufacturing establishments 512
Clothing manufacturing industry 516
Boot and shoe manufacturing establishments 517
Glass manufacturing 519
Oil refining industry 527
Silk goods manufacturing industry 529
Leather tanning, currying, and finishing 529
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon labor organizations 530
Labor unions in the bituminous coal-mining industry 532
Labor organizations in the cotton goods manufacturing industry 537
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon industrial organization
and methods 538
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon working relations 540
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon wages and hours of work. . 540
Effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon the establishment of
new industries 541
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. Number of households and wage-earners studied 294
2. Households studied, by general nativity and race of head of house-
hold. (Study of households) 316
3. Persons in households studied and persons for whom detailed infor-
mation was secured, by general nativity and race of head of house-
hold. (Study of households) 317
4. Sex of persons for whom detailed information was secured, by gen-
eral nativity and race of head of household. (Study of households). 318
5. Persons for whom detailed information was secured, by sex and gen-
eral nativity and race of individual. (Study of households) . . . 319, 320
6. Employees for whom information was secured, by sex and general
nativity and race. (Study of employees) 320-322
Contents. 289
Page.
TABLE 7. Total number of employees for whom information was secured, by
sex and general nativity and race, and by industry. (Study of
employees) 323-331
8. Race distribution of employees for whom information was secured,
by industry; percentages. (Study of employees) 332, 333
9, Total number of employees in 16 industries for whom certain in-
formation was secured, by sex and general nativity and race, and
by industry. (Study of employees) 336-342
10. Race distribution of employees in 16 industries for whom certain
information was secured, by industry; percentages. (Study of
employees) 343-347
11. Number of foreign-born employees in the United States each speci-
fied number of years, by sex and race. (Study of employees) . . 349-351
12. Per cent of foreign-born employees in the United States each speci-
fied number of years, by sex and race. (Study of employees) . . 352, 353
13. Per cent of foreign-born persons in the United States each specified
number of years, by sex and race. (Study of households) 354, 355
14. Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-
born males who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by
race of individual. (Study of households) 357
15. Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born
males who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race
of individual. (Study of households) 358
16. Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-
born females who were 16 years of age of over at time of coming,
by race of individual. (Study of households) 359
17. Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born
females who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by
race of individual. (Study of households) 360
18. Per cent of foreign-born male employees in each specified occupa-
tion before coming to the United States, by race. (Study of
employees) 361
19. Per cent of foreign-born female employees in each specified occupa-
tion before coming to the United States, by race. (Study of
employees) 362
20. Per cent of males 16 years of age or over in each specified industry,
by general nativity and race of individual. (Study of house-
holds) 363, 364
21. Per cent of females. 16 years of age or over in each specified industry,
by general nativity and race of individual. (Study of house-
holds) . 365,366
22. Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees 18 years of
age or over, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees). 367
23. Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 18 years
of age or over, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees). 368
24. Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees 14 and under
18 years of age, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees). 369
25. Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 14 and
under 18 years of age, by general nativity and race. (Study of
employees) 370
26. Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 18 years of
age or over, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees) . 371
27. Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 18 years of
age or over, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees) . 372
28. Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 14 and under
18 years of age, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees) . 373
29. Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 14 and under
18 years of age, by general nativity and race. (Study of employees). 374
30. Per cent of male employees 18 years of age or over earning each
specified amount per week, by general nativity and race. (Study
of employees) 375
31. Per cent 01 female employees 18 years of age or over earning each
specified amount per week, by general nativity and race. (Study
of employees) 376
32. Per cent of male employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning
each specified amount per week, by general nativity and race.
(Study of employees) 377
290 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 33. Per cent of female employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning
each specified amount per week, by general nativity and race.
(Study of employees) 378
34. Per cent of male employees 18 years of age or over earning each
specified amount per day, by general nativity and race. (Study of
employees) 379, 380
35. Per cent of female employees 18 -years of age or over earning each
specified amount per day, by general nativity and race. (Study of
employees) : - - 381
36. Per cent of male employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning
each specified amount per day, by general nativity and race.
(Study of employees) 382
37. Per cent of female employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning
each specified amount per day, by general nativity and race.
(Study of employees) 383
38. Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees 18 years of
age or over, by general nativity and race and by industry. (Study
of employees) 384-386
39. Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 18 years
of age or over, by general nativity and race and by industry.
(Study of employees) 388, 389
40. Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees 14 and under
18 years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry.
(Study of employees) 390, 391
41. Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 14 and
under 18 years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry.
(Study of employees) 392, 393
42. Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees, by general
nativity and industry. (Study of employees) 394
43. Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees, by general
nativity and industry. (Study of employees) 395
44. Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 18 years of
age or over, by general nativity and race and by industry. (Study
of employees) 396, 397
45. Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 18 years of
age or over, by general nativity and race and by industry. (Study
of employees) 398
46. Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 14 and under
18 years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry.
(Study of employees) 399, 400
47. Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 14 and under
18 years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry.
(Study of employees) 400, 401
48. Average amount of daily earnings of male employees, by general
nativity and industry. (Study of employees) 401
49. Average amount of daily earnings of female employees, by general
nativity and industry. (Study of employees) 402
50. Average amount of hourly earnings of male employees 18 years of
age or over in slaughtering and meat packing, by general nativity
and race. (Study of employees) 403
51. Average amount of hourly earnings of female employees 18 years
of age or over in slaughtering and meat packing, by general nativity
and race. (Study of employees) 404
52. Per cent of male heads of families earning each specified amount
(approximate) per year, by general nativity and race of individual.
(Study of households) 405
53. Old and new immigration compared with respect to annual earnings
of foreign-born male heads of families, by race. (Study of house-
holds 406
54. Yearly earnings (approximate) of males 18 years of age or over, by
general nativity and race of individual. (Study of households). 407,408
55. Old and new immigration compared with respect to yearly earnings
(approximate) of males 18 years of age or over, by general nativity
and race. (Study of households) 409
56. Yearly earnings (approximate) of females 18 years of age or over, by
general nativity and race of individual. (Study of households) . 409, 410
Contents. 291
Page.
TABLE 57. Old and new immigration compared with respect to yearly earnings
(approximate) of females 18 years of age or over, by general nativity
and race. (Study of households) 411
58. Per cent of families having a total yearly income of each specified
amount (approximate), by general nativity and race of head of
family. (Study of households) 412
59. Old and new immigration compared with respect to average annual
family income of the foreign-born, by race. (Study of households) . 413
60. Per cent of families having an income within the year from husband,
wife, children, boarders or lodgers, and other sources, by general
nativity and race of head of family. (Study of households) 414
61. Source of family income in detail, by general nativity and race of
head of family. (Study of households) ( 415
62. Old and new immigration compared with respect to source of family
income of the foreign-bom, by race. (Study of households) 416
63. Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are
working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.
(Study of households) 417, 418
64. Old and new immigration compared with respect to affiliation of the
foreign-born with trade unions, by race. (Study of households) . . 419
65. Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of
household. (Study of households) 420
66. Number and per cent of households keeping boarders or lodgers, by
general nativity and race of head of household. (Study of house-
holds) 423
67. Old and new immigration compared with respect to the keeping of
boarders or lodgers in households of the foreign-born, by race.
(Study of households) 424
68. Average number of boarders or lodgers per household, by general
nativity and race of head of household. (Study of households). . 425
69. Old and new immigration compared with respect to number of
boarders or lodgers to each 100 households of the foreign-born
keeping boarders or lodgers, by race. (Study of households) 426
70. Per cent of households occupying apartments of each specified num-
ber of rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(Study of households) 427
71. Per cent of households of each specified number of persons, by gen-
eral nativity and race of head of household. (Study of households) . 429
72. Average number of persons per apartment, per room, and per sleep-
ing room, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(Study of households) 430, 431
73. Old and new immigration compared with respect to average number
of persons per room and per sleeping room among the foreign-born,
by race. (Study of households) : 432
74. Persons per room, oy general nativity and race of head of household.
(Study of households) 433
75. Persons per sleeping room, by general nativity and race of head of
household. (Study of households) 435
76. Number and per cent of households regularly sleeping in all except
each specified number of rooms, by general nativity and race of
head of household. (Study of households) 437
77. Literacy of employees, by sex and general nativity and race.
(Study of employees) 438-442
78. Old and new immigration compared with respect to ability of the
foreign-born to read, by race. (Study of employees) 443
79. Per cent of persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent who
read and write, by sex and general nativity and race of individual.
(Study of households) .' . . 443, 444
80. Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and
per cent who read and write r by years in the United States and
race of individual. (Study of households) 445
81. Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and
per cent who read and write, by age at time of coming to the United
States and race of individual. (Study of households) 446
292 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 82. Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condi-
tion, by sex and general nativity and race. (Study of employees) 447-450
83. Percentof employees in each conjugal condition, by sex, age groups,
and general nativity and race. (Study of employees) 451-455
84. Per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by sex and age groups,
and by general nativity and race of individual. (Study of house-
holds) 456-458
85. Per cent of foreign-born husbands who report wife in the United
States and per cent who report wife abroad, by race of husband.
(Study of employees) 459, 460
86. Old and new immigration compared with respect to foreign-born
husbands reporting wife abroad, by race. (Study of employees) . 460
87. Visits abroad made by foreign-born employees, by sex, years in the
United States, and race. (Study of employees) 461, 462
88. Per cent of employees within each age group, by sex and general
nativity and race. (Study of employees) 463-466
89. Number and per cent of families owning home, by general nativity
and race of head of family. (Study of households) 468
90. Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school,
and at work, by general nativity and race of individual. (Study
of households) ._ 470-472
91. Number and per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at horrfe,
at school, and at work, by general nativity and race of father and
by birthplace of child. (Study of households) 473
92. Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex and
race. (Study of employees) 474
93. Per cent of persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by sex
and general nativity and race of individual. (Study of house-
holds) 475,476
94. Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex, years
in the United States, and race. (Study of employees) 477, 478
95. Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak Eng-
lish, by years in the United States and race of individual. (Study
of households) 480
96. Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex, age at
time of coming to the United States, and race. (Study of em-
ployees) , 481, 482
97. Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak
English, by age at time of coming to the United States and race of
individual. (Study of households) 483
98. Present political condition of foreign-born male employees who have
been hi the United States 5 years or over and who were 21 years of
age or over at time of coming, by race. (Study of employees). .. 484
99. Present political condition of foreign-born males who have been in
the United States 5 years or over and who were 21 years of age or
over at time of coming, by race of individual (Study of households) 486
100. Present political condition of foreign-born male employees who
were 21 years of age or over at time of coming to the United States,
by years in the United States and race. (Study of employees). . 488
101. Total capital and value of products of manufactures in the States
east of the Rocky Mountains, 1880-1905, by census periods 491
102. Average number of wage-earners employed in mining and manufac-
turing, 1880-1900, by census periods 492
103. Total number of employees engaged in manufactures, mines, and
quarries in 1880, 1890, and 1900, by selected States 492
104. Male employees of each race for whom information was secured, by
locality ; per cent distribution 506
105. Employees of plate-glass plant in Community A in 1909, by race
arid number of years employed 522
106. Period of immigration of foreign races employed in Community E,
and industries entered 1 526
107. Estimated population of Whiting, Ind., 1909, by race 528
IMMIGRANTS IN MANUFACTURING AND MINING,
SCOPE AND METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION.
GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT OF THE INVESTIGATION.
The investigation of immigrants in industries included all the
territory between the Kocky Mountains and the Atlantic seaboard.
The States in which the investigation was prosecuted in the greatest
detail are as follows :
Maine. Delaware. Kansas.
New Hampshire. Ohio. Missouri.
Massachusetts. Indiana. Oklahoma.
Rhode Island. Illinois. Florida.
Connecticut. Michigan. Alabama.
New York. Wisconsin. Virginia.
New Jersey. Minnesota. West Virginia.
Pennsylvania. Nebraska.
THE PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF MINING AND MANUFACTURING
STUDIED.
The principal branches of mining and manufacturing included in
the investigation are as follows :
Agricultural implement and vehicle manufacturing.
Anthracite coal mining.
Bituminous coal mining.
Boot and shoe manufacturing.
Cigar and tobacco manufacturing.
Clothing manufacturing.
Collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing.
Copper mining and smelting.
Cotton goods manufacturing in the North Atlantic States.
Furniture manufacturing.
Glass manufacturing,
Glove manufacturing.
Iron and steel manufacturing.
Iron ore mining.
Leather tanning, currying, and finishing.
Oil refining.
Silk goods manufacturing and dyeing.
Slaughtering and meat packing.
Sugar refining.
Woolen and worsted goods manufacturing.
293
294
The Immigration Commission.
In addition to the leading industries mentioned, the following
branches were studied in less detail:
Carpet manufacturing.
Car building and repairing.
Cutlery and tool manufacturing.
Electric-supplies manufacturing.
Electric-railway transportation.
Firearm manufacturing.
Foundry and machine-shop products manufacturing.
Hosiery and knit-goods manufacturing.
Locomotive building and repairing.
Paper and wood-pulp manufacturing.
Paper-products manufacturing.
Rope, twine, and hemp manufacturing.
Sewing-machine manufacturing.
Steam-railway transportation.
Typewriter manufacturing.
Zinc smelting and manufacturing.
In addition to the foregoing a separate study was made of immi-
grants engaged in temporary or seasonal labor. This report is
entitled "The Floating Immigrant Labor Supply."
EXTENT OF INFORMATION SECURED.
The study is based on original data secured by agents of the Com-
mission. The table submitted below exhibits in a summary way
the results of the investigation so far as the obtaining of original
data from members of the operating forces of mines and manufac-
turing establishments and members of their families is concerned.
This table sets forth the number of households studied the heads
of which were employed in each leading industry, the number and
sex of persons in the households, and the number and sex of individual
employees for whom detailed information was secured.
TABLE 1. — Number of households and wage-earners studied.
Industry.
Study of households.
Study of employees.
Number
of house-
holds
studied.
Number and sex of per-
sons for whom detailed
information was se-
cured.
Number and sex of in-
dividual wage-earners
studied.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Agricultural implement and vehicle
501
710
127
906
455
2.371
264
1,134
1,928
288
2,393
1,711
6,861
441
1,064
1,701
273
2,293
1,176
5,113
576
2,198
3,629
561
4,686
2,887
11,974
1,017
25,560
13, 184
19,630
10, 616
1,235
6,762
16,934
8,886
26,795
19,946
36,564
19,502
Boot and shoe manufacturing. .....
Cigar and tobacco manufacturing
Clothing manufacturing
Coal mining, anthracite
Coal mining, bituminous
88,368
160
5,821
7,128
35,893
4,295
11, 615
454
86, 089
8,281
11,916
6,083
5,325
40,080
5,826
23,388
94,020
88,368
1,508
5,821
7,128
66,800
4,295
12, 276
908
86, 089
8,281
12,839
6,123
14, 152
43,502
5,826
40,533
112,339
Collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing
Construction work
1,348
Copper mining and smelting.
504
1,061
338
660
262
2,456
255
362
525
272
1,039
194
440
3,439
1,407
3,263
893
1,465
551
7,215
545
1,262
1,607
647
2,630
617
1,176
9,825
1,251
2,777
852
1,366
554
4,693
505
742
1,227
598
2,274
407
1,011
8,770
2,658
6,040
1,745
2,831
1,105
11,908
1,050
2,004
2,834
1,245
4,904
1,024
2,187
18,595
Cotton goods manufacturing in the
North Atlantic States
30,907
Furniture manufacturing
Glass manufacturing
661
454
Glove manufacturing
Iron and steel manufacturing
Iron ore mining
Leather manufacturing
923
40
8,827
3,422
Oil refining
Silk goods manufacturing and dyeing. . .
Slaughtering and meat packing
Sugar refining * "
Woolen and worsted goods manufac-
turing..
17,145
18,319
Diversified industries
Total...
17. 141
47.859
39.223
87.082
503. 732
115.863
619.595
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 295
In addition to the data relative to the wage-earners and their fami-
lies which were susceptible of tabulation and statistical presentation,
detailed descriptive and historical information was secured from
between two and three hundred industrial establishments and
communities. A considerable number of pay rolls and other indus-
trial records also were transcribed for the purpose of verifying the
information obtained from industrial employees and members of their
households.
• FIELD METHODS EMPLOYED.
In collecting data the following sources of statistical information
were used: (1) The individual employee; (2) the family or house-
hold of the employee; (3) the employer or industrial establishment;
and (4) records of local officials, organizations, and institutions.
Schedules corresponding to the above-mentioned sources were pre-
pared and used in securing data.
The investigation was based upon a number of selected industries,
and detailed information relative to wage^earners was first ascertained
by the distribution of individual schedules among the employees of
industrial establishments.
Upon the basis of the returns thus secured for employees a limited
number of households the heads of which were employees were
selected for intensive study by means of the family schedule, con-
taining in all 187 inquiries. The number of schedules to be secured
for the various races was apportioned according to the numerical
representation of each race m the industry under investigation.
A further apportionment was made in the case of each race accord-
ing to (1) occupation and (2) length of residence of the head of the
household in the United States.
In connection with the industries selected a number of representa-
tive industrial communities to which recent immigrants had come in
considerable numbers were selected for detailed study by the fol-
lowing methods: (1) By preliminary reports made by the agent in
charge of the investigation; (2) by studying the manifests of incom-
ing aliens to ascertain the destination of large groups or numbers;
and (3) by consulting the special reports on manufactures of the
federal Census Bureau, in order to ascertain the localization of
leading industries. The communities thus selected were studied
intensively with familv, employee, pay-roll, and community sched-
ules. a Detailed historical and descriptive data also were obtained
and an exhaustive inquiry made into the economic effects of immigra-
tion, as well as its effects upon American life and institutions.6
PREPARATION OF DATA.
In preparing the data secured for publication they have been pre-
sented in separate studies according to leading industries, because it
was thought that such a method would be more valuable than tabula-
tions covering, according to racial designations, a limited number of per-
sons or families. The industrial significance of recent immigration
a For schedule forms see Vol. II, pp. 653-662, 668-670, and 674-681.
b In the introduction to the Summary Report on Immigrants in Manufacturing and
Mining, volumes 19 and 20 of the reports of the Immigration Commission, will be
found a detailed discussion of the field methods used and a complete history of the
industrial investigation.
296 The Immigration Commission.
which is thus made manifest has been thought to be of vital im-
portance. The industrial data have also been combined in a sum-
mary report according to race and made to contribute toward the
exhibition of racial tendencies.
THE PRESENT DISCUSSION.
The detailed results of the investigation of immigrants in mines
and manufacturing establishments, as already stated, are published
elsewhere in separate form according to leading industries.0 In the
present discussion the salient facts developed by the study of recent
immigrants in industries, together with the industrial significance of
recent immigration to the United States, are briefly set forth.
a See Immigrants in Industries. Reports of the Immigration Commission, vols.
6-20. (S. Doc. No. 633, pts. 1 to 22, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
SUMMARY OF DATA SECURED ACCORDING TO PRINCIPAL
INDUSTRIES.
In the course of the general industrial investigation 2 1 of the prin-
cipal industries of the country were extensively and intensively
studied. One other special study was made of immigrants engaged
in temporary or seasonal occupations. Moreover, detailed informa-
tion was secured for the operating forces of 16 other industries, of
relatively less importance than the 21 mentioned above. These data
were not so exhaustively tabulated and are treated under the
title of " Diversified indus tries." a In the present connection the
salient facts developed by the study of 16 of the principal branches
of mining and manufacturing enterprise are briefly brought together
according to industries.
IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURING.
Iron and steel manufacturing in all its aspects was studied in the
territory east of the Mississippi River. Detailed information was
received for 86,089 employees of the industry, and an intensive study
was made of 2,456 households the heads of which were employed in
iron and steel manufacturing establishments. Of the total number
of employees in the industry, 57.7 per cent were found to be of foreign
birth. The principal races of old immigration were the Germans,
with 4,426 employees reporting, the Irish, with 2,448, and the Eng-
lish, with 2,340. The races of recent immigration reporting in
largest numbers were the Slovaks, with 9,029, the Poles, with 7,897,
the Magyars, with 4,675, and the Croatians, with 4,003. Of the total
number of iron and steel workers, 28.9 per cent were native-born of
native father and 13.4 per cent were of native birth but foreign
father. Of the total number of employees of foreign birth, only 8.6
per cent had been employed in the same industry abroad, while 64.4
per cent had been farmers or farm laborers in their native countries.
The average weekly wage of employees 18 years of age or over,
not taking into consideration lost time, was $14.35. Lost time was
taken into consideration in computing annual earnings, and the
average annual earnings of all males 18 years of age or over in the
households studied were only $346. The average annual earnings of
male heads of families were $409, and the average annual family
income was $568. As regards the sources of family income, it
was found that 40.5 per cent of all the families studied derived
their income entirely from the husband, while 33.1 per cent, com-
posed principally of southern and eastern Europeans, secured their
income from earnings of husbands and contributions of boarders or
lodgers. The families whose heads were native-born more generally
received contributions of children than did those the heads of which
« Immigrants in Industries: Diversified Industries. Reports of the Immigration
Commission, vols. 17 and 18. (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 21, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
72289°— VOL 1—11 20 297
298 The Immigration Commission.
were born abroad. Of the total number of families, 7.8 per cent
were entirely supported by the earnings of husbands and the contri-
butions of children. Of the foreign-born families, 41.5 per cent
supplemented the earnings of the heads by keeping boarders or
lodgers, as contrasted with only 8.3 per cent of the families the
heads of which were native-born. This practice led to a high degree
of congestion within the households the heads of which were foreign-
born. The average number of persons per room in foreign house-
holds was 1.76, as compared with 0.93 among the families the heads
of which were of native birth; and the average number of persons
per sleeping room in foreign households was 2.89, as contrasted with
1.96 in the native households. The average rent per capita in for-
eign households was only $1.14 and that in native households was
$1.71. Fourteen and seven-tenths per cent of the foreign house-
holds used all rooms for sleeping purposes, as against only 3.8 per
cent of the households the heads of which were native-born. Of the
families the heads of which were foreign-born 20.6 per cent owned
their homes, as compared with 15.1 per cent of those the heads of
which were native-born.
Of the native-born employees 20 years of age or over 64.6 per cent
were married, and of the total foreign-born 67.2 per cent. Of the
foreign-born employees 84.2 per cent were able to read and 82.3 per
cent could both read and write. Of the employees of foreign birth
who were of non-English-speaking races only 51.8 per cent were able
to speak English. The tendency toward acquiring citizenship among
foreign-born male employees 21 years of age or over who had been
in the United States five years or more was very small, only 32 per
cent being naturalized and 11.4 per cent having taken out first
papers. Only 1.5 per cent of foreign-born and 3.6 per cent of native-
born wage-earning male members of the households were affiliated with
labor organizations. The data collected in connection with the iron
and steel industry are presented in detailed form according to the geo-
graphical distribution of the industry. The main divisions of the
report are as follows: (1) General survey of the industry as a whole;
(2) general survey of the industry in the East, in which is included
a detailed study of the Pittsburg district and four representative
iron and steel communities; (3) general survey of the industry in
the Middle West, which also includes an intensive study of a repre-
sentative community in that section; and (4) general survey of the
industry in the South, which embraces an intensive study of the
Birmingham, Alabama, district.
SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT PACKING.
The slaughtering and meat-packing industry was studied in all of
the principal centers of the Middle West and the Southwest. Detailed
information was secured for 43,502 employees, and an intensive
study was made of 1,039 households the heads of which were employed
in the slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. It was found
that 60.7 per cent of the total number of wage-earners in the industry
were of foreign birth. The principal races of the old immigration
were the Germans, with 3,338 reporting, and the Irish, with 1,899.
Among the races of recent immigration the Poles, with 7,121, had by
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 299
far the largest number reporting, followed by the Lithuanians, with
2,913, and the Bohemians and Moravians, with 1,777.
Of all employees, 24.8 per cent were of native birth and of native
father and 14.5 per cent were native-born of foreign father. Only
5.1 per cent of the foreign-born male employees in the industry had
had any experience in the same kind of work before coming to the
United States, while 58.4 per cent had been farmers or farm laborers
in their native countries. Only 0.5 per cent of the foreign-born
female employees were employed in this industry abroad, 82.8 per
cent having been farmers or farm laborers. The average annual earn-
ings of all males 18 years of age or over in the households studied
were $557 ; the average annual earnings of male heads of families
were $578. The average annual income of families the heads of
which were employed in the industry was $781, and of the total
number of families studied 51.4 per cent depended entirely upon the
husband for support, while 14.9 per cent derived their entire income
from the earnings of husbands and the payments of boarders or
lodgers, and 17.7 per cent from the earnings of husbands and the
contributions of children.
A greater degree of congestion was found among the households
the heads of which were of foreign birth than among those of native
birth, due to the practice of the first-named class of households of
taking boarders or lodgers in order to supplement the family income
or to reduce the rent outlay per person. The average monthly rent
Eayments per capita in households the heads of which were foreign-
orn was only $1.58, as contrasted with $2.19 among native house-
holds. In the foreign households there was also an average of 1.40
persons per room and 2.74 per sleeping room, as against 0.99 person
per room and 2.21 persons per sleeping room in households the
heads of which were native-born. Of the households the heads of
which were foreign-born, 2.9 per cent used all rooms for sleeping
purposes. The ownership of homes was more general among the
foreign than among the native families, 46.1 per cent of the former
and 17.3 per cent of the latter owning their homes.
Of the total number of wage-earners in the industry who were 20
years of age or over, 59.2 percent were married. Of the foreign-born
employees, 60.6 per cent were married, and of the native-born 56.9 per
cent. Of the total number of foreign-born employees, 88.5 per cent
were able to read some language, and 86.2 percent were able to read
and write. Only 52.1 per cent of foreign-born employees of non-Eng-
lish-speaking races were able to speak English. Of the foreign-born
wage-earners 21 years of age or over who had been in the United States
five years or more, 44.3 per cent were naturalized and 19.1 per cent had
taken preliminary steps to become citizens by securing first papers. In
the households studied only 2.5 per cent of the wage-earning males of
foreign birth and 4.7 per cent of those of native birth were affiliated
with labor organizations. The study of this industry is presented in
detailed form as foUows : (1) General survey of the industry as a
whole; (2) general survey of the industry in Chicago; (3) general
survey of the industry in Kansas City; and (4) general survey of
the industry in South Omaha.
300 The Immigration Commission.
BITUMINOUS COAL MINING.
The operating forces of the bituminous coal-mining industry were
studied in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma,
Arkansas, Alabama, Virginia, and West Virginia. Detailed informa-
tion was secured for 88,368 employees, and 2,371 households the heads
of which were engaged in bituminous mining were intensively studied.
Of the total number of employees, 61.9 per cent were of foreign birth,
9.5 per cent were of native birth but foreign father, and 28.5 per cent
were native-born persons of native father. The principal races of
old immigration were the Germans, with 2,699 reporting, and the
English, with 2,497 reporting, while the Slovaks, with 11,318, the
Poles, with 7,370, and the North Italians, with 6,666, were the races
of recent immigration most largely represented. Only 20.7 per cent
of the foreign-born employees had had any experience in bituminous
coal mining before coming to this country, while 58 per cent had been
farmers or farm laborers abroad. The average daily wage of
employees 18 years of age or over was $2.19, and of all males 18 years
of age or over in the households studied the average annual earnings
were $443. The average annual earnings of male heads of families
who were employed in the industry were $451, and the average annual
income of families the heads of which were working in the industry
was $577. Slightly more than two-fifths (40.6 per cent) of the
famines studied derived their entire income from the earnings of
husbands, while 35 per cent were supported by the earnings of hus-
bands and the payments of boarders or lodgers, and 7.8 per cent by
the earnings of husbands and the contributions of children.
About the same proportion of the employees 20 years of age or over
in both nativity groups were married, the percentage in the case of
the foreign-born being 67.3 and of the native-born 67.5. Only 82.9
per cent of the employees of foreign birth were able to read and 80.9
per cent able both to read and to write. Of the tofal number of
foreign-born employees of non-English-speaking races, 61.2 per cent
were able to speak English. Of the foreign-born employees 21
years of age or over who had been in the United States five years or
more only 26.8 per cent were naturalized, and 14.9 per cent were in
possession of first papers. Of the native-born males in the house-
holds studied 55.8 per cent, and of the foreign-born 31.8 per cent, were
members of labor organizations.
Only 5 per cent of the total number of native households kept
boarders or lodgers, as contrasted with 43.8 per cent of those the
heads of which were of foreign birth. Among the households the
heads of which were of native birth the average number of persons
per room was 1.11 and per sleeping room 2.32, as against 1.63 persons
per room and 3.02 persons per sleeping room in the households the
heads of which were of foreign birth. Of the native households 2.32
per cent, and of the foreign 2.2 per cent, used all their rooms for
sleeping purposes. The greater degree of congestion in the latter class
of households is also illustrated by the fact that the average monthly
rent payment per capita was $1.03, as contrasted with $1.73 in
households the heads of which were of native birth. Only 19.7 per
cent of the families the heads of which were foreign-born, as against
34.8 per cent of those the heads of which were native-born, owned
their homes.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 301
The report upon this industry consists of five parts: (1) General
survey or the industry as a whole, which consists of a statistical
sunttnary based upon the total number of employees and households
studied; (2) survey of the industry in Pennsylvania, including an
intensive study of two representative bituminous coal-mining com-
munities; (3) a study of the industry in the Middle West; (4) a study
of the industry in the Southwest; and (5) a study of the industry in
the South, including an intensive study of the Birmingham, Alabama,
district.
GLASS MANUFACTURING.
The glass-manufacturing industry was studied mainly in the States
of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, New
Jersey, and Maryland. » Four divisions of the industry, the manu-
facture of plate glass, window glass, bottles, and glass tableware,
were included within the scope of the investigation. No establish-
ments were studied in the southern States beyond the two mentioned,
for the reason that the operating forces were principally composed of
persons of native birth. Detailed information was secured for 11,615
employees, and 660 households the heads of which were employed in
the industry were intensively studied. Of the total number of
employees, 39.3 per cent were of foreign birth, 18.4 per cent were of
native birth but of foreign father, and 42.3 per cent were native-born
persons of native father. Among the races of old immigration the
Germans, with 709 reporting, were most largely represented, followed
by the Belgians (race not specified), with 286, and the English, with
202. The Slovaks, with 718, the Poles, with 671, and the South
Italians, with 628, were numerically the most important races of
recent immigration.
The average annual earnings of male heads of families who were
employed in the industry were $596, and of all males 18 years of age or
over in the households studied $574, while the average annual income
of families the heads of which were working in the industry was $755.
Slightly over two-fifths (44.8 per cent) of the families studied
derived their entire income from the earnings of husbands, while 31
per cent were supported by the earnings of husbands and the pay-
ments of boarders or lodgers, and 10.3 per cent by the earnings of
husbands and the contributions of children. Only 8.5 per cent of the
total number of native households studied kept boarders or lodgers,
as contrasted with 41.4 per cent of those the heads of which were
foreign-born. Among the households the heads of which were
native-born the average number of persons per room was '0.80, and
per sleeping room 1.87, as against 1.44 persons per room and 2.59 per
sleeping room in the households the heads of which were of foreign
birth. Only 0.8 per cent of the native households and 3 per cent of
the households the heads of which were foreign-born used all their
rooms for sleeping purposes. The greater degree of congestion in the
latter class of households is also illustrated by the fact that the average
rent payment per capita was $1.44, as contrasted with $2.66 in
households the heads of which were of native birth. Of the foreign
families, 29 per cent owned their homes, as against 37.4 per cent of
the families the heads of which were of native birth. One per cent of
the wage-earning males of foreign birth in the households studied and
9.2 per cent of those native-born were members of labor organizations.
302 The Immigration Commission.
In preparing the material for publication the data obtained from
employees and households were included in tabulations covering the
whole industry, and divisions made according to the four branches
of the industry studied. The conditions prevailing in different locali-
ties are also set forth by two community studies — one representative
of the Middle West and the other of western Pennsylvania.
WOOLEN AND WORSTED MANUFACTURING.
The woolen and worsted goods manufacturing industry was inves-
tigated in the North Atlantic States. Detailed information was
secured for 23,388 employees, and 440 households the heads of
which were employed in the industry were intensively studied. Of
the total number of employees, 61.9 per cent were of foreign birth,
24.4 per cent were of native birth but of foreign father, and 13.7
per cent were native-born persons of native father. The South
Italians, with 3,301 reporting, the Poles, with 2,159, and the North
Italians, with 1,700, were the three principal races of recent immi-
gration engaged in the industry, while the English, with 3,783, the
French Canadians, with 3,429, and the Irish, with 2,612, were the
races of old immigration represented in the largest numbers. Of
the foreign-born employees, 22.1 per cent of the males and 41.9 per
cent of the females had had experience in the same kind of work
before coming to this country, while 42.4 per cent of the male em-
ployees and 34.5 per cent of the female employees had been farmers
or farm laborers in their native countries. The average weekly wage
of the male employees 18 years of age or over was $10.49, and of the
female employees $8.18. The average annual earnings of male heads
of families who were employed in the industry were $400, and of all
males 18 years of age or over in the households studied, $346. The
average annual income of families the heads of which were working
in the industry was $661. Slightly less than one-fourth (24.9 per
cent) of the families studied derived their entire income from the
earnings of husbands, while 14.9 per cent were supported by the
earnings of husbands and the payments of boarders or lodgers, arid
13.1 per cent by the earnings of husbands and contributions of chil-
dren. Of the foreign households 33.2 per cent kept boarders or
lodgers. Among the households the heads of which were native-
born the average number of persons per room was 0.71 and per
sleeping room 1.61, as contrasted with 1.19 persons per room and
2.03 persons per sleeping room in the households the heads of which
were of foreign birth. Of the foreign households, 0.5 per cent used
all their rooms for sleeping purposes. In the latter class of house-
holds the average monthly rent payment per capita was $1.97, as
against $3.34 in households the heads of which were of native birth.
Among the families the heads of which were of foreign birth, 10 per
cent owned their homes.
Of the total number of native-born employees 20 years of age or
over, 42.6 per cent, and of the foreign-born 57 per cent, were married.
Only 84.2 per cent of the foreign-born employees were able to read,
and 82.5 per cent able to both read and write. Only 48.2 per cent
of the total number of foreign-born employees of non-English-speak-
ing races were able to speak English. Of the foreign-born employees
21 years of age or over who had been in the United States 5 years or
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining, 303
more, only 31.6 per cent were naturalized, and 20.9 per cent were in
possession of first papers. Only 4.1 per cent of the foreign-born
wage-earning males, as contrasted with 21.9 per cent of the native-
born, were affiliated with labor organizations.
The report on this industry consists of general tabulations, includ-
ing the data received from all employees and households studied*
together with an intensive study of a representative community in
Massachusetts engaged in the manufacture of worsted goods.
SILK GOODS MANUFACTURING AND DYEING.
Establishments engaged in the manufacturing and dyeing of silk
foods were studied in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and New
ersey, the greater emphasis being placed upon the industry in Pater-
son, New Jersey, and in the anthracite-coal region. The last-men-
tioned locality was intensively studied and separately presented for
the reason that it illustrates the establishment of an industry in a
thickly populated immigrant section, where a large supply of cheap
labor is available. Detailed information was secured for 12,994
employees, and 272 households the heads of which were engaged in
the industry were closely studied. Of the total number of employees,
34.3 per cent were of foreign birth, 44.9 per cent were of native birth
but of foreign father, and 20.8 per cent were native-born of native father.
The southern and eastern European races were represented in largest
numbers in the operating forces of the industry by the North Ital-
ians, with 644 reporting, followed by the South Italians, with 270,
the Polish, with 259, and the Russian Hebrews, with 254. The races
of old immigration, from Great Britain and northern Europe, were
represented most largely by the Germans, with 839, the English,
with 599, and the Dutch, with 254. Of the total number of male
operatives who were born abroad, 73.9 per cent were employed in
textile manufacturing before coming to the United States, and only
6.5 per cent had been farmers or farm laborers in their native coun-
tries, while 76.1 per cent of the females were engaged in textile manu-
facturing abroad and 7.5 per cent were farming or in farm labor.
The average weekly wage of male employees was $12.50 and of
females $7.66. The average annual earnings of male heads of
families were $448, and the average annual earnings of all males 18
years of age or over in the households studied were $431. The
families the heads of which were silk-mill operatives had an average
annual income of $635. Of the total number of families studied, 46
per cent depended entirely upon the husbands for support, while
10.1 per cent were maintained by the earnings of husbands supple-
mented by the payments of boarders or lodgers, and 14.9 per cent
derived their income from the earnings of husbands and the contribu-
tions of children. Only 4.8 per cent of the households the heads of
which were native-born kept boarders or lodgers, as contrasted with
16.3 per cent of the households the heads of which were^of foreign
birth. The average monthly rent payment per capita in immigrant
households was $2, and in households the heads of which were native-
born, $2.55. The last-named class of households show an average
of 0.74 person per room and 1.76 persons per sleeping room,as
against 1.17 persons per room and 2.22 persons per sleeping room in
households the heads of which were foreign-born. None of the
304 The Immigration Commission.
households studied in connection with this industry used all their
rooms for sleeping purposes. Only 7.4 per cent of the immigrant
families studied owned their homes, as contrasted with 23.8 per
cent of those the heads of which were native-born.
Of the total number of employees 20 years of age or over for whom
information was received, 27.9 per cent of the native-born and 61.1
per cent of the foreign-born were married. Foreign-born employees
exhibit a high degree of literacy, 97.3 per cent being able to read and
96.1 per cent able to both read and write. Of the total number of
employees of foreign birth and of non-English-speaking races, 78.8
per cent were able to speak English. Of the foreign-born employees
21 years of age or over who had been in the United States at least 5
years, 61.3 per cent had attained full citizenship, and 18.4 per cent
had secured first papers. Only 3.1 per cent of the wage-earning
males of foreign birth in the households studied and 18.2 per cent of
those of native birth were affiliated with labor organizations.
COTTON GOODS MANUFACTURING.
Information was secured for a total of 66,800 cotton-mill operatives
in the North Atlantic States and a detailed study made of 1,061
households the heads of which were employed in the cotton goods
manufacturing industry. Of the total number of employees 68.7
per cent were of foreign birth, 21.8 per cent were of native birth but
of foreign father, and 9.4 per cent were native-born of native father.
Of the races of old immigration, the French Canadians, English,
and Irish were principally employed, these races reporting to the
number of 13,043, 5,274, and 4,287, respectively. The southern
and eastern Europeans were represented in greatest numbers by the
Poles, with 8,920, the Portuguese, with 5,911, and the Greeks, with
2,739. Of the male operatives of foreign birth 15.8 per cent, and
of the females 34.5 per cent, had been engaged in the same industry
abroad. On the other hand, 56.2 per cent of the male and 50.7 per
cent of the female employees who were foreign-born had been farmers
or farm laborers in their native countries. The average weekly wage
for male employees 1 8 years of age or over was $9.68 and that for females
18 years of age or over was $7.97. The average annual earnings
of male heads of families who were employed as cotton-mill operatives
were $470, and the average annual family income was $791. Of the
total number of families studied 32.2 per cent depended entirely upon
the husbands for their support, while 9.3 per -cent were maintained
by earnings of husbands and the payments of boarders or lodgers,
and 18.9 per cent by earnings of husbands supplemented by the con-
tributions of children. Of the households the heads of which were
foreign-born 21.2 per cent had boarders or lodgers, as against 14.5
per cent of those the heads of which were of native birth. The
attempt to reduce the cost of living, or to supplement the earnings
of the heads of families by keeping boarders or lodgers, resulted in
a high degree of congestion, especially in the immigrant households.
The average number of persons per room in households the heads of
which were foreign-born was 1.26 and the average number per sleep-
ing room 2.13, as contrasted with 0.83 person per room and 1.79 per
sleeping room in households the heads of which were native-born.
The average monthly rent payment per capita in immigrant house-
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 305
holds was $1.47 and in households the heads of which were native-
born, $2.41. None of the households the heads of which were of
native birth used all their rooms for sleeping purposes, while 3.3 per
cent of the immigrant households slept in all rooms. Of the families
the heads of which were native-born 6.9 per cent and of those the
heads of which were foreign-born 6.1 per cent owned their homes.
Of the foreign-born employees 57 per cent and of the native-born
42.6 per cent were married. Of the employees of foreign birth 80.6
per cent were able to read and 77.8 per cent able both to read and
to write. Of the total number of foreign-born employees of non-
English-speaking races 42.1 per cent were able to speak English.
The naturalized persons among the employees of foreign birth 21
years of age or over and resident in the United States at least 5 years,
form a proportion of 29.8, while 8.8 per cent had taken out first papers.
Only 7 per cent of the foreign-born wage-earning males in the house-
holds studied and 11.3 per cent of the native-born were members of
labor organizations.
CLOTHING MANUFACTURING.
The operating forces engaged in the manufacture of men's and
women's clothing were studied in New York, N. Y., Rochester, N. Y.,
Baltimore, Md., and Chicago, 111. Both the factory and contract
systems were included in the investigation. Detailed information
was secured for 19,502 employees, and an intensive study was
made of 906 households the heads of which were engaged in the
manufacture of clothing. Of the total number of employees in the
industry, 72.2 per cent were of foreign birth, 22.4 per cent were
of second generation, or native-born of foreign father, and only 5.3
per cent were native-born of native father. Of the foreign-born
employees, the southern and eastern Europeans were represented in
the greatest numbers by the Russian Hebrews, with 3,618 reporting,
the South Italians, with 2,815, and the Hebrews other than Russian,
with 1,390. Of the races of old immigration from Great Britain and
northern Europe, the Germans appeared in by far the greatest num-
bers, their 656 being followed by the 72 of the Irish and the 63 of the
Swedes. Of the foreign-born male employees, 62.5 per cent had
been engaged in making clothing in their native countries and 75.6
per cent of the females were engaged in needlework of some kind
abroad. The average weekly earnings of male employees 18 years
of age or over were $13.30 and of females $8.02. The average annual
earnings of male heads of families were $530, and the earnings per
annum of all males 18 years of age or over in the households studied
were $513. The average annual income of families the heads of which
were employed in the industry was $713. Of the total number of
families studied, 48.2 per cent were supported entirely by husbands,
14.6 per cent were maintained by 'the earnings of husbands and the
payments of boarders or lodgers, and 17.3 per cent derived their
income from the earnings of husbands and the contributions of chil-
dren. Of the households the heads of which were of foreign birth,
19.3 per cent kept boarders or lodgers, and showed an average of 1.34
persons per room and 2.57 per sleeping room. Of the households the
heads of which were native-born of foreign father, 4 per cent had
boarders or lodgers and exhibited an average of 0.90 person per room
and 2.43 persons per sleeping room. None of the second generation
306 The Immigration Commission.
used all rooms for sleeping purposes, but 5.8 per cent of those the
heads of which were of foreign birth are so reported. The average
monthly rent payment per capita among households the heads of
which were of foreign birth was $2.30. Of the households the heads
of which were of foreign birth xmly 23.5 per cent owned their homes,
as contrasted with 60.7 per cent of those the heads of which were of
native birth and of foreign father.
Of the total number of employees 20 years of age or over, 31.4 er
cent of the native-born and 56.1 per cent of the foreign-born were
married. Slightly more than nine-tenths of the employees of foreign
birth could read, and 88.8 per cent could both read and write. Of the
foreign-born employees of non-English-speaking races only 59.7 per
cent were able to speak the English language, and only 28.9 per cent
of the employees were fully naturalized. Only 3.6 per cent of the
wage-earning males in the households studied who were native-born
of foreign father, as against 18.4 per cent of the foreign-born, were
affiliated with labor organizations.
In preparing the report on the clothing manufacturing industry
four general divisions of the data were made:
(1) General survey of the industry as a whole, which consists of a
statistical summary of all the data secured from employees and the
members of their households.
(2) General survey of the industry in New York City.
(3) General survey of the industry in Baltimore.
(4) General survey of the industry in Chicago.
THE MANUFACTURE OF BOOTS AND SHOES.
The boot and shoe manufacturing industry was investigated
throughout the territory east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio
and Potomac rivers, the principal emphasis being placed upon the
establishments in the States of Illinois, Missouri, and Massachusetts.
Detailed information was secured for 19,946 employees, and 710
households the heads of which were employed in the industry were
intensively studied. Of the total number of employees, 27.3 per
cent were of foreign birth, while 25.6 per cent were native-born of
foreign father and 47 per cent native-born of native father. The
South Italians and Russian Hebrews, reporting to the number of
685 and 571, respectively, were the principal races of southern and
eastern Europe engaged in the industry, while the French Canadians,
with 550, other Canadians, with 409, and Irish, with 342, were the
races of past immigration represented in the largest numbers.
Of the foreign-born male employees, 41.4 per cent had had experience
in the same kind of work before coming to this country, while 29.2
per cent had been farmers or farm laborers abroad. The average
weekly wage of male employees 18 years of age or over was $12.10,
and of females $8.16. The average annual earnings of male heads of
families were $573, and of all males 18 years of age or over in the
households studied they were $502. The average annual income of
families the heads of which were employed in the industry was $765.
Slightly over one-third (34.8 per cent) of the families studied
derived their entire income from the earnings of husbands, while 21.8
per cent were supported by the earnings of husbands and the pay-
ments of boarders or lodgers, and 11.7 per cent by the earnings of
husbands and contributions of children. Only 17.7 per cent of the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 307
native households kept boarders or lodgers, as contrasted with 36.4
per cent of those the heads of which were of foreign birth. Among
the households the heads of which were native-born, the average
number of persons per room was 0.75, and per sleeping room 1.67,
as against 1.15 persons per room and 2.10 persons per sleeping room
in households the heads of which were of foreign birth. None of the
native households, and but 1.9 per cent of the foreign, used all their
rooms for sleeping purposes. The greater degree of congestion in the
latter class of households is also illustrated by the fact that the
average monthly rent payment per capita was $2.19, as contrasted
with $3.84 in households the heads of which were of native birth.
Of the families the heads of which were of native birth, 17.6 per cent
owned their homes, as against 13.5 per cent of the families the heads
of which were foreign-born.
About the same proportion of the male employees 20 years of age
or over in both nativity groups were married, the percentage of the
foreign-born being 59.6, and of the native-born 59.8. Of the total
number of foreign-born employees, 95.3 per cent were able to read,
and 94.1 per cent able both to read and to write. About three-fourths
(75.1 per cent) of the foreign-born employees of non-English-speaking
races were able to speak English. About one-third (33.1 per cent) of
the foreign-born employees 21 years of age or over and resident in
the United States five years or more, were fully naturalized, while
20.5 per cent were in possession of first papers. Of the native-born
wage-earning males in the households studied 35.3 per cent, and of
the foreign-born 37.1 per cent, were members of labor organizations.
The report upon this industry is divided into three parts: (1) Gen-
eral survey of the industry as a whole; (2) general survey of the indus-
try in the East, including studies of two representative boot and shoe
manufacturing communities; and (3) general survey of the industry
in the Middle West.
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING.
The operating forces of the furniture-manufacturing establish-
ments were studied throughout the territory east of the Mississippi
River, but special stress was laid upon the centers of the industry,
such as Grand Rapids, Michigan, and Rockford, Illinois. Detailed
information was secured for 4,295 employees, and 338 households
the heads of which were employed in the industry were intensively
studied. Of the total number of employees, 59.1 per cent were of
foreign birth, while 19.6 per cent were of native birth but foreign
father, and 21.2 per cent were native-born of native father. Of the
foreign-born employees, the southern and eastern Europeans were
represented in greatest numbers by the Poles, with 482 reporting,
followed by the Lithuanians, with 130. Of the races of old immi-
gration the Dutch and Swedes, reporting 798 and 631, appeared in
the largest numbers. Of the foreign-born employees, 10.4 per cent
were engaged in the same kind of work before coming to this country,
while 49.3 per cent were farmers or farm laborers abroad. The aver-
age weekly wage of employees 18 years of age or over was $11.67,
the average annual earnings of male heads of families were $598, and
the earnings per annum of all males 18 years of age or over in the
households studied were $575. The average annual income of
308 The Immigration Commission.
families the heads of which were employed in the industry was $769.
Of the total number of families studied, 42.3 per cent were supported
entirely by the earnings of the husbands, while 13.2 per cent derived
their entire income from the earnings of husbands and the payments
of boarders or lodgers, and 24.9 per cent from the earnings of hus-
bands and the contributions of children. Of the households the
heads of which were of native birth, 11.3 per cent kept boarders or
lodgers, as against 18.8 per cent of the foreign-born. Among the
households the heads of which were native-born, the average number
of persons per room was 0.68 and per sleeping room 1.66, as contrasted
with 0.98 person per room and 2.34 persons per sleeping room in
households the heads of which were of foreign birth. The greater
degree of congestion in the latter class of households is illustrated by
the fact that the average monthly rent payment per capita was
$1.51, as contrasted with $2.13 in households the heads of which
were of native birth. Of the families the heads of which were native-
born, 50.8 per cent, and of those the heads of which were of foreign
birth, 63.3 per cent, owned their homes.
Of the employees 20 years of age or over, 66.5 per cent of the native-
born and 68.9 per cent of the foreign-born were married. Of the
foreign-born employees, 96.1 per cent were able to read and 94.3 per
cent able to both read and write. Of the total number of foreign-
born employees of non-English-speaking races, 78.9 per cent had
acquired the use of the English language. Of the foreign-born em-
ployees 21 years of age or over who had been in the United States at
least five years, 55.1 per cent were fully naturalized and 29.8 per
cent had first papers. None of the native-born males in the house-
holds studied, and only 1.1 per cent of the foreign-born, were members
of labor organizations.
The data collected in connection with the study of the industry
are presented in tabulations covering the industry as a whole, with
some special treatment relating to conditions in Grand Rapids, Mich.
COLLAR, CUFF, AND SHIRT MANUFACTURING.
The collar, cuff, a*nd shirt manufacturing establishments were stud-
ied in Troy, N. Y., in which city almost all the establishments of
the industry are located. Detailed information was secured for 1,508
employees, and 264 households the heads of which were employed in
the industry were intensively studied. Of the total number of em-
ployees, 13.4 per cent were of foreign birth, while 36.5 per cent were
of native birth but of foreign father, and 50.1 per cent were native-
born of native father. Among the foreign-born the Russian is the
principal race of eastern Europe engaged in the industry, while of
the races of past immigration the Irish are represented in the greatest
numbers. Of the foreign-born female employees, only 3.6 per cent
had had any experience in the same kind of work before coming to
this country; 35.7 per cent had been farmers or farm laborers abroad.
The average weekly wage of the male employees 18 years of age or
over was $12.56, and of the females $7.63; the average annual earn-
ings of male heads of families were $662, and of all males 18 years of
age or over in the households studied, $637. The average annual
income of families the heads of which were employed in the industry
was $861. Of the total number of families studied, 39.8 per cent
derived their entire income from the earnings of the husbands, while
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 309
2.1 per cent were supported by the earnings of the husbands and the
payments of boarders or lodgers, and 9.3 per cent by the earnings of
husbands and contributions of children. Of the households the heads
of which were native-born 8.9 per cent kept boarders or lodgers and of
the foreign-born 6.4 per cent. Among the households the heads of
which were native-born the average number of persons per room
was 0.63 and per sleeping room 1.65, as compared to 0.74 person
per room and 1.75 persons per sleeping room in the households the
heads of which were of foreign birth. ' None of either the native or
foreign households used all rooms for sleeping purposes. The average
monthly rent payment per capita in households the heads of which
were foreign-born was $2.70, as against $3.26 in households the heads
of which were of native birth. Only 6.8 per cent of the native-born
families owned their homes, as against 21.7 per cent of the families
the heads of which were of foreign birth.
Of the native-born employees 20 years of age or over only 22.5 per
cent, and of the foreign-born 42.2 per cent, were married. Of the
foreign-born employees, 93.8 per cent were able to read, and 93.3 per
cent able both to read and to write. Of the foreign-born employees
of non-English-speaking races, 80.2 per cent had learned to speak
the English language. Of the wage-earning males of native birth
in the households studied 3.5 per cent, and of the foreign-born 6.6 per
cent, were members of labor organizations.
Information secured for households and for employees is presented
in tabulations relating to the industry as a whole.
LEATHER TANNING, CURRYING, AND FINISHING.
A study was made of the operating forces in the leather-tanning
industry in Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, and in the leather currying
and finishing industry in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.
Detailed information was secured for 12,839 employees, and 362
households the heads of which were employed in the industry were
intensively studied. Of the total number of employees 67 per cent
were of foreign birth, 15.7 per cent were of native birth but or foreign
father, and 17. 4 per cent were native-born of native father. The Poles,
Slovaks, and Greeks were the three principal races from southern and
eastern Europe engaged in the industry; these races reported to the
number of 2,799, 632, and 616, respectively. The German, Swedish,
and Irish of the races of past immigration were represented in the
largest numbers, the numbers reporting being 1,161 Germans, 327
Swedes, and 260 Irish. Only 6 per cent of the employees of foreign
birth had had any experience in the same kind of work before coming
to this country, while 58.1 per cent were farmers or farm laborers
abroad. The average weekly wage of male employees 18 years of age
or over was $10.64, and of female workers $6.87. The average annual
earnings of male heads of families who were employed in leather
tanning, currying, and finishing were $511, and of all males 18 years
of age or over in the households studied they were $431. The average
annual income of families the heads of which were working in the
industry was $671. Slightly more than two-fifths (44.6 per cent)
of the families studied derived their entire income from the earnings
of husbands, while 24 per cent were supported by the earnings of
husbands and the payments of boarders or lodgers, and 17.1 per cent
310 The Immigration Commission.
by the earnings of husbands and the contributions of children. Of
the total number of households the heads of which were native-born
15.7 per cent kept boarders or lodgers, as against 29.7 per cent of
those the heads of which w^ere foreign-born. Among the households
the heads of which were native-born the average number of persons
per room was 0.78 and per sleeping room 1.85, as against 1.25 persons
per room and 2.28 persons per sleeping room in the households the
heads of which were foreign-born. Of the native households 1.2 per
cent, and of the foreign 1.4 per cent, used all their rooms for sleeping
purposes. In the latter class of households the average monthly rent
Eayment per capita was $1.61, as contrasted with $2.64 in house-
olds the heads of which were of native birth. Among the native
households 9.6 per cent owned their homes, as contrasted with 20.9
per cent of the foreign-born.
Of the total number of native-born employees 20 years of age or
over, 61 per cent, and of the foreign-born 64.4 per cent, were married.
Only 87 per cent of the employees of foreign birth were able to read,
and 83.8 per cent able both to read and to write. Of the total number
of foreign-born employees of non-English-speaking races, only 49.3
per cent were able to speak English. Of the foreign-born employees
21 years of age or over and resident in the United States at least
5 years 36.2 per cent were citizens and 21.4 per cent were possessors
of first papers of naturalization. Only 6.7 per cent of the wage-
earning males of native birth and 5.3 per cent of the foreign-born
in the households studied were members of labor organizations.
GLOVE MANUFACTURING.
A study was made of the operating forces of the glove-manufactur-
ing industry in New York State. Detailed information was secured
for 908 employees, and 262 households the heads of which were
employed in the glove-manufacturing industry were intensively
studied. Of the total number of employees, 33.5 per cent, or about
one- third, were foreign-born, 15.7 per cent were of native birth but
of foreign father, and 50.8 per cent, or about one-half, were native-
born persons of native father. The South Italians and Russian
Hebrews reported in larger numbers than any other of the races of
southern and eastern Europe, and the English reported in much larger
numbers than any other race of the old immigration. Of the foreign-
born in the households studied, 60.9 per cent of the males and 14.4
per cent of the females had had experience in the same kind of work
before coming to this country, while 21.2 per cent of the males and
5.5 per cent of the females had been farmers or farm laborers abroad.
The average weekly wage of the male employees 18 years of age or
over was $12.33, and of the adult females it was $6.46. The average
annual earnings of male heads of families who were employed in the
industry were $650, and of all males 18 years of age or over in the
households studied they were $625. The average annual income of
the families the heads of which were employed in the industry was
$904. Slightly less than one-fourth (24.3 per cent) of the families
studied derived their entire income from the earnings of the husbands,
while 6.1 per cent were supported by the earnings of the husbands and
the payments of boarders or lodgers, and 10.9 per cent from the
earnings of the husbands and the contributions or the children. Of
the total number of native households studied, 13.3 per cent kept
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 311
boarders or lodgers, as against 11.2 per cent of the total foreign
households. Among the households the heads of which were native-
born, the average number of persons per room was 0.54, and per
sleeping room 1.41, as compared to 0.74 person per room and 1.78
persons per sleeping room in the households the heads of which were
of foreign birth. None of the households of either nativity group
used all their rooms for sleeping purposes. In the foreign households
the average monthly rent payment per capita was $2.27, as con-
trasted with $3.12 in the households the heads of which were of native
birth. Of the families the heads of which were native-born, 34.4 per
cent owned their homes, and of the families the heads of which were of
foreign birth, 31.2 per cent.
Of the total number of native-born employees 20 years of age or
over, 60.6 per cent, and of the foreign-born 67.8 per cent, were mar-
ried. Of the foreign-born employees 98.3 per cent were able to read,
and 97.9 per cent able both to read and to write. Of the foreign-born
employees 21 years of age or over who had been in the United States
five years or more, 54.3 per cent were fully naturalized and 30.9 per
cent were in possession of first papers. None of the native-born and
only 1.6 per cent of the foreign-born wage-earning males in the house-
holds studied were affiliated with labor organizations.
OIL REFINING.
A study was made of the operating forces of the oil-refining
industry in the two principal oil-producing centers of the country—
Bayonne, New Jersey, and Whiting, Indiana. Detailed information
was secured for 6,123 employees, and 525 households the heads of
which were employed in the refineries were intensively studied. Of
the total number of employees, 66.7 per cent were of foreign
birth, 21.5 per cent were of native birth but of foreign father, and
only 11.8 per cent were native-born of native father. The Poles, with
1,031 reporting, and the Slovaks, with 757, were the principal races
of southern and eastern Europe engaged in the industry, while the
Irish, with 830, followed by the Germans, with 313, were the races
of old immigration represented in the largest numbers. None of
the employees of foreign birth had had any experience in the same
work before coming to this country, while 60.8 per cent had been
farmers or farm lafiorers abroad. The average daily wage of male
employees 18 years of age or over was $2.51, and the average weekly
wage $13.81. The average annual earnings of male heads of families
who were employed in the oil refineries were $662, and of all males 18
years of age or over in the households studied they were $591. The
average annual income of families the heads of which were working
in the industry was $828. Slightly more than two-fifths (42.2 per
cent) of the families -studied derived their entire income from the
earnings of the husbands, while 28.5 per cent were supported by the
earnings of the husbands and the payments of boarders or lodgers,
and 10.8 per cent by the earnings of the husbands and the contribu-
tions of the children. Only 9.7 per cent of the total number of native
households studied kept boarders or lodgers, as contrasted with 34.2
per cent of those the heads of which were of foreign birth. Among
the households the heads of which were native-born the average num-
ber of persons per room was 0,89^ and per sleeping room 1,95, as
312 The Immigration Commission.
against 1.39 persons per room and 2.45 persons per sleeping room in
the households the heads of which were of foreign birth. None of the
native households, but 11.9 per. cent of the households the heads of
which were foreign-born, used all their rooms for sleeping purposes.
The greater degree of congestion in the latter class of households is
also Slustrated by the fact that the average monthly rent payment
per capita was $1.55, as contrasted with $2.91 in households the
heads of which were of native birth. About the same proportion of
families of both nativity groups owned their homes, the percentage
in the case of the foreign-born being 20.4 and the native-born 20.
Of the total number of native-born employees 20 years of age or over,
58.6 per cent, and of the foreign-born 71.5 per cent, were married.
Only 85.7 per cent of the employees of foreign birth were able to read,
and 82.7 per cent to both read and write. Of the total number of
foreign-born employees of non-English-speaking races, 65.6 per cent
were able to speak English. Of the foreign-born employees 21 years
of age or over who had been in the United States five years or more,
36.3 per cent were naturalized and 21.7 per cent were in possession
of first papers. Only 1 .2 per cent of the wage-earning males of foreign
birth ana 5.8 per cent of the native-born in the households studied
were members of labor organizations.
SUGAR REFINING.
The wage-earners in sugar refineries were studied in New York,
Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. Detailed information was secured
for 5,826 employees, and 194 households the heads of which were
employed in the industry were intensively studied. Of the total
number of employees, 85.3 per cent were of foreign birth, while 8.4
per cent were of native birth but foreign father, and 6.3 per cent were
native-born of native father. The Polish and Lithuanian, reporting
to the number of 1,758 and 972, respectively, were the principal races
of southern and eastern Europe engaged in the industry, and the
German and Irish, with 691 and 416, respectively, were the races
of past immigration represented in the largest numbers. Only 0.6
per cent of the foreign-born employees had had any experience in the
same kind of work before coming to this country, while 60.8 per cent
had been farmers or farm laborers abroad. The average weekly wage
of employees 18 years of age or over was $11.82, the average annual
earnings of male heads of families were $549, and the average annual
earnings of all males 18 years of age or over in the households studied
were $522. The average annual income of families the heads of which
were employed in the industry was $661. Of the total number of
families studied, 30.2 per cent derived their entire income from the
earnings of husbands, while exactly one-half the families were sup-
ported by the earnings of husbands and the payments of boarders
or lodgers and 8.1 per cent by the earnings of husbands and the con-
tributions of children. Of the households the heads of which were of
foreign birth, 59.8 per cent kept boarders or lodgers, the average num-
ber of persons per room in the foreign households being 1.54 and per
sleeping room 2.36, while 12.9 per cent of these households used all
their rooms for sleeping purposes. The average monthly rent pay-
ment per person among households the heads of which were of foreign
birth was $1 .81 . Only 0.5 per cent of the families the heads of which
were foreign-born owned their homes.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 313
Of the employees 20 years of age of over, 63 per cent of the native-
born and 63.6 per cent of the foreign-born were married. Only
77.4 per cent of the employees of foreign birth were able to read
and 72.8 per cent able to both read and write, while but 40 per cent
of the foreign-born employees of non-English-speaking races had
learned to speak the English language. Of the foreign-born employees
21 years of age or over and resident in the United States at least five
years, only 27.1 per cent were fully naturalized and 13.4 per cent in
possession of first papers. This industry is practically without labor
organization. Out of a total of 365 wage-earning males in the house-
holds studied of whom the inquiry was made as to whether or not
they were in labor organizations, only 2 (Poles) answered in the
affirmative.
THE MANUFACTURE 'OF CIGARS AND TOBACCO.
The operating forces of cigar and tobacco factories were studied
throughout the territory east of the Mississippi Kiver. Detailed
information was secured for 36,564 employees, and in Tampa, Florida,
127 households the heads of which were employed in the industry
were intensively studied. Of the total number of employees, 32.6
per cent were of foreign birth, while 15.5 per cent were of native
birth but of foreign father, and over one-half, or 52 per cent, were
native-born of native father. Of the races of foreign birth employed
in the industry, the Cuban and Spanish were represented in largest
numbers. The South Italian, Polish, and Magyar were the three prin-
cipal races of recent immigration engaged in the industry and the
German and Irish of the races of old immigration. The South Italians
reported to the number of 1,927, the Poles reported 850, the Magyars
534, the Germans 607, and the Irish 317. Of the employees of foreign
birth, 55.3 per cent of the males and 29.2 per cent of the females had
been engaged in the same kind of work before coming to this country,
while 23.3 per cent of the males and 51.6 per cent of the females had
been farmers or farm laborers in their native countries. The average
daily wage of male employees 18 years of age or over was $1.92 and
of the female employees 18 years of age or over $1.15. Of all for-
eign-born employees 20 years of age or over 58.4 per cent were mar-
ried, while only 45.6 per cent of the native-born were so reported.
Of the employees of foreign birth, 91.2 per cent were able to read and
90.1 per cent able both to read and to write, while of the foreign-born
employees of non-English-speaking races only 28.6 per cent were able
to speak the English language. Of the foreign-born employees 21
years of age or over who had been in the United States five years or
more, only 14.5 per cent were fully naturalized and 4.5 per cent were
in possession of first papers.
In preparing the data for publication four general divisions were
made:
(1) General survey of the industry as a whole.
(2) General survey of the industry in the East.
(3) General survey of the industry in the Middle West.
(4) General survey of the industry in the South, including a
detailed study of the industry in Tampa, Florida.
72289°— VOL 1—11 21
STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
EXPLANATION OF METHODS OF PRESENTATION.
The statistical data for the employees of the leading industries of
the country, and the members of their households as already men-
tioned, together with the historical and descriptive material secured
as the result of the general industrial study, are presented by indus-
tries in the series of volumes entitled Immigrants in Industries. The
statistical data are also summarized by industries and races and by
nativity groups in two volumes of the same series. a In the present
connection the salient parts of the statistical information secured
from the studies of wage-earners and members of their house-
holds are submitted according to race without reference to any
particular industry for the purpose of ascertaining the tendencies
exhibited by recent immigrants and of comparing these tendencies
with those displayed by the native-born and races of old immigra-
tion from Great Britain and northern Europe. The tabulations are
based on the detailed information secured from the employees of
mines and industrial establishments and from the returns obtained
from the study of households the heads of which were mine and
industrial workers.
HOUSEHOLDS STUDIED.
A total of 17,141 households the heads of which were miners or
wage-earners in manufacturing establishments were studied in detail
in the course of the general investigation of immigrants in industries
in the territory between the Rocky Mountains and the Atlantic sea-
board. These households were selected upon the folio wing basis:
(1) A certain maximum number was allotted to each industry
studied; (2) the number of the households of each recent immigrant
race studied in connection with each industry was apportioned accord-
ing to the relative numerical importance of the several races in the
operating force, and a limited number of households the heads of
which were native Americans or older immigrants without reference
to the number of such employees in the industry were secured for
the purpose of comparison with the households the heads of which
were wage-earners of recent immigration; (3) the total number of
households was then divided (a) according to the geographical dis-
tribution of the industry in order to ascertain differences in working
and living conditions in various sections of the country, and (6) the
households the heads of which were of foreign birth and of recent
immigration were apportioned according to the period of residence
of the heads in the United States. The table which follows shows,
by general nativity and race of head of household, the total number
of households studied.
a Immigrants in Industries: Summary Report on Manufacturing and Mining. Re-
ports of the Immigration Commission, vols. 19 and 20. (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 23, 61st
Cong., 2d sess.)
315
316
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 2. — Households studied, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
- — I
General nativity and race of
head of household.
Households.
General nativity and race of
head of household.
Households.
Number.
Percent
distribu-
tion.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
6.6
.9
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
1.3
1.8
.5
.7
2.9
.2
.8
3.0
3.6
.3
. 1
.8
2.7
.8
.5
.9
5.5
1.3
4.4
Foreign-born — Continued.
Irish
731
653
1,530
3
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
4.3
3.8
8.9
(0)
4.6
.1
5.3
.2
.2
12.3
1.4
.4
.4
3.1
.8
.4
7.7
1.0
.2
2.8
1.0
.3
.5
Italian, North
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian..
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Canadian, Other
Dutch
English
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Irish
Portuguese
Polish
Roumanian
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian...
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Bulgarian
Slovak
Slovenian
Croatian
Spanish
Cuban
Swedish
Danish
Syrian
Dutch
Turkish
English
Welsh
Finnish
Grand total
17, 141
100.0
French
Total native-born of foreign
father . .
727
2,014
15, 127
4.2
11.7
88.3
Grefck
Total native-born
Hebrew . . .
Total foreign-born. . .
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Upon reference to the table preceding, it is seen that of the total
number of households studied 1,139, or 6.6 per cent, were those of
heads who were native-born white persons of native fathers; 727, or
4.2 per cent', were of heads of native birth but of foreign father; and
148, or 0.9 per cent, were of heads who were native-born negroes.
These classes of households, together with those the heads of which
were foreign-born English, German, Irish, Welsh, and Scotch indus-
trial workers, were selected to afford a comparison, as stated above,
with wage-earners of southern and eastern Europe engaged in the
same industries and occupations. The remaining households, hav-
ing been selected on the basis of the numerical importance of the
several races in the different industries studied, indicate the relative
extent to which members of the several races were employed in the
mines and manufacturing establishments of the United States. In
this respect the Poles outrank all other races of recent immigration,
12.3 per cent of the total number of households studied represent-
ing this race. The South Italians and Slovaks are next in order;
of the total number of households, 8.9 per cent are of the former
and 7.7 per cent of the latter race. As a matter of fact, the
Poles and South Italians are employed in practically all branches of
mining and manufacturing enterprise. The Slovaks are not so
extensively engaged as the Poles and South Italians, but in those
industries in which the Slovaks are principally employed, such as
bituminous and anthracite coal mining and the iron and steel plants,
they appear in larger numbers than the other two races. After the
Slovaks, the Germans, Magyars, Lithuanians, Hebrews, Irish, North
Italians, Croatians, Kuthenians, and French Canadians form the
largest proportions of the body of foreign-born wage-earners who are
heads of households. The heads of households of other races occur
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 317
in comparatively small numbers in different industries or, as in the
case of the Brava textile operatives in New England, the Cuban
cigar makers in Tampa and New Orleans, or the Mexican miners in
the Southwest, are representative of only one industry or of a certain
geographical area in which the industry is located.
MEMBERS OF HOUSEHOLDS.
There was a total of 96,543 persons in the households investigated,
and of this number detailed information was secured for 87,082.
The table below sets forth, by general nativity and race of head of
household, the persons in the households studied and the persons for
whom detailed information was obtained:
TABLE 3. — Persons in households studied and persons for whom detailed information was
secured, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race of head of house-
hold.
Total
number of
households.
Persons in households.
Persons for whom de-
t ailed information
was secured.
Number.
Per cent dis-
tribution.
Number.
Per cent dis-
tribution.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
3
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
4,715
536
114
106
54
73
174
928
1,558
355
598
2,577
112
861
2,945
4,720
200
81
818
2,085
698
396
569
4,919
1,386
3,950
3,984
3,593
8,637
160
4,651
85
5,867
196
153
12,755
1,550
960
445
3,539
729
664
7,737
1.013
'188
2,377
792
792
494
4.9
' .6
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
1.0
1.6
.4
.6
2.7
.1
.9
3.1
4.9
.2
.1
.8
2.2
.7
.4
.6
5.1
1.4
4.1
4.1
3.7
8.9
.2
4.8
.1
6.1
.2
.2
13.2
1.6
1.0
.5
3.7
.8
.7
8.0
1.0
. .2
2.5
.8
.8
.5
4,621
529
114
105
54
1 71
167
922
1,550
351
583
2,559
112
784
2,934
2,790
200
81
811
2,072
659
377
569
4,631
1,346
3,928
3,952
3,051
8,077
77
4,267
76
4,486
196
153
11,517
1,398
288
351
3,360
721
335
6,803
845
188
2,311
768
446
493
5.3
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
1.1
1.8
.4
.7
2.9
.1
.9
3.4
3.2
.2
.1
.9
2.4
.8
.4
.7
5.3
1.5
4.5
4.5
3.5
9.3
.1
4.9
.1
5.2
.2
.2
13.2
1.6
.3
.4
3.9
.8
.4
7.8
1.0
.2
2.7
.9
.5
.6
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father'
B ohemian and Moravian
Canadian French
Dutch
English
G erman
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian French
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch ... ...
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew . .
Irish
Italian North
Italian South
Japanese
Lithuanian . . .
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish .
Welsh
Grand total
17, 141
96,543
100.0
87,082
100.0-
Total native-born of foreign father
727
2,014
15, 127
3,362
8,613
87, 930
3.5
8.9
91.1
3,334
8,484
78,598
3.8
9.7
90.3
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
318
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows the distribution of the 87,082 persons for
whom detailed information was secured, according to sex and to
general nativity and race of head of household:
TABLE 4. — Sex of persons for whom detailed information was secured, by general nativity
and race of head of household,
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race of head of house-
hold.
Number.
Per cent of each sex.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Native-born of native father:
White
2,288
273
61
52
28
33
76
460
751
182
314
1,301
69
759
1,443
1,622
90
37
415
1,069
338
188
301
2,437
1,065
2,005
1,961
1,683
4,726
76
2,492
76
2,611
112
77
6,395
697
178
200
1,767
352
234
3,651
457
97
1,206
451
446
257
2,333
256
53
53
26
38
91
462
799
169
269
1,258
43
25
1,494
1,168
110
44
396
1,003
321
189
268
2,194
281
1,923
1,991
1,368
3,351
1
1,775
4,621
529
114
105
54
71
167
922
1,550
351
583
2,559
112
784
2,937
2,790
200
81
811
2,072
659
377
569
4,631
1,346
3,928
3,952
3,051
8,077
77
4,267
76
4,486
196
153
11,517
1,398
288
351
3,360
721
335
6,803
845
188
2,311
768
446
493
49.5
51.6
53.5
49.5
51.9
46.5
45.5
49.9
48.5
51.9
53.9
50.8
61.6
96.8
49.1
58.1
45.0
45.7
51.2
51.6
51.3
49.9
52.9
52.6
79.1
51.0
49.6
55.2
58.5
98.7
58.4
100.0
58.2
57.1
50.3
55.5
49.9
61.8
57.0
52.6
48.8
69.9
53.7
54.1
51.6
52.2
58.7
100.0
52.1
50.5
48.4
46.5
50.5
48.1
53.5
54.5
50.1
51.5
48.1
46.1
49.2
. 38.4
3.2
50.9
41.9
55.0
54.3
48.8
48.4
48.7
50.1
47.1
47.4
20.9
49.0
50.4
44.8
41.5
1.3
41.6
.0
41.8
42.9
49.7
44.5
50.1
38.2
43.0
47.4
51.2
30.1
46.3
45.9
48.4
47.8
41.3
.0
47.9
Negro ....
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian Other
Dutch
English
German
Irish
Polish . . ..
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian ....
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Danish .. ..
Dutch
English...
Finnish
Flemish *
French
German
Greek .
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
1,875
84
76
5,122
701
110
151
1,593
369
101
3,152
388
91
1,105
317
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian .
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish.
Syrian
Turkish...
Welsh
236
Grand total
47,859
39,223
87, 082
55.0
45.0
Total native-born of foreign father
1,643
4,204
43,655
1,691
4,280
34, 943
3,334
8,484
78,598
49.3
49.6
55.5
50.7
50.4
44.5
Total native-born
Total foreign-born c
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
319
In the table which is next presented the sex of persons in the house-
holds is also shown, but the presentation is by general nativity and
race of individual instead of head of household.
TABLE 5. — Persons for whom detailed information was secured, by sex and general
nativity and race of individual.
(STUD'S OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race of individual.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
3,219
273
3,313
257
3
68
725
13
4
706
22
435
42
24
280
469
175
73
79
1,335
47
694
1,510
549
1,188
739
611
40
50
2,386
242
20
39
704
180
19
1,579
191
21
609
66
123
192
562
"'36'
11
823
55
716
80
1
26
135
551
149
111
196
1,052
230
6,532
530
3
128
1,405
24
4
1,347
38
891
65
43
554
929
350
144
151
2,710
91
1,429
2,988
1.133
2,389
1,534
1,256
85
98
4,812
510
46
97
1,358
323
39
3,131
414
42
1,237
127
248
448
1,209
1
88
764
1,645
63
1,876
143
1
46
297
1,195
312
226
425
2,328
1,255
2
2,498
1,609
1,924
5,656
77
6.7
.6
.0
.1
1.4
W.o
1.3
(a)
1.0
(a)
W.o
1.0
.4
.1
.2
2.9
.1
1.5
3.1
1.2
2.5
1.7
1.3
.1
.1
5.1
.6
.1
.1
1.4
.3
(0),2
.5
(«)
1.3
.1
.3
.5
1.4
(a)
i!e
1.7
(\4
.1
.0
W3
1.3
.3
.2
.5
2.7
2.1
(a)
2.7
1.7
2.3
7.3
.2
8.4
.7
(a)
.2
1.8
(a)
(a)
1.8
.1
1.1
.1
.1
.7
1.2
.4
.2
.2
3.4
.1
1.8
3.8
1.4
3.0
1.9
1.6
.1
.1
6.1
.6
.1
.1
1.8
.5
(a)
4.0
.5
.1
1.6
.2
.3
.5
1.4
.0
.1
(a)
2.1
.1
1.8
.2
(a)
'.3
1.4
.4
.3
.5
2.7
.6
.0
3.1
2.1
2.1
5.5
(a)
7.5
.6
(0)
.1
1.6
8
1.5
(a)
1.0
.1
W.6
1.1
.4
.2
.2
3.1
.1
1.6
3.4
1.3
2.7
1.8
1.4
.1
.1
5.5
.6
.1
.1
1.6
<0>31
(°\.l
.1
.3
.5
1.4
(0)
.'9
1.9
.1
2.2
.2
(a)
'.3
1.4
.4
.3
.5
2.7
1.4
(a)
2.9
1.8
2.2
6.5
.1
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Armenian
60
680
11
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian French
641
16
456
23
19
274
460
175
71
72
1.375
44
735
1,478
584
1,201
795
' 645
45
48
2.426
268
26
58
654
143
20
1,552
223
21
628
61
125
256
647
1
58
753
822
8
1,160
63
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French .
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian. .
Scotch
Servian -
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish ..
Swedish
Syrian...
Welsh
Foreign-born:
Armenian. .
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Dalmatian
Danish
20
162
644
163
115
229
1,276
Dutch . .
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
1,025
2
1,270
802
1,111
3,514
76
Gypsy. ..
Hebrew
1,228
807
813
2,142
1
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese...
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
320
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 5. — Persons for whom detailed information was secured,
nativity and race oj individual — Continued.
sex and general
General nativity and race of individual.
9
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Foreign-born— Continued .
Lithuanian
1,690
91
1,919
64
1
29
4,076
430
1,006
"~i,"275
40
2,696
91
3,194
104
1
58
6,911
887
1
255
281
1,992
410
2
292
3,640
438
137
1,058
639
443
229
3.5
.2
4.0
.1
w',
8.5
.9
.0
.3
.4
2.3
.4
.0
.4
4.3
.5
.2
1.2
.8
.9
.2
2.6
.0
3.3
.1
.0
.1
7.2
1.2
w.2
.3
2.3
.5
(a)
.2
4.0
.5
.1
1.2
.6
.0
.3
3.1
.1
3.7
.1
w..
7. 9
1.0
W
.3
.3
2.3
.5
W.3
4.2
.5
.2
1.2
.7
.5
.3
Mexican
Montenegrin
29
2,835
457
90
104
888
199
2
79
1,573
203
54
485
249
""iis"
Polish
Portuguese
Porto Rican
165
177
1.104
211
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Scotch-Irish
Servian
213
2,067
235
83
573
390
443
116
Slovak
Spanish
Swedish
Turkish
Weigh
Grand total
47,859
39, 223
87,082
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
16, 113
19,605
28,254
16,057
19,630
19, 593
32, 170
39, 235
47, 847
33.7
41.0
59.0
40.9
50.0
50.0
36.9
45.1
54.9
Total foreign-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
RACIAL COMPOSITION OF OPERATING FORCES OF MINES AND MANU-
FACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS AT PRESENT TIME.
The table which immediately follows includes the industries which
were intensively studied,0 and is based upon information received for
507,256 wage-earners in mines and manufacturing establishments.
It shows the distribution of these employees according to sex and
general nativity and race.
TABLE 6. — Employees for whom information was secured, by sex and general nativity and
race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
82,522
22,072
8
1
31
2,668
113
149
5
19,669
3,061
102,191
25,133
8
1
85
4,532
273
191
5
20.1
5.4
(»)
(<>)
(fc)
(6)"
8
.20.2
3.1
.0
.0
.1
1.9
9
(b)'~
.0
20.1
5.0
(*)
(*)
W
.9
(6) '
(b)
Indian
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
Arabia
Australia
54
1,864
160
42
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
Bulgaria...
a See Table 1, p. 294
b Less than 0.05 per cent.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
321
TABLE 6. — Employees for whom information was secured, by sex and general nativity and
race — Continued .
General nativity and race.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father— Continued.
Canada
4,932
9
2
200
210
7,511
93
804
17,943
13
3
14,144
711
4,520
10
9,452
19
2
206
268
10,464
100
1,029
24,267
22
5
23,202
1,325
29
898
1
284
202
9
2,604
3,050
2
74
1,341
566
10
1,834
14
10
6
1
35
5
686
4,570
33
971
17,878
2,547
10,103
3,557
43
659
1,747
7
17,178
2
3,950
175
2,295
21,010
6,146
5,310
1,842
200
1
15,540
15,310
20,170
148
167
9
10,503
603
12,327
218
252
79
735
24
48. 7fl7
1.2
g
(o!.i
1.8
w.2
4.4
8
3.5
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00
!o
.1
00
(a)
.3
.6
00
1
w;!
1
(a)
(aj
00
.2
1.0
w.2
2.3
.4
2.4
.7
(a)
(a)'
3.3
(a)
.9
W5
4.7
1.4
.9
.3
8
2.8
3.3
4.0
(a)
00
K.3
.1
2.9
.1
.1
00
.2
00
in n
4.6
W.o
w.l
3.0
(".2
6.5
c
.6
£
(0).i
w»
<
.2
00
!o
fj
*
fc
.0
W8.7
.8
.2
.5
.0
.1
.3
.0
4.0
.0
.3
W.4
2.0
.6
1.5
.4
.0
.0
4.2
2.0
4.0
W.o
.0
1.2
00
w:I-
W.l
w.«
1.9
g
(°j.i
2.1
W.I
4.8
c
.3
&:'
$ »
C
.6
*i
'•>:!
1
fc,
.9
w,2
3.5
.5
2.0
00 "
'.3
W3.4
W.s
W.5
4.1
1.2
1.0
£)"
3.1
3.0
4.0
00
00
00
2.1
.1
2.4
00
00
00
00 '
Q R
China ...
Cuba
6
58
2,953
225
6,324
9
2
9.058
614
1
1
294
1
49
101
3
1,305
660
3
130
188
4
367
Denmark
England
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
India
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Mexico . ...
28
604
New Zealand
235
101
6
1,299
2,390
1
71
1,211
378
6
1,467
14
9
3
1
35
3
670
3,944
33
966
9,428
1,755
9,886
3,023
43
596
1,487
7
13,324
2
3,643
139
1,884
19,106
5,5(52
3,850
1,412
200
1
11,431
13,394
16,296
146
167
9
9,314
602
11,692
216
252
75
685
23
40. 872
Portugal
Roumania
Scotland
Servia
Spain
Sweden ....
Switzerland
Turkey
Wales
West Indies (other than Cuba)
Africa (country not specified )
1
3
South America (country not specified).
Foreign-born, by race:
Albanian
Arabian
2
16
626
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian ,
Bulgarian
5
8,450
792
217
534
Canadian French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Dalmatian
Danish
63
260
Dutch
Egyptian
English
3,854
Filipino .. .
Finnish
307
36
411
1,904
584
1,460
430
Flemish
French
German
Greek ..
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian
Hindu
Irish . .
4,109
1,916
3,874
2
Italian, North
Italian, South
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian
1,189
1
635
2
Macedonian . .
Magyar
Mexican ' ....
Montenegrin
Negro
4
50
1
7.83ft
Norwegian
Persian
Polish...
Less than 0.05 per cent.
322
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 6. — Employees for whom information was secured, by sex and general nativity and
race — Continued .
General nativity and race.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Foreign-born, by race — Continued.
Portuguese
3,621
1,916
6,588
818
3,198
93
1,653
24,815
4,807
1,937
5,381
994
347
1,776
16
1
17
2,009
1,240
5
339
2,496
146
914
83
731
5
21
456
192
134
157
451
5
93
1
1
1
154
98
5
83
6.117
2,062
7,502
901
3,929
98
1,674
25,271
4,999
2 071
5,538
1,445
352
1.869
17
2
' 18
2,163
1,338
10
422
0.9
.5
1.6
.2
.8
(0)
6.1
1.2
.5
1.3
.2
.1
.4
(a)
(a)
W.5
.3
(a)
2.6
.1
-9
<
.2
.1
.2
.5
(a)
gr
W.2
.1
W.l
1.2
.4
1.5
.2
.8
W.3
5.0
1.0
,4
1.1
.3
.1
a"
W.4
.3
(a)
Roumanian . . . ..
Ruthenian
Scotch • i
Scotch-Irish
Servian
Slovak
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (other than Cuban)
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not specified)
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not specified)...
Swiss (race not specified)
Grand total
409,712
97,544
507,256
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total native-born of foreign father
57,365
161,967
247,745
29,018
51,748
45,796
86,383
213,715
293,541
14.0
39.5
60.5
29.7
53.1
46.9
17.0
42.1
57.9
Total native-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Upon reference to the totals it is seen that more than one-half
(57*9 pel* cent) of all the employees for whom detailed information
was received were of foreign birth, while only 20.1 per cent were
native-born white persons of native father, and 17 per cent persons
of native birth but of foreign father, the remaining 5 per cent being
native-born negroes. The wage-earners of the second generation,
or of native birth and of foreign father, are composed principally of
persons whose fathers were born in Canada, England, Germany, and
Ireland. Of the wage-earners of foreign birth and of old immigra-
tion, the Germans form the largest proportion, followed by the French
Canadians, English, Irish, Swedish, Scotch, French, and Welsh, in the
order named. Of the races of recent immigration to the United States,
the largest proportion of wage-earners is furnished by the Poles, the
representation of this race being 9.6 per cent of the total number for
whom information was received. The next race most extensively
employed is the Slovak, followed by the South Italian, which race in
turn is closely followed by the North Italian. The Magyar, Lithua-
nian, and Croatian races appear in the next largest proportions.
The racial composition of the operating forces of the mines and
manufacturing establishments of the United States at the present
time is set forth in the following tables, based upon information
received for 507,256 employees of the 21 principal industries studied.
The first table shows the distribution of wage-earners for whom infor-
mation was secured by sex, general nativity and race, and industry,
and includes all races. The percentages in Table 8 are computed
only for races which show 500 or more employees.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
323
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324
The Immigration Commission.
A,
i
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 325
183"
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Cuba...
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 327
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328
The Immigration Commission.
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 329
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72289°— VOL 1—11 22
330
The Immigration Commission.
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332
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Total native-bo
Total native-bo
Total foreign-bc
334 The Immigration Commission.
"Upon reference to the total of these industries, it is seen that
20.1 per cent of the employees were native white Americans, 5
Eer cent were native-born negroes, 17 per cent were of native birth
ut of foreign father, and 57.9 per cent were foreign-born. The
native-born Americans, or native-born whites of native father,
are employed most extensively in the manufacture of cigars and
tobacco, collars and cuffs, glass, gloves, and shoes, the proportions of
this race in other industries ranging from one-tenth to one-fifth.
The native negroes have their largest proportions of wage-earners in
cigar and tobacco manufacturing, bituminous coal mining, construc-
tion work, and iron-ore mining of the southern States; considerable
proportions are also engaged in the slaughtering and meat-packing
industry. The wage-earners of the second generation, or of native
birth of foreign father, have about the same racial distribution
according to industries as the native-born Americans. French Cana-
dians are principally employed in the manufacture of cotton goods,
copper mining and smelting, and in the manufacture of shoes and col-
lars and cuffs. The Croatians are employed in largest proportions in
railroad and other construction work, copper mining and smelting,
iron and steel manufacturing, iron-ore mining, slaughtering and meat
packing, bituminous coal mining, leather manufacturing, and oil refin-
ing. The Cuban and Spanish races are employed exclusively in the
manufacture of cigars and tobacco. The Danish appear in the great-
est numbers in leather, furniture, and collar and cuff manufacture.
By far the largest proportions of the Dutch are employed in furniture
factories, a considerable percentage also being found in silk dyeing,
and silk goods manufacturing establishments. The English and Ger-
man wage-earners appear in all the industries specified, the largest pro-
portions of the former race being found to be engaged in the manu-
facture of gloves, woolen and worsted goods, copper mining and smelt-
ing, and the manufacture of cotton goods, while the latter race exhib-
its the largest proportions engaged in sugar refining, silk dveing,
leather manufacturing, and the manufacture of agricultural imple-
ments and vehicles. The Finns are employed in any considerable
numbers only in copper mining and smelting and in iron-ore mining
on the Minnesota and Michigan ranges. The Greek race shows the
largest proportions in leather and cotton goods manufacturing and
in railroad and other construction work. Hebrews have by far the
largest proportions engaged in making clothing, considerable propor-
tions also being found in glove and shoe factories. North and South
Italians are most extensively employed in silk dyeing, railroad and
other construction work, bituminous coal mining, and clothing manu-
facturing. Larger or smaller proportions of Lithuanians appear in
all but one of the industries specified, the highest percentage of wage-
earners of this race being in sugar refining, clothing, and furniture
manufacturing, oil refining, and bituminous coal mining. Magyars
are also well distributed, the largest proportions appearing in iron
and steel manufacturing, bituminous coal mining, agricultural imple-
ments, silk dyeing, and sugar refining. The Poles appear in all the
industries specified, the largest proportions being employed in sugar
refineries, agricultural implements and vehicle establishments, cotton
mills, furniture factories, bituminous coal mining, slaughtering and
meat packing, and leather manufacturing. The Portuguese are not
employed in any considerable numbers outside the cotton mills.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 335
On the other hand, the Roumanians, who appear in unimportant pro-
portions in a number of industries, have their largest proportions in
railroad and other construction work and in iron and steel manufac-
turing. Russians are more extensively engaged in the manufacture
of clothing and in bituminous coal mining than in other industries.
The Slovak race is more largely employed in bituminous coal mining,
oil refining, and iron and steel manufacturing. Detailed data as to
other races in industries may be had from the number table preced-
ing the showing by percentages.
RACIAL COMPOSITION OF THE OPERATING FORCES OF SIXTEEN
SELECTED INDUSTRIES.
As has already been pointed out, information was secured for
112,339 employees of 16 minor industries a in addition to the branches
of mining and manufacturing included in the foregoing table. The
returns from these 16 industries were not analyzed with the same
detail as those of the principal industries, but the following table has
been prepared showing, by sex, industry, and general nativity and
race, the number and per cent of employees for whom information
was secured.
« See p. 294.
336
The Immigration Commission.
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 337
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
339
TABLE 9. — Total number of employees in 16 industries for whom certain information was
secured, by sex and general nativity and race, and by industry — Continued.
FEMALE.
General nativity and race.
Total
num-
ber.
Car-
pet
man-
ufac-
tur-
ing.
Elec-
tric
sup-
plies
manu-
fac-
turing.
Foun-
dry
and
ma-
chine
shop
prod-
ucts
manu-
fac-
turing.
Ho-
siery
and
knit
goods
manu-
fac-
turing.
Paper
and
wood-
pulp
manu-
fac-
turing.
Pa-
per
prod-
ucts
man-
ufac-
tur-
ing.
Rope,
twine,
and
hemp
manu-
fac-
turing.
Sew-
ing
ma-
chine
man-
ufac-
tur-
ing.
Type-
writer
man-
ufac-
tur-
ing.
Native-born of native father:
White
6,311
4
136
472
346
3,946
2
655
206
165
2
158
227
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
6
185
3
629
19
563
1
67
1,694
1
2,455
134
7
7
6
1
212
206
60
40
166
1
1
1
••y
""43"
3
16
.....
22
""32"
""65"
2
74
1
7
127
""23"
"'21
""36"
5
103
2
183
7
349
1
Austria-Hungary
1
4
1
7
6
2
Canada
161
62
84
3
2
14
7
5
16
England
38
16
10
France
5
211
45
1,110
1,358
89
5
3
60
1
33
.......
4
90
1
30
43
7
232
8
181
20
302
3
113
1
1
54
2
136
1
1
36
3
Italy
5
6
1
1
1
10
2
24
41
13
1
2
29
18
28
5
1
1
136
72
12
27
155
2
31
4
3
4
13
2
16
5
12
Scotland
1
3
2
3
2
2
Wales
3
West Indies (other than Cuba)
Africa (country not specified) .
South America (country not
specified)
1
1
3,"GCi"
Total
6,465
154
640
574
—608-
253
186
279
110
Total native-born
12, 780
290
1,112
920
7,609
1,263
459
353
437
337
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian French
12
370
187
1
21
12
296
1
11
359
62
57
16
582
129
248
157
44
2
11
1,968
2
2
170
34
329
1
243
68
22
42
40
35
5
3
33
94
1
7
79
54
1
20
10
""164"
3
1
17
4
6
5
111
9
Canadian Other
*8
2
18
11
151
1
Dutch
1
English
13
62
27
1
1
74
20
16
2
16
28
30
49
4
2
""377"
17
6
9
7
4
Finnish
French
3
27
13
17
10
53
4
2
6
8
5
204
1
1
8
German.
10
11
4
6
29
15
Greek
Hebrew Russian
16
4
222
56
190
81
29
4
3
1
Hebrew Other
""ig"
5
9
4
Irish
204
1
11
43
34
15
1
10
.....
2
2
4
1
1
Italian North .
Italian South
Lithuanian
14
1
Norwegian
5
33
2
6
436
Polish
224
45
851
2
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
2
59
3
34
1
227
62
2
40
32
24
4
5
5
6
8
"'26'
56
11
4
3
34
15
236
5
Ruthenian
Scotch
22
1
6
Scotch-Irish
Slovak
10
6
8
1
2
4
1
6
Swedish
11
1
1
1
Welsh
..'..'..
1
7
3
1
Austrian (race not specified).
Swiss (race not specified). ..
Total foreign-born
5,539
323
423
761
2,059
443
61
1,388
53
28
Grand total
18,319
613
1,535
1,681
9,668
1,706
520
1,741
490
365
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 341
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Total foreig
Grand total
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 343
-S %
! I?
a fi
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1 1 1
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General nativity and race.
Foreign-born, by race— Continued.
Polish
R ussian
Scotch
Slovak
Swedish
Other races
Grand total
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
345
TABLE 10. — Race distribution of employees in 16 industries for whom certain informa-
tion was secured, by industry; percentages — Continued.
FEMALE.
General nativity and race.
Carpet
manu-
factur-
ing.
Electric
sup-
plies
manu-
factur-
ing.
Found-
ry and
ma-
chine
shop
prod-
ucts
manu-
factur-
ing.
Hosiery
and
knit
goods
manu-
factur-
ing.
Paper
and
wood
pulp
manu-
factur-
ing.
Paper
prod-
ucts
manu-
factur-
ing.
Rope,
twine,
and
hemp
manu-
factur-
ing.
Sewing-
ma-
chine
manu-
factur-
' ing.
Type-
writer
manu-
factur-
ing.
Native-born, of native father:
White
22.2
30.7
20.6
40.8
38.4
39.6
9.5
32.2
62.2
Negro
.0
.0
.0
(0)
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
Native-born of foreign father,
by country of birth of
father:
Austria-Hungary
Canada
1.1
7.0
2.1
4.2
1.4
1.2
1.1
1.9
.1
9.4
.8
11.9
.4
4.8
1.2
.6
.5
1.9
England .
2 6
4.8
1.8
3.6
2.2
3.1
.6
2.9
4.4
Germany
3.6
8.3
12.6
11.5
3.5
6.3
.6
18.4
8.2
Ireland
7.0
15.1
10.8
14.0
17.7
21.7
3.1
27.8
9.9
Russia
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.4
.1
.8
.i:
1.0
.0
3
2 7
1 1
7
1 8
2 5
9
2 4
.3
Wales
0
.1
.1
1.6
.0
.6
.0
.4
.8
Other countries . . .
1.9
2.8
3.4
2.1
.8
1.0
.2
2.2
4.1
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian.
Canadian, French..
.0
2.8
.2
2.1
.0
.4
.1
.8
.0
6.5
.2
3.8
.0
6.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
Canadian, Other
.7
6.1
.3
.6
.5
1.9
.2
o
2.2
Croatian
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
English
2.1
4.0
1 6
1.6
1.0
1.2
.5
1 4
1.1
German
1.6
1.8
4.4
2.1
.6
.8
.3
3.1
2.2
Greek
.0
.8
1.2
.0
.0
.0
1 7
.0
.0
Irish...
3.1
3.5
1.0
2.3
12.0
2.1
2.5
2.0
1.1
Italian, North
.8
.3
1.7
.6
.1
.0
2.0
.0
.3
Italian, South
1.5
.1
1.8
2.0
.0
.0
.9
.2
.3
Luthuanian . .
.7
.4
2.9
.8
.8
.0
.1
.4
.0
Magyar
0
.5
2
3
.1
0
o
4
0
Polish
36.5
2.1
22.4
4.5
2.6
.0
48.9
.4
.0
Russian
.8
.5
3.3
.6
.2
.0
2 0
1 0
.0
Scotch
1.0
1.3
.2
.4
1.3
.2
13.6
1.2
.0
Slovak ..
.0
.0
.6
2.3
.0
.0
.3
o
.0
Swedish
.0
.7
.5
(a)
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
Other races
1.1
3.1
2.8
2.3
.2
1.5
.7
.5
.5
Grand total.
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total native-born of foreign
father . .
25.1
41.7
34.1
37.9
35.6
48.7
10 7
56 9
30 1
Total native-born
47.3
72.4
54.7
78.7
74.0
88.3
20.3
89.2
92.3
Total foreign-born .
52.7
27.6
45.3
21.3
26.0
11.7
79.7
10.8
7 7
72289°— VOL 1—11-
Less than 0.05 per cent.
-23
346
The Immigration Commission.
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fc i5 :
Native-born of native fath
White
Negro
Native-born of foreign fat
of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary.. .
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 347
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III
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- — .-
348 The Immigration Commission.
Upon reference to the preceding table it is seen that 60 per cent or
more of the male portion of the operating forces in carpet, cutlery
and tools, rope, twine and hemp, and zinc smelting manufacturing
establishments, as well as 50 to 60 per cent in car building and repair-
ing, foundry and machine-shop products, and sewing-machine man-
ufacturing, were of foreign birth. Of the males of old immigration,
the Germans, English, and Irish, and of the southern and eastern
Europeans, the North and South Italians and Poles, were most exten-
sively employed. Females were employed in 9 only of .the 16 indus-
tries, the foreign-born showing their greatest proportions of employees
in rope, twine and hemp, carpet, and foundry and machine-shop prod-
ucts manufacturing, in the order mentioned, and their smallest per-
centages in typewriter, sewing machine, and paper products manu-
facturing. Females of the races of old immigration from Great Brit-
ain and northern Europe were employed in considerable proportions
in all the industries employing females, while among the females of
recent immigration the Poles give evidence of the greatest diversity
of employment. Upon referring to the totals for both sexes, about
the same tendencies are observable which have already been noted in
the case of the male employees.
PERIOD OF RESIDENCE IN THE UNITED STATES OF FOREIGN-BORN
EMPLOYEES AND MEMBERS OF THEIR HOUSEHOLDS.
The character of recent and past immigration to the mines and
manufacturing establishments of the United States is exhibited by
the two tables following, which show, by sex and race, the period of
residence in the United States of 29*0,923 employees of foreign birth.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
349
TABLE 11 . — Number of foreign-born employees in the, United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. No deduction is made
for time spent abroad.^
MALE.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Abyssinian
1
35
3
663
3.923
25
958
9,351
1,728
9,825
3,011
43
595
1,469
7
13.143
2
3,630
137
1,861
1
7
""54"
304
5
119
346
44
1,771
194
10
24
59
3
584
1
389
14
124
671
954
471
100
38
Albanian
4
5
9
1
67
396
9
378
258
36
2,116
268
17
20
86
6
2
50
228
1
38
253
30
1,043
381
4
Arabian
Armenian
81
102
1
46
270
28
363
248
1
9
24
1
388
50
103
4
295
110
23
716
136
1
7
43
1
389
162
876
5
57
1,148
192
2,823
987
8
96
191
1
1,418
80
156
98
561
21
1,197
Bohemian and Moravian...
Bosnian
Bulgarian
1,339
211
508
244
3
23
65
""898"
4
1,550
301
357
230
1
104
298
'i,*677"
16
4,077
863
128
323
2
285
648
1
6,599
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other '.
Croatian ...
Cuban
Dalmatian . . .
Danish
27
55
"464"
Dutch
Egyptian .
English
726
1
457
29
158
810
1,779
435
115
93
1
296
1,713
2,437
24
16
2
1,441
219
2,161
21
99
4
43
8
6,464
479
742
1,583
190
150
5
439
3,122
792
229
171
164
128
26
2
Filipino .
Finnish
367
17
76
225
500
88
26
13
83
21
84
334
875
205
38
20
387
11
114
525
409
429
87
21
1,122
25
442
2,001
777
1,135
389
11
342
3
91
802
136
332
184
2
240
9
263
3,137
54
352
168
2
243
8
509
10, 478
26
338
291
Flemish
French . .
German. . .
18,983
5,510
3,785
1,398
200
1
11,301
13,307
16, 191
141
149
9
9,267
580
11,620
209
251
75
680
23
40,606
3,583
1,895
6,543
816
3,163
88
1,645
24,704
4,776
1,929
5,350
953
331
1,763
16
1
17
1,990
1,223
5
337
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Hfir zp.go vin i O.TI
Hindu
Irish...
111
617
1.104
2
1
136
681
940
11
5
260
1,772
2,343
13
43
6
1,090
69
1,648
15
42
5
56
5,133
412
317
884
115
129
2
278
2.587
620
168
220
130
51
24
256
1,183
1,625
15
22
1
923
19
1,224
10
22
4
25
947
4,416
4,959
42
58
816
1,3C8
1,502
13
4
1,267
960
860
11
7,212
657
421
10
Italian, North
Italian, South . . .
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
Korean .
Lithuanian
426
45
536
13
1
9
10
1
1,679
157
134
422
50
72
1
63
618
196
126
75
35
40
11
398
216
927
23
53
3
7
6
1,673
180
340
706
57
70
2,881
11
3,404
43
22
21
131
1
11,644
1,158
200
1,498
190
297
8
412
7,836
1,610
652
879
297
20
70
9
1,064
719
325
1
357
26
11
15
307
Macedonian
Magvar
744
32
..„.
36
619
26
1
7
65
Mexican
Mon tenegrin
Negro
Norwegian .
Persian
Polish
3,74i
294
134
467
81
98
2
170
2,420
527
195
152
108
23
20
3.240
377
11
427
54
128
5
71
2,722
351
202
379
106
9
414
3,589
347
11
332
41
348
6
25
2,109
276
140
991
24
4
222
3,443
179
6
224
38
1,871
59
8
2,152
148
104
2,424
4
""954
3
1
6
118
251
1
240
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian .
Ruthenian
Scotch . . .
Scotch-Irish
Servian
179
1,138
256
113
59
85
56
22
2
Slovak .
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish .
Welsh +
West Indian (other than
Cuban)
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not speci-
fied)
1
76
52
2
250
124
"'266'
86
2
659
228
1
29
5
130
72
1
159
208
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified).
South American (race not
specified)
101
45
291
157
3
5
Swiss (race not specified).. .
Total
3
11
4
5
40
245,824
9,565
12,031
31,891
25,113
18, 618
58,505
19,658
22,814
47,629
350
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 11. — Number of foreign-born employees in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race — Continued.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
2
14
621
5
8,318
768
216
529
62
256
3,769
305
36
407
1,860
579
1,426
408
4,027
1,896
3,848
2
1,181
1
632
2
4
50
1
7,734
2,452
145
904
81
724
5
21
449
190
134
156
446
5
87
1
1
1
153
98
5
82
1
""i9~
1
336
20
48
26
1
17
123
28
6
33
46
39
83
13
52
90
203
j
1
71
4
23
1
69
1
414
39
34
43
1
21
208
61
4
42
90
107
290
62
149
296
598
1
53
4
136
2
1,306
135
22
133
5
26
618
82
2
88
235
105
305
135
537
481
1,030
2
44
""98"
1
108
1
2,367
246
Bohemian and Moravian. . .
172
19
21
18
1
15
169
9
7
33
71
97
133
13
77
146
238
394
29
66
58
1
37
273
40
14
52
152
171
275
56
111
312
758
1
355
374
27
14
62
1,433
109
6
64
8
28
399
20
1,522
144
5
57
18
58
701
14
Canadian Other
Cuban
68
27
38
1,128
4
Dutch
16
150
47
3
43
85
39
139
53
128
161
355
English
Finnish - -
Vlpmich
French
31
181
15
93
37
392
256
451
1
57
40
456
3
94
24
564
119
170
45
544
3
14
15
2,017
35
45
Hebrew Russian
Hebrew Other
Irish '
Italian North . ...
Italian South
Lithuanian
95
135
195
111
1
41
198
28
7
Magyar
i25
1
164
174
88
1
74
11
9
6
2
11
1
1,659
803
33
163
6
65
1
2
79
29
34
13
136
1
9
1
5
1
9
Norwegian
5
7
3
4
6
Polish
884
100
32
8
18
515
112
21
95
9
31
1,570
359
38
197
29
39
1,245
327
12
165
12
20
833
265
5
114
3
17
1
5
57
19
11
8
57
533
275
3
62
3
51
359
163
1
26
2
150
1
136
48
Portuguese - ...
Russian
8
Scotch
333
2
Servian
1
56
33
11
2
28
2
50
16
16
4
37
1
3
6
102
59
29
5
80
3
4
3
57
19
16
5
54
1
34
10
8
21
48
Slovak
11
5
6
33
6
3
Slovenian
3
65
Swedish
Turkish
Welsh
4
4
16
16
31
1
West Indian (other than
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not speci-
fied)
1
1
37
19
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not
specified)
17
11
— ,- - -
10
10
1
1
16
18
1
1
22
6
"Y
30
24
3
7
12
1
3
6
6
3
Swiss (race not specified)..
9
Total
6
14
52
45,099
2,690
2,445
5,986
4,792
3,335
8,770
4,728
4,933
7,42&
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 351
TABLE 11. — Number of foreign-born employees in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race — Continued.
TOTAL.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
1
35
5
677
4,544
25
90S
17,669
2,496
10,041
3,540
43
657
1,725
7
16,912
2
3,935
173
2,268
20, 843
6,089
5,211
1,806
200
1
15,328
15,203
20,039
143
149
9
10, 448
581
12,252
211
251
79
730
24
48, 340
• 6,035
2,040
7,447
897
3,887
93
1,666
25, 153
4.966
2,063
5,506
1,399
336
1,850
17
2
18
2,143
1,321
10
419
1
7
Albanian
4
1
81
121
1
47
606
48
411
274
1
10
41
1
511
5
9
2
68
467
9
378
652
65
2,182
326
17
21
123
6
2
51
281
1
38
627
57
1,057
443
""27"
71
""eii"
4
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian. . .
Bosnian
54
126
4
295
282
42
737
154
1
8
58
1
558
55
373
5
120
760
83
1,805
237
10
25
80
3
792
1
450
18
166
761
1,061
761
162
38
166
1,012
5
59
2,454
327
2,845
1,120
8
101
217
1
2,036
82
200
98
659
22
1,305
Bulgarian
5
2,772
320
514
308
3
31
93
"i,"297"
4
3,072
445
362
287
1
122
356
"2,~378'
17
6,444
1,109
128
391
2
312
686
1
7,727
Canadian French
Canadian Other . -
Croatian
Cuban . .
Danish - -
Dutch
EsrvDtian
English
999
1
497
43
210
962
1,950
710
171
93
1
407
2,025
3,195
25
16
2
1,796
219
2,335
21
99
4
50
8
8,034
838
780
1,780
219
189
5
445
3,224
851
259
176
244
131
30
2
Filipino
Finnish
395
23
109
271
539
171
39
13
92
28
117
405
972
338
51
20
434
14
157
610
448
568
140
21
1,204
27
530
2,236
882
1,440
524
11
362
3
122
983
151
425
221
2
254
9
303
3,593
57
446
192
2
247
8
554
11,022
29
352
306
Flemish
German
Greek
Hebrew Russian
Hebrew Other
Herzegovinian
Hindu
Irish
163
707
1,307
2
1
213
827
1,178
11
5
409
2,068
2,941
13
43
6
1,285
69
1,736
16
42
5
59
7
6,378
739
329
1,049
127
149
2
281
2,644
639
184
225
184
51
28
384
1,344
1,980
15
22
1
1,034
20
1,265
10
22
4
29
1,484
4,897
5,989
42
58
1,208
1,564
1,953
14
4
1,831
1,079
1,030
11
9,229
692
466
10
Italian, North
Italian South
Italian (not specified)
Korean
521
45
661
14
1
9
10
1
2, 563
257
166
496
67
90
64
674
229
137
77
63
40
11
533
216
1,031
23
53
3
12
6
2,188
292
361
801
66
101
3,079
11
3,478
43
22
23
142
2
13, 303
1,961
233
1,661
196
362
9
414
7,915
1,639
686
892
433
21
79
9
1,121
""755'
32
747
""628'
26
1
7
71
332
1
363
26
11
16
316
Macedonian
Mexican
Negro
8
41
Persian
Polish
4,574
559
139
581
84
115
3
175
2,477
546
206
160
165
23
24
3,773
652
14
489
57
179
5
72
2,756
361
210
400
154
9
430
3,948
510
12
358
43
498
7
25
2,120
281
146
1,024
30
4
238
3,579
227
6
232
38
2,204
61
8
2,155
148
107
2,489
4
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Scotch-Irish
Servian
182
1,188
272
129
63
122
57
25
2
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
985
4
1
6
124
254
1
292
West Indian (other than
Cuban)
Alsatian (race not speci-
fied)
1
1
162
214
Australian (race not speci-
fied) ... .
1
93
63
1
328
176
3
5
2
266
142
1
12
2
689
252
4
36
5
142
73
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified).
South American (race not
specified)
111
55
1
1
228
92
Swiss (race not specified).. .
Total
3
5
11
54
290,923
12,255 14,476
37,877
29, 905
21,953
67, 275
24,386
27,747
55, 049
352
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 12. — Per cent of foreign-lorn employees in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. No deduction is
made for time spent abroad. This table includes in each sex group only races with 80 or more males or
females reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
MALE
Number
.rerce
Ell 111 L
Race.
complete
data.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Armenian
663
12.2
7.5
10.1
8.1
7.5
24.4
12.1
14.8
3.2
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
3,923
958
2.6
4.8
2.6
30.8
10.1
39.5
7.7
12.4
5.8
4.0
22.3
5.9
4.0
.5
14.3
.4
30.5
1.7
Canadian, French
9,351
2.9
1.2
2.8
3.7
2.7
12.3
14.3
16.6
43.6
Canadian, Other...
1,728
1.6
1.3
2.1
2.5
1.7
11.1
12.2
17.4
49.9
Croatian
9 825
3.7
7.3
21.5
18.0
10.6
28.7
5.2
3.6
1.3
Cuban
3,011
8.2
4.5
8.9
6.4
12.7
32.8
8.1
7.6
10.7
Danish. .
595
1.5
1.2
3.4
4.0
4.5
16.1
3.9
17.5
47.9
Dutch
1,469
1.6
2.9
5.9
4.0
3.7
13.0
4.4
20.3
44.1
English...
13,143
3.0
3.0
5.5
4.4
3.5
10.8
6.8
12.8
50.2
Finnish..
3,630
10.1
2.3
12.6
10.7
10.7
30.9
9.4
6.6
6.7
Flemish
137
12.4
15.3
21.2
10.2
8.0
18.2
2.2
6.6
5.8
French
1,861
4.1
4.5
8.5
6.7
6.1
23.8
4.9
14.1
27.4
German
18, 983
1.2
1.8
4.3
3.5
2.8
10.5
4.2
16.5
55.2
Greek
5,510
9.1
15.9
32.3
17.3
7.4
14.1
2.5
1.0
.5
Hebrew, Russian
3,785
2.3
5.4
11.5
12.4
11.3
30.0
8.8
9.3
8.9
Hebrew, Other
1 398
1.9
2.7
8.2
7.2
6.2
27.8
13.2
12.0
20.8
Herzegovinian . . .
200
6.5
10.0
46.5
19.0
10.5
5.5
1.0
1.0
.0
Irish...
11,301
1.0
1.2
2.6
2.3
2.3
8.4
7.2
11.2
63.8
Italian, North
13,307
4.6
5.1
12.9
13.3
8.9
33.2
9.8
7.2
4.9
Italian, South
Italian (not specified)
16,191
141
6.8
1.4
5.8
7.8
15.1
17.0
14.5
9.2
10.0
10.6
30.0
29.8
9.3
9.2
5.3
7.8
2.6
7.1
Japanese
149
.7
3.4
10.7
28.9
14.8
38.9
2.7
.0
.0
Lithuanian..
9,269
4.6
4.3
15.5
11.8
10.0
31.1
11.5
7.8
3.5
Macedonian
580
7.8
37.2
37.8
11.9
3.3
1.9
.0
.0
.2
Magyar . . .
11,620
4.6
8.0
18.6
14.2
10.5
29.3
6.4
5.3
3.1
Mexican
209
6.2
11.0
10.0
7.2
4.8
20.6
15.3
12.4
12.4
Montenegrin
251
.4
21.1
39.4
16.7
8.8
8.8
.0
.4
4.4
Norwegian . . .
680
1.5
1.0
6.3
8.2
3.7
19.3
5.3
9.6
45.1
Polish
40,606
4.1
4.1
15.9
12.6
9.2
28.7
8.0
8.8
8.5
Portuguese
3 583
4.4
5.0
13.4
11.5
8.2
32.3
10.5
9.7
5.0
Roumanian
1,895
7.1
17.9
39.2
16.7
7.1
10.6
.6
.6
.3
Russian .
6,543
6.4
10.8
24.2
13.5
7.1
22.9
6.5
5.1
3.4
Ruthenian
816
6.1
7.0
23.3
14.1
9.9
23.3
6.6
5.0
4.7
Scotch
3,163
2.3
2.2
4.7
4.1
3.1
9.4
4.0
11.0
59.2
Scotch-Irish
88
1.1
.0
5.7
2.3
2.3
9.1
5.7
6.8
67.0
Servian
1 645
3.8
10.9
26.7
16.9
10.3
25.0
4.3
1.5
.5
Slovak
24,704
2.5
4.6
12.6
10.5
9.8
31.7
11.0
8.5
8.7
Slovenian
4,776
4.1
5.4
16.6
13.0
11.0
33.7
7.3
5.8
3.1
Spanish...
1,929
6.5
5.9
11.9
8.7
10.1
33.8
10.5
7.3
5.4
Swedish
5,350
1.4
1.1
3.2
4.1
2.8
16.4
7.1
18.5
45.3
Syrian . .
953
3.7
8.9
17.2
13.6
11.3
31.2
11.1
2.5
.4
Turkish
331
12.1
16.9
38.7
15.4
6.9
6.0
2.7
1.2
0
Welsh
1,763
.6
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.1
4.0
23.5
12.6
54.1
Total
245 824
3.9
4.9
13.0
10.2
7.6
23.8
8.0
9.3
19 4
FEMALE.
Bohemian and Moravian
621
3.1
3.7
11.4
11.1
8.5
21.9
7 1
15 8
17.4
Canadian French
8 318
4 0
2.1
4 7
5.0
4 5
15 7
17 2
18 3
28 5
Canadian, Other
768
2.6
2.5
3.8
5.1
3.5
17.6
14.2
18.8
32.0
Croatian
216
22.2
9.7
30.6
15.7
6.5
10.2
2 8
2 3
.0
Cuban
529
4.9
3.4
11.0
8.1
11.7
25 1
12 1
10 8
12 9
Dutch
256
6.6
5.9
14.5
8.2
6.3
10.2
10.9
22.7
14.8
English
3,769
3.3
4.5
7.2
5.5
4.0
16.4
10 6
18 6
29 9
Finnish
305
9.2
3.0
13.1
20.0
15.4
26 9
6 6
4 6
1 3
French
407
8.1
8.1
12.8
10.3
10.6
21.6
7.6
9.8
11.1
German
1,860
2.5
3.8
8.2
4.8
4.6
12.6
9.7
24 5
29.2
Greek
579
6.7
16.8
29.5
18.5
6.7
18.1
2 6
5
5
Hebrew Russian
1,426
5.8
9.3
19.3
20.3
9 7
21 4
6 5
6 6
1 0
Hebrew, Other
408
3.2
3.2
13.7
15.2
13.0
33.1
9.1
5.9
3.7
Irish
4,027
1.3
1.9
2.8
3.7
3.2
13.3
9 7
14 0
50 1
Italian North
1,896
4.7
7.7
16.5
15.6
8.5
25 4
13 5
6 3
1 8
Italian South
3,848
5.3
6.2
19.7
15 5
9 2
26 8
11 7
4/4
1 2
Lithuanian ..
1,181
8.0
11.4
30.1
16.5
9.4
16.8
4.8
2.4
.6
Magyar
632
19.8
16.5
27.5
13.9
6.5
11.7
1.7
1 4
9
Polish....
7,734
11.4
6.7
20.3
16.1
10.8
21.5
6.9
4.6
1.8
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
353
TABLE 12. — Per cent of foreign-born employees in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race — Continued.
FEMALE— Continued.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Portuguese
- 2,452
145
904
81
724
449
190
134
156
446
87
4.1
22.1
8.2
21.0
2.5
12.5
17.4
8.2
1.3
6.3
.0
4.6
14.5
10.5
11.1
4.3
11.1
8.4
11.9
2.6
8.3
3.4
14.6
26.2
21.8
35.8
5.4
22.7
31.1
21.6
3.2
17.9
4.6
13.3
8.3
18.3
14.8
2.8
12.7
10.0
11.9
3.2
12.1
4.6
10.8
3.4
12.6
3.7
2.3
12.7
10.0
8.2
5.1
12.8
4.6
32.7
22.8
18.0
7.4
9.0
17.6
15.3
25.4
8.3
30.5
10.3
11.2
2.1
6.9
3.7
7.0
7.6
5.3
6.0
13.5
10.8
18.4
6.6
.7
2.9
2.5
20.7
2.4
2.6
4.5
21.2
1.3
18.4
2.0
.0
.9
.0
46.0
.7
.0
2.2
41.7
.0
35.6
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian .
Welsh
Total
45,099
6.0
5.4
13.3
10.6
7.4
19.4
10.5
10.9
16.5
TOTAL.
Armenian
677
12.0
8.0
10.0
8.1
7.5
24.5
12.1
14.5
3.2
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
4,544
963
2.7
4.9
2.8
30.6
10.3
8.2
12 5
6.2
3.9
22.3
6 1
4.4
5
14.5
4
28.7
1 8
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
17,669
2,496
3.4
1.9
1.6
1.7
3.7
2.6
4.3
3.3
3.5
2.3
13.9
13 1
15.7
12 8
17.4
17 8
36.5
44.4
Croatian
10,041
4.1
7.3
21.7
18.0
10.5
28.3
5.1
3.6
1.3
Cuban
3,540
7.7
4.4
9.2
6.7
12.5
13 6
8 7
8 1
11 0
Danish
657
1.5
1.2
3.2
3.8
4.1
15.4
4.7
18.6
47.5
Dutch
1,725
2.4
3.4
7.1
4.6
4 1
12.6
5 4
20 6
39.8
English
16,912
3.0
3.3
5.9
4.7
3.6
12.0
7.7
14.1
45.7
Finnish
3, 935
10.0
2.3
12.6
11.4
11.0
30.6
9 2
6 5
6.3
Flemish
173
13.3
16.2
24.9
10.4
8.1
15.6
1.7
5.2
4.6
French
2,268
4.8
5.2
9.3
7.3
6.9
23.4
5 4
13.4
24.4
German
20.843
1.3
1.9
4.6
3.7
2.9
10.7
4.7
17.2
52.9
Greek
6,089
8.9
16.0
32.0
17.4
7.4
14.5
2.5
.9
.5
Hebrew Russian
5,211
3.3
6.5
13.6
14.6
10 9
27 6
8 2
8 6
6 8
Hebrew, Other
1,806
2.2
2.8
9.5
9.0
7.8
29.0
12.2
10.6
16.9
H erzego vinian
200
6.5
10.0
46.5
19 0
10 5
5 5
1 0
1 0
o
Irish
15,328
1.1
1.4
2.7
2.7
2.5
9.7
7.9
11.9
60.2
Italian, North
15, 203
4.7
5.4
13.3
13.6
8 8
32 2
10 3
7 1
4 6
Italian, South
20,039
6.5
5.9
15.9
14.7
9.9
29.9
9.7
5.1
2.3
Italian (not specified)
143
1.4
7.7
17.5
9.1
10.5
29 4
9 8
7 7
7 0
Japanese
149
.7
3.4
10.7
28.9
14.8
38.9
2.7
.0
.0
Lithuanian
10,448
5.0
5.1
17.2
12.3
9.9
29.5
10.7
7 1
3 2
Macedonian
581
7.7
37.2
37.7
11.9
3.4
1.9
.0
.0
.2
Magyar ..
12,252
5.4
8.4
19.1
14.2
10.3
28.4
6 2
5 1
3.0
Mexican
211
6.6
10.9
10.0
7.6
4.7
20.4
15.2
12.3
12.3
Montenegrin
251
.4
21.1
39.4
16.7
8.8
8.8
.0
.4
4 4
Norwegian
730
1.4
1.6
6.8
8 1
4 0
19 5
5 6
9 7
43 3
Polish
48,340
5.3
4.5
16.6
13.2
9.5
27.5
7.8
8.2
7.4
Portuguese
6,035
4.3
4.8
13.9
12.2
9 3
32 5
10 8
8 5
3 8
Roumanian
2,040
8.1
17.7
38.2
16.1
6.8
11.4
.7
.6
.3
Russian
7,447
6.7
10.8
23.9
14.1
7.8
22 3
6 6
4 8
3 1
Ruthenian
897
7.5
7.4
24.4
14.2
9.4
21.9
6.4
4.8
4.2
Scotch.
3,887
2.3
2.6
4.9
3.8
3.0
9 3
4 6
12 8
56 7
Scotch-Irish
93
1 1
0
5 4
2 2
3 2
9 7
5 4
7 5
65 6
Servian
1,666
3.8
10.9
26.7
16.9
10.5
24.8
4 3
1.5
5
Slovak
25,153
2 7
4.7
12.8
10 5
9 8
31 5
11 0
8 4
8 6
Slovenian
4,966
4.6
5.5
17.1
12.9
11.0
33.0
7.3
5.7
3.0
Spanish
2,063
6 6
6.3
12.5
8.9
10 0
33 3
10 2
7 i
5 2
Swedish
5,506
1.4
1.1
3.2
4.1
2.9
16.2
7.3
18.6
45.2
Syrian .
1,399
4.5
8.7
17.4
13.2
11 8
31 0
11 0
2 1
3
Turkish. . .
336
11.9
17.0
39.0
15.2
6.8
6.3
2.6
1.2
.0
Welsh
1,850
.6
1.4
1.6
1.5
1.3
4.3
23.2
12 9
53 2
Total
290, 923
4.2
5.0
13.0
10.3
7.5
23.1
8.4
9 5
18 9
An examination of the totals of the preceding tables reveals the
fact that in recent years there has been a decline in immigration from
Great Britain and northern Europe to the mines and manufacturing
establishments of the country, and that the incoming labor supply
has been principally composed of members of races from southern
354
The Immigration Commission.
and eastern Europe. Slightly more than three-fifths (63.1 per cent)
of the total number of industrial workers for whom information
was received had been in the United States less than ten years, and
exactly two-fifths had been in this country less than five years. The
heavy influx of wage-earners during the past decade was made up of
the representatives of Bulgarian, Croatian, Cuban, Finnish, Flem-
ish, Greek, Russian Hebrew, Herzegoyinian, North and South Italian
and Italian not specified, Japanese, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Magyar,
Montenegrin, Polish, Portuguese, Roumanian, Russian, Ruthenian,
Servian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, Syrian, and Turkish races.
More than one-third of the French Canadian and Dutch, more than
two-fifths of the Danish, English, Norwegian, and Swedish, and more
than one-half of the German, Irish, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, and Welsh
industrial workers have a residence in the 'United States of twenty
years or longer. There is but little difference in the proportions of
males and females in the specified periods of residence.
The following table shows, by sex and race, the per cent of foreign-
born persons in the households studied who had been in the United
States each specified number of years:
TABLE 13. — Per cent of foreign-born persons in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. No deduction is
made for time spent abroad. This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting. The
total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
MALE.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Armenian
256
647
58
753
804
1,159
63
162
641
163
115
229
1,271
1,025
1,265
795
1,108
3,504
1,670
91
1,918
64
4,071
429
165
177
1,083
211
213
2,057
235
83
573
390
443
116
5.1
1.9
6.9
17.1
2.4
2.2
.0
.0
3.3
1.8
5.2
5.7
2.3
10.0
2.6
.5
3.8
4.2
a
5.2
3.1
3.6
1.4
3.0
2.8
4.4
3.8
2.3
2.2
1.3
9.6
.0
2.3
19.4
3.4
5.9
1.9
8.6
30.9
2.4
5.8
12.7
.0
4.4
.0
2.6
8.3
3.1
22.3
4.3
.6
5.1
10.0
4.8
68.1
9.0
.0
6.6
2.1
18.2
15.8
5.4
6.2
20.2
4.3
1.3
8.4
1.2
13.6
28.7
1.7
9.4
5.4
13.8
33.2
3.4
14.2
11.1
1.9
«
13.9
4.8
5.7
27.7
6.3
1.8
10.8
15.1
9.8
27.5
17.6
.0
13.3
9.1
23.0
13.6
12.7
7.6
27.7
8.9
5.1
18.1
2.1
18.2
30.2
.9
7.0
5.9
1.7
11.4
4.2
12.2
4.8
2.5
5.6
3.1
3.5
10.9
4.5
12.4
12.3
2.3
7.4
12.6
8.7
.0
13.4
3.1
11.8
7.2
14.5
14.7
9.8
8.5
16.4
7.2
6.8
7.2
1.9
11.3
14.4
.9
6.6
4.9
10.3
4.1
4.0
10.3
6.3
.0
3.9
4.3
10.4
8.7
4.5
6.2
11.1
2.6
9.0
8.6
7.4
1.1
11.4
1.6
9.5
6.5
21.2
7.9
8.6
2.4
5.2
8.9
6.0
15.7
1.2
9.5
4.1
5.2
19.1
16.1
27.6
3.1
20.1
36.1
25.4
4.9
12.6
39.3
12.2
27.5
17.8
17.9
31.9
8.7
30.2
30.5
32.5
2.2
26.9
21.9
27.6
33.6
20.0
30.5
26.9
14.7
26.8
28.1
36.2
20.5
15.0
28.5
3.2
5.2
22.3
6.0
15.5
.0
17.2
9.1
11.1
1.2
10.1
16. 6
3.5
3.1
5.5
2.6
14.5
8.7
12.1
9.7
15.4
.0
8.0
25.0
10.0
12.8
.0
6.2
12.6
7.1
.9
13.6
13.2
13.3
7.0
14.6
.0
11.2
15.2
19.0
12.1
.1
17.0
7.4
7.9
11.1
13.9
12.9
15.7
14.4
14.8
.8
8.9
12.8
11.8
6.1
11.2
.0
5.2
28.1
9.6
16.8
.0
5.6
9.9
9.5
.5
12.5
13.6
4.8
19.7
1.5
.0
9.5
9.4
38.9
3.4
.0
29.4
2.8
20.6
78.4
37.8
20.9
33.0
16.6
41.9
.0
8.0
62.0
9.7
3.1
6.2
.0
3.4
17.2
8.0
10.5
.0
2.8
9.9
40.3
.0
14.2
16.6
2.4
51.8
.5
.0
62.1
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish.
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North... . . .
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar. . . i
Mexican . . .
Polish „/
Portuguese ..
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish .
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Total..
28,149
4.1
7.8
12.5
9.6
7.8
25.0
9.9
9.5
13.7
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
355
TABLE 13. — Per cent of foreign-born persons in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race — Continued.
FEMALE.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Armenian
192
562
30
11
822
715
80
135
551
149
111
196
1,052
230
1,226
806
812
2,142
1,003
1,273
40
2,835
457
90
104
859
199
79
1,570
203
54
485
249
113
5.2
2.3
3.3
36.4
2.2
7.3
2.5
.0
2.0
1.3
5.4
8.2
2.0
11.7
5.4
1.0
3.7
3.4
4.3
5.8
.0
3.5
1.3
7.8
5.8
3.7
1.0
8.9
1.7
.5
1.9
.0
3.6
7.1
12.0
1.8
6.7
27.3
3.4
9.2
21.3
.0
6.5
.0
5.4
8.2
2.7
17.4
5.8
1.1
7.0
9.9
4.6
11.3
.0
5.6
2.6
15.6
13.5
4.3
7.0
30.4
4.2
3.0
5.6
1.4
11.2
.9
14.6
5.3
.0
36.4
5.5
20.6
11.3
2.2
7.3
4.7
9.9
3.6
5.4
27.8
9.5
1.7
14.7
17.6
9.9
15.8
2.5
13.5
9.8
37.8
12.5
12.7
8.0
27.8
8.7
6.9
9.3
1.9
12.9
1.8
17.2
6.0
3.3
.0
3.4
12.7
6.3
.0
6.0
6.7
9.0
11.7
4.6
15.2
15.4
1.5
9.2
12.0
9.6
13.0
10.0
10.8
8.1
13.3
18.3
9,3
4.0
8.9
9.0
8.9
14.8
1.6
12.9
.9
10.4
4.8
16.7
.0
4.6
9.1
6.3
.0
3.8
4.7
5.4
6.6
4.9
9.1
9.5
2.2
8:7
9.7
9.3
9.9
2.5
9.8
8.1
15.6
12.5
8.6
3.0
10. a
8.5
7.9
24.1
1.6
15.3
5.3
27.6
16.5
33.3
.0
19.2
28.4
13.8
5.2
14.0
40.3
12.6
28.1
14.1
17.8
27.9
7.7
29.4
28.4
37.4
26.9
20.0
28.5
35.0
10.0
21.2
29.2
13.1
13.9
32.6
36.0
25.9
15.1
26.9
7.1
13.0
5.7
30.0
.0
16.8
6.3
17.5
1.5
10.9
13.4
3.6
2.6
7.9
.9
11.7
8.1
11.7
11.1
14.5
10.1
20.0
10.8
14.9
.0
9.6
17.9
9.0
.0
14.4
17.2
14.8
10.9
15.3
7.1
0.0
18.3
6.7
.0
16.5
5.7
7.5
18.5
13.6
17.4
16.2
12.8
18.1
.0
9.3
14.5
11.2
5.3
7.3
4.9
32.5
9.5
12.9
.0
3.8
8.5
13.1
.0
12.7
10.3
3.7
19.4
1.6
8.8
0.0
39.1
.0
.0
28.3
.7
13.8
72.6
35.9
11.4
32.4
18.4
40.4
.0
5.6
62.2
4.3
2.5
3.3
2.3
12.5
8.1
7.2
.0
2.9
5.7
41.7
.0
8.2
9.4
.0
48.0
.4
61.1
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava .
BulCTarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North ."
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian . .
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh
Total
19,550
3.5
6.1
11.3
9.4
8.0
25.3
11.2
10.3
14.9
TOTAL.
Armenian
448
1,209
88
764
1,626
1,874
143
29 /
1,192
312
226
425
2,323
1,255
2,491
1,601
1,920
5,646
2,679
91
3,191
104
6,906
886
255
281
1,942
410
292
3,627
438
137
1,058
639
443
229
5.1
2.1
5.7
17.4
2.3
4.2
1.4
.0
2.7
1.6
5.3
6.8
2.2
10.4
4.0
.7
3.8
3.9
4.1
1.1
5.4
1.9
3.6
1.4
4.7
3.9
4.1
2.4
4.1
2.0
.9
6.6
.0
2.8
19.4
5.2
8.5
1.8
8.0
30.9
2.9
7.1
17.5
.0
5.4
.0
4.0
8.2
2.9
21.4
5.1
.9
5.9
10.0
4.7
68.2
9.9
.0
6.2
2.4
17.3
14.9
4.9
6.6
22.9
4.3
2.1
7.3
1.3
12.7
28.7
1.3
11.6
5.4
9.1
33.2
4.4
16.6
11.2
2.0
7.9
2.9
11.9
4.2
5.6
27.7
7.9
1.7
12.4
16.1
9.9
27.5
16.9
1.0
13.4
9.5
28.2
13.2
12.7
7.8
27.7
8.8
5.9
14.6
2.0
16.1
30.2
1.3
11.4
6.0
2.3
11.3
3.8
12.4
5.6
1.3
5.8
4.8
6.2
11.3
4.5
12.9
13.8
1.9
8.2
12.4
9.0
.0
13.3
5.8
11.4
7.7
14.1
16.0
9.6
6.3
14.4
8.0
7.8
10.2
1.8
11.9
14.4
.9
8.3
4.9
12.5
4.1
4.3
9.8
6.3
.0
3.9
4.5
8.0
7.8
4.7
6.8
10.3
2.4
8.9
9.0
8.1
W.8
1.9
9.6
7.3
19.2
9.6
8.6
2.7
6.5
8.7
6.8
19.0
1.4
11.7
4.1
5.2
22.8
16.3
29.5
3.0
19.7
33.1
18.9
5.1
13.3
39.7
12.4
27.8
16.1
17.8
29.9
8.2
29.9
29.7
34.3
2.2
26.9
21.2
28.0
34.3
16.5
27.0
27.9
13.9
23.3
30.0
36.1
22.6
15.0
27.9
3.2
6.1
18.3
5.9
20.5
.0
17.0
8.0
14.7
1.3
10.5
15.1
3.5
2.8
6.6
2.3
13.1
8.4
11.9
10.2
15.0
.0
8.8
23.1
10.3
13.9
.0
7.5
14.9
8.0
.7
13.9
15.1
13.9
8.8
14.9
.0
9.2
8.7
18.7
10.2
.1
16.8
6.8
7.7
14.5
13.8
15.1
15.9
13.6
16.3
.6
9.1
13.7
11.6">
5.8
9.7
.0
5.1
29.8
9.5
14.8
.0
5.0
9.3
11.2
.3
12.6
12.1
4.4
19.6
1.6
.0
Q 9
5.4
39.0
2.3
.0
28.8
2.0
16.8
75.8
36.9
16.3
32.7
17.4
41.2
.0
6.8
62.1
7.4
2.9
5.1
.0
3.0
15.4
8.0
8.8
.0
2.8
8.0
41.0
.0
11.6
13.2
1.5
50.1
.5
.0
fii R
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava ..
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban .*
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish .
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian South
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak .
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh...
356 The Immigration Commission.
Of 47,699 foreign-born persons in the households studied, the
foregoing table shows that 25.1 per cent had been in the United
States from five to nine years, 14.2 per cent twenty years or over, 12
Eer cent two years, 10.4 per cent from ten to fourteen years, and
etween 5 and 10 per cent each other specified number of years
except less than one year — only 3.9 per cent reporting that period of
residence. The proportions of the 28,149 males and the 19,550
females having been in the United States each specified number of
years so nearly correspond with each other, and each so nearly cor-
responds with the total, that a comparison is unnecessary.
As regards the several races, it is seen that none of the total number
of Macedonians, Roumanians, or Turks, less than 1 per cent of the
Bulgarians, somewhat less than 5 per cent of the Greeks or Servians,
less than 25 per cent of the Croatians, South Italians, Magyars, Rus-
sians, Spaniards, or Syrians, and less than 40 per cent of the Arme-
nians, Bravas, Cubans, French, Hebrews, North Italians, Lithuanians,
Poles, Portuguese, Ruthenians, and Slovaks, had been in the United
States as long as ten years; while over 75 per cent of the Dutch and
over 50 per cent of the Irish, Swedes, and Welsh had had a period
of residence of twenty years or over; between 50 and 60 per cent of
the Bohemians and Moravians, English, Germans, and Scotch had
had a period of residence of fifteen years or over; and over fifty
per cent of the French Canadians, Flemish, and Mexicans had had
a period of residence of ten years or over. The Finns and French
show such large proportions having had a period of residence of five
years or over as to place them in the class of older immigrant races,
although the proportions having had each subsequent period of resi-
dence are smaller than those of other races of older immigration. The
males and females of each race are, generally speaking, similarly dis-
tributed as regards length of residence in the United States, hence
there is only a slight variation from either in the total. The most
marked difference is shown by the Bulgarians, all of the females, as
against 81.2 per cent of the males, having been in the United States
less than three years.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
357
INDUSTRIAL CONDITION ABROAD OF MEMBERS OF IMMIGRANT
HOUSEHOLDS STUDIED.
The following table shows, by race of individual, the industrial
condition before coming to the United States of foreign-born males
in the households studied who were 16 years of age or over at time of
coming to this country:
TABLE 14. — Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-born malea
who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes onlyraces with 20 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.
Race of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Number —
Per cent—
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
with-
out
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
with-
out
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
Armenian .
177
400
48
735
412
983
41
82
412
121
85
155
890
904
780
534
853
2,602
74
1,441
91
1,571
45
23
3,346
272
149
156
880
107
195
1,627
197
56
452
272
439
72
25
10
3
8
33
14
1
3
12
3
1
4
32
94
71
52
19
74
10
12
3
19
'"2
62
16
1
3
16
1
1
20
75
293
41
260
217
260
37
73
384
68
79
147
654
266
539
240
498
1,540
13
589
39
899
41
15
1,599
146
41
56
325
105
55
856
48
43
302
136
23
65
22
58
4
114
103
462
2
4
9
36
2
55
39
14.1
2.5
6.3
1.1
8.0
1.4
2.4
3.7
2.9
2.5
1.2
2.6
3.6
10.4
9.1
9.7
2.2.
2.8
13.5
.8
3.3
1.2
.0
8.7
1.9
5.9
. 7
1.9
1.8
.9
.5
1.2
.0
1.8
4.2
18.8
.5
5.6
42.4
73.3
85.4
35.4
52.7
26.4
90.2
89.0
93.2
56.2
92.9
94.8
73.5
29.4
69.1
44.9
58.4
59.2
17.6
40.9
42.9
57.2
91.1
65.2
47.8
53.7
27.5
35.9
36.9
98.1
28.2
52.6
24.4
76.8
66.8
50.0
5.2
90.3
12.4
14.5
8.3
15.5
25.0
47.0
4.9
4.9
2.2
29.8
2.4
.0
14.5
32.1
5.1
38.0
21.9
15.3
36.5
46.1
.0
21.8
2.2
21.7
28!7
33.6
50.0
49.3
.9
55.4
34.5
58.4
17.9
24.3
10.3
90.7
2.8
31.1
9.8
.0
48.0
14.3
25.1
2.4
2.4
1.7
11.6
3.5
2.6
8.4
28.1
16.7
7.3
17.5
22.6
32.4
12.2
53.8
19.7
6.7
4.3
10.8
11.8
38.3
12.2
11.9
.0
15.9
11.7
17.3
3.6
4.6
21.0
3.6
1.4
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
353
59
247
1
2
7
14
3
4
75
254
130
39
149
589
24
176
49
310
3
1
363
32
57
19
105
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
129
290
40
203
187
399
27
664
""343"
1
5
1,322
78
50
78
434
1
108
561
115
10
110
28
398
2
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian ".
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
31
190
34
2
21
57
16
1
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
1
19
51
2
4
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Total
21,696
702
11, 081
6,401
3,512
3.2
51.1
29.5
16.2
An examination of this table discloses the fact that of the 21,696
foreign-born males concerning whom information was obtained only
3.2 per cent were without occupation before coming to the United
States. On the other hand, 51.1 per cent worked for wages, 29.5 per
cent without wages, and 16.2 per cent worked for profit. Only the
Syrians, Armenians, Japanese, and Greeks, with proportions ranging
from 18.8 to 10.4 per cent, show proportions without occupation
abroad in excess of 10 per cent.
358
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows, by race of individual, the occupation
before coming to the United States of foreign-born males in the house-
holds studied who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming:
TABLE 15. — Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born males who were
16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[ This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born
Race of individual.
too
it
§»§
f-» o
if
I8
Per cent without oc-
cupation.
Per cent working for
wages.
Per cent working
without wages.
Per cent working
for profit.
a*
i
i
•a§
p
o
*a
!•!
sa
£2
1
?i8
£ *
PM
Si
s'-i
at
3
g
i
PR
c •
I'l
Oft
«g
Tj
I
Armenian
177
400
48
735
412
983
41
82
412
121
85
155
890
904
780
534
853
2,602
74
1,441
91
1,571
45
23
3,346
272
149
156
880
107
195
1,627
197
56
452
272
439
72
14.1
2.5
6.3
1.1
8.0
1.4
•2.4
3.7
2.9
2.5
1.2
2.6
3.6
10.4
9.1
9.7
2.2
2.8
13.5
.8
3.3
1.2
.0
8.7
1.9
5.9
.7
1.9
1.8
.9
.5
1.2
.0
1.8
4.2
18.8
.5
5.6
8.5
15.0
77.1
10.5
11.2
12.3
.0
51.2
4.4
30.6
*J
12.7
7.5
1.9
15.7
19.0
25.1
.0
30.7
22.0
32.2
28.9
4.3
24.1
23.5
18.8
13.5
30.2
.0
17.9
28. 5
14.2
7.1
22.3
ij
! 1-4
1.1
1.0
.0
1.8
6.6
1.1
.0
7.3
2.4
9.9
5.9
1.3
4.7
1.2
.6
6.0
7.2
4.3
1.4
.9
.0
2.9
8.9
.0
3.0
4.4
1.3
2.6
.7
.9
1.5
3.8
1.0
.0
2.9
1.8
.0
1.4
32.8
57.3
8.3
23.1
35.0
13.0
90.2
30.5
86.4
15.7
64.7
92.9
56.1
20.7
66.5
23.2
32.2
29.8
16.2
9.2
20.9
22.1
53.3
60.9
20.7
25.7
7.4
19.9
6.0
97.2
8.7
20.3
9.1
69.6
41.6
43.8
.5
87.5
42.4
73.3
85.4
35.4
52.7
26. 4
90.2
89.0
93.2
56.2
92.9
94.8
73.5
29.4
69.1
44.9
58.4
59.2
17.6
40.9
42.9
57.2
91.1
65.2
47.8
53.7
27.5
35.9
36.9
98.1
28.2
52.6
24.4
76.8
66.8
50.0
5.2
90.3
7.3
11.3
4.2
15.1
24.0
46.9
.0
4.9
1.7
29.8
2.4
.0
11.3
31.1
2.4
36.7
21.3
13.6
36.5
46.0
.0
21.5
2.2
21.7
38.7
27.6
33.6
50.0
48.9
.0
55.4
34.0
58.4
14.3
23.5
10.3
90.7
1.4
5.1
3.3
4.2
.4
1.0
.1
4.9
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
3.1
1.0
2.7
1.3
.6
1.7
.0
.1
.0
.3
.0
.0
.8
1.1
.0
.0
.5
.9
.0
.5
.0
3.6
.9
.0
.0
1.4
12.4
14.5
8.3
15.5
25.0
47.0
4.9
4.9
2.2
29.8
2.4
.0
14.5
32.1
5.1
38.0
21.9
15.3
36.5
46.1
.0
21.8
2.2
21.7
39.5
28.7
33.6
50.0
49.3
.9
55.4
34.5
58.4
17.9
24.3
10.3
90.7
2.8
9.6
5.0
.0
43.9
11.7
24.3
.0
2.4
.0
10.7
1.2
1.3
6.2
20.5
.9
6.6
15.2
16.0
27.0
11.6
41.8
18.0
4.4
.0
10.0
10.7
36.2
12.2
11.6
.0
12.8
10.8
15.2
3.6
4.6
14.7
3.6
1.4
21.5
4.8
.0
4.1
2.7
.8
2.4
.0
1.7
.8
2.4
1.3
2.2
7.6
15.8
.7
2.2
6.6
5.4
.6
12.1
1.7
2.2
4.3
.9
1.1
2.0
.0
.3
.0
3.1
.9
2.0
.0
.0
6.3
.0
.0
31.1
9.8
.0
48.0
14.3
25.1
2.4
2.4
1.7
11.6
3.5
2.6
8.4
28.1
16.7
7.3
17.5
22.6
32.4
12.2
53.8
19.7
6.7
4.3
10.8
11.8
38.3
12.2
11.9
.0
15.9
11.7
17.3
3.6
4.6
21.0
3.6
1.4
Bohemian and Moravian. .
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Total
21, 696
3.2 1 20.3
2.9
27.8
51.1
28.6
.9
29.5
13.1
3.0
16.2
The foregoing table shows that the proportion of foreign-born males
who were working for wages and who were employed as farm laborers
before coming to the United States is below the proportion employed
in all other occupations for wages. As regards those working without
wages less than 1 per cent were employed in all occupations other
than as farm laborers, while of those working for profit 13.1 per cent
of the 21,696 foreign-born males concerning whom information was
obtained were farmers, as against 3 per cent who were engaged in all
other occupations for profit.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
359
TABLE 16. — Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-born
females who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more females reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Number —
Per cent —
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
without
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
without
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
Armenian
134
344
23
378
584
45
71
344
117
67
131
692
168
711
497
579
1,416
790
900
26
24
2,072
259
68
78
629
93
65
1,159
161
20
394
166
61
115
181
10
329
326
40
35
211
88
36
86
423
119
570
382
312
1,115
362
564
21
11
1,050
218
30
36
122
68
46
518
66
17
206
150
55
17
111
12
42
98
5
34
130
26
29
44
207
11
109
86
183
196
179
189
4
10
442
33
6
8
179
25
8
358
21
2
149
13
6
2
51
1
5
149
85.8
52.6
4as
87.0
55.8
88.9
49.3
61.3
75.2
53.7
65.6
61.1
70.8
80.2
76.9
53.9
78.7
45.8
62.7
80.8
45.8
50.7
84.2
44.1
46.2
19.4
73.1
70.8
44.7
41.0
85.0
52.3
90.4
90.2
12.7
32.3
52.2
11.1
16.8
11.1
47.9
37.8
22.2
43.3
33.6
29.9
6.5
15.3
17.3
31.6
13.8
22.7
21.0
15.4
41.7
21.3
12.7
8.8
10.3
28.5
26.9
12.3
30.9
13.0
10.0
37.8
7.8
9.8
1.5
14.8
4.3
1.3
25.5
.0
2.8
.3
2.6
ao
.0
8.1
21.4
1.8
5.6
12.3
6.4
30.8
15.2
3.8
12.5
27.1
1.9
45.6
43.6
50.9
.0
15.4
24.0
46.0
5.0
9.6
.0
.0
0.0
.3
.0
.5
1.9
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
.8
.9
1.2
2.7
.2
2.2
1.1
.8
1.1
.0
.0
.9
1.2
1.5
.0
1.3
.0
1.5
.4
.0
.0
.3
1.8
.0
Bohemian and Moravian ....
Brava
1
Canadian, French .
2
11
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
2
1
3
2
English
2
Finnish
Flemish
French
1
6
2
19
1
13
15
6
10
German
56
36
13
28
71
90
243
137
1
3
561
5
31
34
320
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
N orwegian ....
Polish
19
3
1
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
8
Scotch
Servian
10
278
74
1
38
1
5
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
1
3
Syrian...
Welsh
Total
13,315
7,948
2,990
2,247
130
59.7
22.5
16.9
LO
_^
This table shows that very nearly 60 per cent of the. 13,315 foreign-
born females concerning whom information was obtained were with-
out occupation and only 1 per cent worked for profit, while 22.5 and
16.9 per cent were employed for wages and without wages, respec-
tively, before coming to the United States.
360
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows, by race of individual, the occupation
before coming to the United States of foreign-born females who were
16 years of age or over at time of coming to this country:
TABLE 17. — Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born females who
were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more females reporting.
born.]
The total, however, is for all foreign-
Race of individual.
Num-
ber
report-
ing
com-
plete
data.
Per
cent
with-
out
occu-
pa-
tion.
Per cent working for
wages.
Per cent working
without wages.
Per cent working
for profit.
Farm
labor-
ers.
In do-
mes-
tic
serv-
ice.
In
other
occu-
pa-
tions.
Total.
Farm
labor-
ers.
In
other
occu-
pa-
tions.
Total.
Farm-
ers.
In
other
occu-
pa-
tions.
Total.
Armenian
134
344
23
378
584
45
71
344
117
6?
131
692
168
711
497
579
1,416
790
900
26
24
2.072
259
68
78
629
93
65
1,159
161
20
394
166
61
85.8
52.6
43.5
87.0
55.8
88.9
49.3
61.3
75.2
53.7
65.6
61.1
70.8
80.2
76.9
53.9
78.7
45.8
62.7
80.8
45.8
50.7
84.2
441
46.2
19.4
73.1
70.8
447
41.0
85.0
52.3
90.4
90.2
0.0
4.9
21.7
.3
8.2
.0
22.5
.0
43
20.9
.0
as
.6
.0
1.8
6.2
5.1
12.8
9.2
as
8.3
9.4
.8
2.9
3.8
21.0
.0
4.6
14.4
7.5
.0
5.3
.0
.0
1.5
21.5
30.4
3.7
6.2
.0
19.7
5.5
16.2
6.0
ai
149
.6
2.0
9.7
48
2.3
7.2
9.4
7.7
20.8
9.8
6.9
5.9
5.1
5.9
5.4
7.7
12.5
3.7
5.0
26.1
.6
6.6
11.2
5.8
.0
7.1
2.4
11.1
5.6
32.3
1.7
16.4
30.5
11.7
5.4
13.4
5.8
20.6
6.4
2.7
2.3
3.8
12.5
2.1
5.0
.0
1.3
1.6
21. 5
.0
40
1.9
5.0
6.3
7.2
3.3
12.7
32.3
52.2
11.1
16.8
11.1
47.9
37.8
22.2
43.3
33.6
29.9
6.5
15.3
17.3
31.6
13.8
22.7
21.0
15.4
41.7
21.3
12.7
8.8
10.3
28.5
26.9
12.3
30.9
iao
10.0
37.8
7.8
9.8
1.5
148
.0
1.1
25.3
.0
1.4
.0
2.6
.0
.0
6.8
21.4
1.3
5.0
11.1
5.9
30.6
14.4
as
12.5
26.7
.4
45.6
43.6
50.9
.0
15.4
23.9
447
5.0
9.1
.0
.0
0.0
.0
43
.3
.2
.0
1.4
.3
.0
3.0
.0
1.3
.0
.6
.6
1.2
.5
.1
.8
.0
.0
.3
1.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
1.2
.0
.5
.0
.0
1.5
148
43
1.3
25.5
.0
2.8
.3
2.6
ao
.0
8.1
21.4
1.8
5.6
12.3
6.4
30.8
15.2
as
12.5
27.1
1.9
45.6
43.6
50.9
.0
15.4
24.0
46.0
5.0
9.6
.0
.0
0.0
.3
.0
.0
1.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.1
.2
1.9
.2
.6
1.0
.0
.0
.7
.8
1.5
.0
1.3
.0
1.5
.3
.0
.0
.3
1.2
.0
0.0
.0
.0
.5
.5
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
.8
.3
1.2
2.5
.0
.3
.8
.1
.1
.0
.0
.2
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
0.0
.3
.0
.5
1.9
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
.8
.9
1.2
2.7
.2
2.2
1.1
.8
1.1
.0
.0
.9
1.2
1.5
.0
1.3
.0
Lt
.0
.0
.3
1.8
.0
Bohemian and Moravian.
Brava
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finn'sh
Flemish
French ...
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar ...
Mexican
Norwegian . . .
Polish... .
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian.
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh . ...
Total
13,315
59.7
7.3
&4
6. 8 22. 5
16.4
.5
16.9
.6
.4 | 1.0
I
The foregoing table shows that the proportion of females who were
working abroad for wages is almost equally distributed among farm
labor, domestic service, and all other occupations, and that the
proportion who worked for profit is almost equally distributed as
between farming and all other occupations. On the other hand,
those working without wages show less than 1 per cent employed in
all occupations other than as farm laborers, the proportion in the
last-mentioned occupation amounting to 16.4 per cent.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
361
PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION ABROAD OF IMMIGRANT WAGE-EARNERS.
The following table shows, by race, the per cent of 181,330 foreign-
born male employees who were in each specified occupation before
coming to the United States:
TABLE 18. — Per cent of foreign-born male employees in each specified occupation before
coming to the United States, by race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who were engaged La-
Manufac-
turing.
Farming
or farm
labor.
General
labor.
Trade.
Other
occupa-
tions.
Armenian.
470
2,807
823
4,617
938
7,508
2,349
448
894
8,436
3,262
124
1,127
12, 389
4,138
2,777
964
190
7,366
10, 362
12,460
121
8,433
317
8,682
167
226
533
32,880
2,472
1,695
5,663
591
1,867
1,213
17, 707
3 857
1,202
4,251
654
282
1,012
17.4
2a7
a9
13.6
27.3
2.7
87.2
23.4
142
49.8
4.8
71.0
49.4
29.1
5.1
61.7
55.3
1.1
14.2
9.5
ias
8.3
5.5
as
7.0
8.4
1.3
19.3
7.6
2.8
5.1
8.3
4.7
36.4
a7
4.5
5.7
49.1
19.7
12.7
3.9
58.2
343
31.1
70.5
61.5
31.8
80.5
7.0
30.4
42.6
ao
71.0
9.7
8.6
28.8
540
a7
9.1
53.2
52.2
50.5
46.8
61.2
76.2
62.5
65.7
21.6
81.9
18.4
68.1
70.2
743
ea3
79.0
42
75.7
72.6
65.2
27.9
41.7
52.1
64.5
2.6
49
10.0
10.0
6.2
6.4
7.6
.3
7.8
8.9
5.9
9.1
9.7
5.9
9.5
11.8
1.2
2.1
44.2
14.0
140
15.5
9.9
9.1
15.1
12.4
11.4
5.8
45
11.3-
7.8
10.5
12.0
6.3
4.4
11.6
11.6
7.1
a2
7.3
5.0
7.4
ao
8.9
2.0
a2
ao
43
.6
2.7
as
4.8
3.7
.9
.8
1.8
2.9
11.8
20.0
24.4
.5
2.6
1.5
2.8
12.4
.5
7.6
1.2
2.4
2.2
2.6
.6
3.4
2.9
1.7
.7
42
1.9
.5
1.1
12.0
2.1
as
12.8
2.6
345
2a2
12.5
15.7
30.3
as
2.9
30.1
29.4
37.6
14.2
ag
34.3
29.7
17.3
ias
9.1
1.1
17.0
244
21.6
8.3
8.7
11.0
13.7
56.3
as
55.2
12.6
15.8
7.2
9.7
9.3
50.8
7.1
10.9
20.9
7.9
29.2
21.9
11.3
sa?
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian Other
Croatian
Cuban *
Danish.. . . .
Dutch
English
Finnish . ...
Flemish
French ..
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian
Irish
Italian , North
Italian South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin .
Norwegian
Polish ..
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian . . .
Turkish.
Welsh
Total
181,330
15.3
sag
10.3
2.5
iai
Upon reference to the totals in the foregoing table it is at once seen
that only 15.3 per cent of the-male industrial workers had any train-
ing or experience in manufacturing before coming to this country.
This showing is even more unfavorable as regards the races of recent
immigration from southern and eastern Europe, when it is noted that
49.8 per cent of the English, 29.1 per cent of the German, 49.4 per cent
of the French, 36.4 per cent of the Scotch, and 58.2 per cent of the
Welsh were engaged in manufacturing abroad. The large proportion
of Cubans and Spaniards who were in manufacturing before coming
to this country arises from the fact that they were trained cigar
makers. Only 2.7 per cent of the Croatians, 9.5 per cent of the North
Italians, 13.3 per cent of the South Italians, 5.5 per cent of the
72289°— VOL 1—11 24
362
The Immigration Commission.
Lithuanians, 7 per cent of the Magyars, 7.6 per cent of the Poles,
8.3 per cent of the Russians, 4.5 per cent of the Slovaks, and 5.7
per cent of the Slovenians had any experience in manufacturing
establishments before their arrival in the United States. The greater
number of wage-earners of foreign birth now employed in the mines
and manufacturing establishments of this country were farmers or
farm laborers abroad. This condition of affairs is more marked in
the case of the southern and eastern Europeans, 80.5 per cent of the
Croatians, 54 per cent of the Greeks, 50.5 per cent of the North
Italians, 46.8 per cent of the South Italians, 76.2 per cent of the
Lithuanians, 65.7 per cent of the Magyars, 68.1 per cent of the Poles,
70.2 per cent of the Portuguese, 68.3 per cent of the Russians, 72.6
per cent of the Slovaks, and 65.2 per cent of the Slovenians having
been engaged in agricultural pursuits in their native countries. The
only exception to the general tendency exhibited by the southern and
eastern European immigrants is found in the case of the Hebrews,
both Russian and other, 61.7 per cent of the former and 55.3 per cent
of the latter having been employed in manufacturing before coming
to this country. Only a very small proportion, amounting to 2.5
per cent, of the total foreign-born wage-earners were in trade or busi-
ness while abroad. The large proportion of the races from Great
Britain and northern Europe shown as being in other occupations
than those specified before coming to the United States is principally
due to the fact that the members of these races who were miners in
their native countries are included in this classification.
The table which immediately follows shows, by race, the per cent
of 12,968 female industrial workers who were in each specified occu-
pation before coming to the United States:
TABLE 19. — Per cent of foreign-born female employees in each specified occupation before
coming to the United States, by race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more females reporting. The total , however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who were engaged in —
Manufac-
turing.
Farming
or farm
labor.
Domestic
service.
Sewing
embroid-
ering,
and lace
making.
Teaching.
Trade.
Other
occupa-
tions.
Bohemian and Mo-
107
995
81
85
168
1,804
97
238
437
107
360
85
603
542
738
554
150
4,057
408
369
282
105
81
7.5
28.5
43.2
4.7
87.5
92.6
27.8
92.0
58.8
15.0
11.1
5.9
66.2
32.5
23.6
4.7
7.3
4.3
14.2
7.3
89.0
4.8
2.5
36.4
42.2
16.0
69.4
.0
.1
46.4
.4
16.7
61.7
.6
1.2
12.3
20.8
14.6
78.5
66.0
86.9
20.1
75.3
.4
64.8
65.4
16.8
8.9
8.6
8.2
8.3
1.8
8.2
2.1
6.9
8.4
.8
1.2
11.3
3.7
7.6
6.0
12.0
3.6
36.5
2.4
1.4
11.4
18.5
29.9
9.7
21.0
14.1
3.6
3.3
14.4
3.8
12.1
12.1
74.4
88.2
6.5
37.1
48.4
9.9
12.0
3.8
21.8
12.5
7.1
19.0
12.3
0.0
5.7
3.7
.0
.0
.1
.0
.4
.7
.0
.6
1.2
.7
.4
.4
.0
.0
.0
1.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
5.6
3.0
4.9
2. 4
.6
1.1
3.1
.8
2.7
2.8
11.7
2.4
1.8
3.1
3.3
.4
1.3
.3
.7
1.9
1.1
.0
1.2
3.7
1.8
2.5
1.2
.0
1.1
.0
.4
2.1
.0
.8
.0
1.3
2.4
2.2
.5
1.3
1.1
5.6
.5
.7
.0
.0
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
English
Finnish
French.
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew Other..
Irish
Italian, North
Italian South.
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Russian.
Scotch
Slovak
Slovenian
Total
12,968
32.5
44.2
6.2
13.4
.7
1.8
1.4
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
363
Of the total number of women for whom information was secured,
the largest proportion, or 44.2 per cent, were farmers or farm laborers
abroad, the employment of women in this occupation being especially
marked in the case of the southern and eastern European races. On
the other hand, 32.5 per cent, or almost one-third, of the total num-
ber were employed in manufacturing in their native countries, this
industry being characteristic of the representatives of Great Britain
and northern Europe, Canada, and Cuba. Only a small per cent of
the total number were engaged in domestic service, while 13.4 per
cent were employed in sewing, embroidering, and lace making. As
compared with other races, the Portuguese, Slovenians, and Bohe-
mians and Moravians were more extensively employed in domestic
service.
PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION IN THIS COUNTRY AT THE PRESENT TIME OF
INDUSTRIAL WORKERS AND MEMBERS OF THEIR HOUSEHOLDS.
The table which immediately follows sets forth the general dis-
tribution, according to principal occupations, of the wage-earners of
both sexes in the households studied. It shows, by sex and general
nativity and race of individual, the per cent of persons in the house-
holds studied who were 1 6 years of age or over and who were engaged
in each specified industry.
TABLE 20. — Per cent of males 16 years of age or over in each specified industry, by general
nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[The main headings used in this table follow the classifications of the United States Census with these
modifications: General Labor is here separate from Domestic and Personal Service; Fishing, Mining, and
Quarrying are each separate from Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits; Trade and Transportation
are distinct from each other. This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The
totals, however, are for all races.]
P
er ceni
General nativity and race
of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
[n agricultural
pursuits.
3£
03 5
.3"
1!
*fc
M
tn manufacturing
and mechanical
pursuits.
i
3
1
g
[n general labor
(not otherwise
entered).
n professional
service.
0
I
d
n transportation.
bi>
c
a
QJ
U school.
Native-born of native
father:
White...
1 687
0 2
0 9
73 8
14 9
0 2
0 4
3 2
1 8
0 0
1 8
2 7
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian .
182
168
.5
6
1.6
1 2
48.9
76 2
46.7
1 8
.5
1 2
.0
o
.5
6 5
.0
/< o
.0
Q
.5
3 0
.5
Canadian, French. . .
Dutch
167
79
1.2
o
2.4
1 3
77.2
82 3
4.2
o
1.2
o
.0
o
6.6
8 9
1*2
2 5
.0
Q
1.8
2 5
4.2
2 5
English
147
.7
1.4
64.6
23.1
o
7
3 4
7
o
2 0
3 4
German..
584
o
1 2
81 8
4 1
o
5
5 1
2 9
Q
1 0
3 3
Hebrew . . .
62
1.6
.0
51.6
.0
.0
6.5
19.4
6.5
.0
0
14 5
Irish..:
764
.1
1.3
70 5
10 7
9
4
4 1
4 5
1
2 6
4 7
Italian, North
39
o
5 1
25 6
35 9
o
Q
7 7
2 6
Q
Q
00 -I
Italian, South
35
.0
5.7
54.3
20 0
o
o
o
2 9
o
8 6
8 6
Lithuanian
34
.0
0
29 4
47 1
o
Q
2 9
Q
Q
c q
14 7
Magyar
25
o
o
28 0
52 0
o
Q
12 0
Q
Polish....
300
.3
1.0
59 0
20 3
7
"o
4 0
2 3
Q
4 0
80
Ruthenian
43
o
2 3
32 6
44 2
o
Q
9 3
Q
Q
o o
Q °.
Scotch...
40
.0
.0
40.0
37 5
o
o
5 0
5 0
Q
Q
12 %
Slovak .
138
.0
0
34 8
50 0
o
Q
2 9
Q
Q
2 Q
Swedish .
192
o
o
57 3
12 0
5
Q
16 1
c 7
0 0
Welsh...
51
.0
.0
31.4
45.1
.0
3 a
R Q
2 n
n
X Q
* Q
364
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 20. — Per cent of males 16 years of age or over in each specified industry , by general
nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and race
of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Per cent-
's
3 .
Z.%
11
t-i 3
be Pi
c3
a
fl^
3 £
ii
O cw
-u
fl-
•8J3 .
•2&.S
111
|Sft
M
S3
'S
i
a
(-1 ©
II
fjx
ft!
rt
&
0
S8
«2*>
o £5
ftw
q
1
rt
j
a
ti>
|
<ri
a
<D
g
O
A
3
1
1
^
Foreign-born:
Armenian .
227
591
55
746
712
1,062
'49
161
590
149
105
192
1,183
995
993
784
970
3,046
76
1,597
91
1.722
62
28
3,753
373
158
169
1,048
184
206
1,888
218
63
554
349
443
110
0.0
.2
.0
.1
.8
.1
.0
.6
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
('>0
.1
.0
.2
.0
.0
.1
.3
.0
.6
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
2.2
.3
.0
1.6
2.1
.9
2.0
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.5
.4
2.3
.7
.8
.2
.5
6.6
.4
1.1
. 5
.0
.0
.3
.5
.0
.0
.3
.5
1.0
.2
.0
1.6
.7
.9
8.1
.9
86.3
91.7
94.5
76.1
82.9
60.7
98.0
96.9
72.2
.0
99.0
62.0
87.7
90.8
90.0
79.7
32.4
59.3
90.8
62.3
86.8
57.1
.0
.0
70.8
93.0
66.5
40.2
64.0
59.8
82.5
45.2
56.4
90.5
80.3
94.6
72.7
25.5
0.0
3.9
.0
10.9
3.4
34.4
.0
.0
23.9
95.3
.0
33.3
7.4
.0
.0
10.2
63.3
29.6
.0
34.2
12.1
35.4
96.8
89.3
25.0
.0
25.3
56.2
29.1
31.5
3.9
51.6
34.4
4.8
15.2
.0
.2
67.3
0.0
.0
.0
2.4
1.8
.8
.0
1.2
.2
.7
1.0
.0
.7
.1
.3
2.2
.4
5.4
.0
.1
.0
.6
.0
.0
.6
.0
1.3
1.8
1.1
.0
3.9
.3
6.4
.0
.7
.6
.0
.9
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.1
.4
.1
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
3.6
Wo
.0
.0
.0
1.6
.0
.1
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
3.5
1.7
1.8
.9
2.5
.6
.0
.0
1.0
.0
.0
1.6
.7
2.0
5.7
.6
.9
1.3
1.3
.4
.0
.5
.0
3.6
.6
2.9
.0
.6
1.5
.5
.0
.2
1.8
.0
.9
2.6
.9
1.8
0.4
.5
3.6
3.1
2.4
.6
.0
.6
.2
2.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.5
1.5
.5
1.3
1.3
1.1
.0
2.9
.0
3.6
.6
.8
4.4
.0
.6
2.7
.0
.8
.0
.0
.2
.3
.0
.0
0.0
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.5
1.4
.0
4.7
3.4
1.4
.0
.6
1.5
.7
.0
1.6
2.4
4.8
1.7
4.7
1.3
2.1
.0
1.1
.0
2.7
3.2
.0
1.7
2.1
2.5
.0
3.3
2.2
8.7
1.3
.5
3.2
1.3
.9
17.8
3.6
4.0
.0
.0
.1
.3
.4
.0
.0
.0
1.3
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.4
.3
.0
.3
.0
•1
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.6
.0
1.1
.0
.2
.5
.0
.4
.3
.0
.0
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch ...
English
Finnish
Flemish..
French
German
Greek
Hebrew .
Irish
Italian North..
Italian South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian .
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish.
Welsh....
Grand total
30,606
.1
.8
67.9
23.5
14.2
15.7
25.0
1.1
.5
.4
1.3
.2
.4
.4
.1
1.7
6.0
4.9
1.1
1.2
3.1
2.5
1.0
(a)
2.4
2.4
2.1
2.5
1.0
6.0
4.7
.2
Total native-born of for-
eign father
3,010
4,879
25,727
.2
.2
.1
1.3
1.2
.8
65. 7
67.9
67.9
(a)
(a)
(a)
Total native-born ...
Total foreign-born..
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
365
TABLE 21. — Per cent of females 16 years of age or over in each specified industry, by gen-
eral nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[The main headings used in this table follow the classifications of the United States Census with these
modifications: General Labor is here separate from Domestic and Personal Service; Fishing, Mining,
and Quarrying are each separate from Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits; Trade and Transporta-
tion are distinct from each other. This table includes only races with 20 or more females reporting. The
totals, however, are for all races.]
Pe
r cent-
General nativity and race
of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
In agricultural
pursuits.
In domestic and
personal serv-
ice.
In manufacturing
and mechanical
pursuits.
In mining.
In general labor
(not otherwise
entered).
In professional
service.
In trade.
In transportation.
In fishing.
oi
|
Native-born of native
father:
Wtite
1 774
0.1
1.5
17.9
0.0
0.0
0 9
3.7
0 3
0 0
71 8
3 9
Negro .
160
.6
3.8
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
.0
91.9
3 1
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
Canadian, French
Canadian, .Other
Dutch
184
215
22
104
obbb
6.0
.9
.0
4.8
42.4
50.2
13.6
29.8
oooc
oooc
.5
1.9
.0
2 9
5.4
3.7
.0
4.8
.0
.0
.0
o
.0
.0
.0
0
42.4
40.5
86.4
53 8
3.3
2.8
.0
3 8
English
171
.0
2.9
32.7
.0
.0
1.2
4.1
1.2
.0
53.8
4 1
Finnish . .
23
.0
4.3
.0
.0
,.0
0
4.3
o
.0
78 3
13 0
French
32
.0
3.1
18.8
.0
.0
o
12 5
3 1
o
59 4
3 1
German
569
.0
3.9
.0
.0
.7
3.9
9
.0
59 2
3 7
Hebrew
58
.0
1.7
60 3
.0
.0
o
8 6
o
o
10 3
19 0
Irish
801
.0
2 1
35.6
.0
.0
2.0
5.1
1 2
.0
50 6
3 4
Italian, North
45
.0
6.7
8.9
.0
.0
o
4 4
2 2
o
62 2
15 6
Italian, South
65
.0
.0
43.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
o
o
53 8
3 1
Lithuanian
46
.0
4.3
26.1
.0
0
o
2 2
o
o
58 7
8 7
Magyar
27
3.7
3.7
29.6
.0
.0
.0
11.1
o
.0
44 4
7 4
Norwegian .
21
.0
.0
4.8
.0
.0
o
4 8
o
o
81 0
9 5
Polish
265
.0
3.4
25.7
.0
.0
.0
3.4
o
o
63 0
4 5
Portuguese ..
20
.0
70.0
.0
.0
o
5 0
o
o
25 0
0
Ruthenian
48
.0
2 I
33.3
.0
.0
.0
4.2
o
o
50 0
10 4
Scotch... .
55
.0
5.5
29.1
.0
.0
1 8
5 5
0
o
52 7
5 5
Slovak
108
o
5 6
26 9
o
o
o
1 9
0
0
62 0
3 7
Swedish...
190
1.1
6.3
28 4
o
.0
1 6
11 6
1 1
o
41 6
8 4
AVelsh
49
o
o
18 4
o
o
o
6 1
0
0
63 3
12 2
Foreign-born:
152
o
o
29 6
o
o
0
o
0
0
67 1
3 3
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
514
2
2 1
10 9
o
o
o
6
0
0
86 0
2
Brava
29
.0
.0
6 9
o
o
o
o
o
o
93 1
0
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
693
53
628
.0
.0
o
1.3
3.8
7 8
32.6
17.0
2 5
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
o
.0
1.9
o
.3
5.7
3
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
0
65.5
71.7
88 9
.3
.0
Cuban
65
o
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
80 0
Danish...
25
o
4 0
56 0
o
o
o
o
0
0
40 0
0
Dutch
134
0
7
4 5
0
0
0
3 0
0
0
91 8
English.. .
496
o
8
19 8
o
o
2
4
0
0
78 4
4
Finnish
140
o
6 4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90 7
9 q
Flemish.. "
92
o
1 1
7 6
o
o
o
o
2 2
0
89 1
0
French
167
6
o
32 9
0
0
0
0
0
0
65 9
German
973
o
1 6
12 2
o
1
1
4
0
0
85 4
Greek
213
o
o
66 2
0
o
0
0
0
0
33 8
Hebrew. . .
944
o
6
18 2
o
o
1
1 6
0
0
78 7
7
Irish...
789
o
14 3
o
0
0
8
0
83 3
0
Italian, North....
Italian, South
Lithuanian
691
1,717
910
.0
.1
.1
.3
1.3
5 5
10.9
17.4
13 7
.0
.0
o
.0
.0
o
.0
.1
o
.9
.4
3
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
o
87.3
80.4
80 0
.7
.3
3
Magyar
1 080
0
1 5
12 7
o
o
0
4
0
0
85 4
Mexican
3G
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100 0
Norwegian . .
27
o
o
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
100 0
0
Polish
2 525
o
3 2
15 5
I
0
0
0
81 0
Portuguese
377
0
43 5
0
0
o
EC 7
Roumanian .
77
3' 9
o
o
0
0
0
0
0
96 1
n
Russian
88
0
0
15 9
0
0
0
2 3
0
01 0
•8
Ruthenian
Scotch
830
172
.1
0
1.2
1 2
32.2
18 0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.4
3 5
.0
0
.0
0
66.0
7fi 7
.1
Servian
66
o
7 6
1 5
o
o
0
0
0
0
90 9
0
Slovak
1 393
o
1 i
7 5
I
0
0
0
0
90 7
1
Slovenian
188
0
6 4
7 4
0
0
0
1 i
Spanish. ..
27
o
o
22 2
0
0
0
' 0
0
0
77 g
Swedish...
478
0
2.3
4.2
.0
.0
.0
.n
n
Q9, 7
n
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
366
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 21. — Per cent of females 16 years of age or over in each specified industry, by gen-
eral nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and race
of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Per cent—
In agricultural
pursuits.
In domestic and
personal serv-
ice.
In manufacturing
and mechan-
ical pursuits.
"e1 . P 1 In mining.
^ | 00 |
In general labor
(not other-
wise entered).
In professional
service.
In trade.
In transporta-
tion.
be
£
At home.
1
«?
7.5
7.8
Foreign-born— Cont'd.
Syrian
213
102
0.0
.0
0.5
2.0
39.4
2.9
0.0
.0
0.0
1.0
2.3
.0
0.0
.0
0.0
.0
50.2
86.3
Welsh
Grand total
22,242
(a)
2.2
3.3
2.7
2.1
18.9
32.9
26.6
16.5
(a)
.0
.0
(0)
.3
1.4
.1
.0
75.7
1.4
Total native-born of for-
eign father
3.188
5,125
17,117
.1
.1
(0)
.0
.0
(0)
1.1
1.0
(0)
4.9
4.4
.5
.5
.4
(a)
bob
52.4
60.4
80.3
4.9
4.5
.4
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
As the households studied were selected with reference to the fact
that their heads were employed in connection with" certain industries,
the foregoing table is not conclusive as to the industrial distribution
of the males and females. The selection was made, however, in pro-
portion to the extent to which the several races and nativity groups
were employed, and consequently the showing made may be con-
sidered a representative distribution according to occupation. Upon
comparing the totals, it is at once evident that the greater proportion,
or 67.9 per cent, of both natiVe-born and foreign-born males were
engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits representing 37 of
the principal industries of the country. Moreover, 25 per cent of the
foreign-born males studied and 15.7 per cent of the native-born were
employed in bituminous or anthracite coal, iron-ore, copper, or lead
and zinc mines. Only a small proportion of males were studied in
connection with other pursuits, the investigation along this line being
restricted to securing only a small number of households for the pur-
pose of indicating the progress on the part of the immigrant popula-
tion and comparing the males of foreign birth in trade and professional
or domestic or personal service with purely industrial workers. As
regards the females in the households studied, the larger proportion
of each nativity group were at home, the foreign-born showing the
highest percentage of women not engaged in work outside the home.
A much larger proportion of native-born women, whether of native or
foreign father, than of foreign-born women were engaged in manu-
facturing and mechanical pursuits. Of the females native-born of
foreign father, the Portuguese show the highest proportion, or 70
per cent, of their women engaged in manufacturing, followed by 60.3
per cent of the Hebrews and 50.2 per cent of the French Canadians.
Of the foreign-born women, the Greeks have the greatest proportion,
or 66.2 per cent, employed in manufacturing establishments, the
Danish being next in order with 56 per cent. The Portuguese come
next with 43.5 per cent, followed by the Syrians with 39.4 per cent.
AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO GENERAL NATIVITY AND
RACE OF EMPLOYEE.
In some industries where the employees were paid upon a piece-
rate basis, it was found more satisfactory to tabulate the returns
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
367
according to the amount earned each week rather than each day.
It should be borne in mind that these earnings represent an instanta-
neous view of the industry, or, in other words, they make no allowance
for lost time or other contingencies, except for the week presented,
which would appear in the consideration of earnings for a more
extended , period. The following table shows, by general nativity
and race, for 220,390 male industrial workers who were 18 years of
age or over the average amount of weekly earnings :
TABLE 22.— Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees 18 years of age or
over, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
41 933
$14.37
Foreign-born, by race— Con.
English
9,408
$14. 13
Negro
6,604
10.66
Filipino ...
1
(a)
(a)
Finnish
3,334
13.27
Native-born of foreign father,
Flemish
125
11.07
by country of birth of father'
French
896
12.92
Australia
15
18.93
German
11,380
13.63
Austria-Hungary
831
12.89
Greek
4,154
8.41
Azores
55
10.18
Hebrew, Russian
3,177
12.71
Belgium
56
14.66
Hebrew, Other
1,158
14.37
Bulgaria
2
(a)
Herzegovinian
54
13.81
Canada
3,385
11.21
Hindu
1
(a)
Cape Verde Islands
6
(a)
Irish
7,596
13.01
China
1
w
Italian, North
5,343
11.28
Cuba
3
(a)
Italian, South
7,821
9.61
Denmark
90
13.85
Italian (not specified)
24
12.64
England
4,239
14.24
Japanese .
3
(°)
56
12.48
Lithuanian
4,661
11.03
France
408
15.65
Macedonian
479
8.95
Germany
9,996
14.82
Magyar
5,331
11.65
Greece
10
11.08
Mexican
14
8.57
India
2
(a)
Mon tenegrin
88
12.91
Ireland
8,859
13.57
Negro
13
9.79
Italy
214
10.61
Norwegian
420
15.28
Mexico
3
(a)
Persian
21
11.23
Netherlands
367
12.87
Polish
24, 223
11.06
Norway
150
13.94
Portuguese
3,125
8.10
Portugal
53
9.32
Roumanian
1,026
10.90
Roiimaiiia
53
(°)
Russian
3,311
11.01
Russia
576
12.62
Ruthenian
385
9.92
Scotland
1,072
15.35
Scotch
1,711
15.24
Servia
(a)
Scotch-Irish
36
15.13
Spain .
13
14.46
Servian
1,016
10.75
Sweden
750
13.76
Slovak
10, 775
11.95
Switzerland
208
15.76
Slovenian
2,334
12.15
Turkey
2
(a)
Spanish
21
9.87
Wales
811
16.80
Swedish
3,984
15.36
West Indies (other than
Syrian
812
8.12
Cuba) •
2
(a)
Turkish
240
7.65
Africa (country not speci-
Welsh . .
1,249
22.02
fied)
1
(°)
West Indian (other than
South America (country
Cuban)
1
(0)
not specified)
2
(a)
Alsatian(racenotspecified)
1
(a)
Foreign-born, by race:
Abyssinian
1
(a)
Australian (race not speci-
fied)
6
(0)
Albanian
35
8.07
Austrian (race not speci-
Arabian.
3
(a)
fied)
748
12.67
Armenian
594
9.73
Belgian (race not specified)
650
14.33
Bohemian and Moravian..
Bosnian
1,353
18
13.07
11.63
South American (race not
specified)
3
(a)
Bulgarian
403
10.31
Swiss (race not specified)
229
13.96
8164
10 62
Canadian, Other
1,323
14.15
Grand total
220, 390
12.64
Croatian
4,890
11.37
Cuban
6
00
Total native-born of foreign
Dalmatian
25
11.82
father . . ...
32, 242
13.91
Danish
377
14.32
Total native-born
80, 780
13 89
Dutch
1,026
12.04
Total foreign-born
139, 610
11.92
Egyptian...
4
fa)
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made fo'r time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
368
The Immigration Commission.
On reference to the totals of the table, it is seen that the average
weekly earnings for the native-born white employees of native father
were $14.37, as contrasted with $13.91 for those of native birth but
of foreign father, and $11.92 for the total number of employees of
foreign birth.
In the table next presented, the average amount of weekly earnings
of 57,712 female wage-earners who were 18 years of age or over is
shown according to general nativity and race.
TABLE 23. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 18 years of age or
over, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OP EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White..
9,019
17
13
537
87
19
2,926
6
3
28
1,855
3
104
2,749
2
6.135
171
154
1
20
49
319
433
1
1
5f>
98
2
156
2
11
304
1
7,036
633
38
1
52
143
3,165
293
36
$7.91
6.80
6.20
6.86
7.46
6.57
8.02
(a)
(a)
7.78
8.19
(a)
8.59
8.22
(a)
8.10
7.70
8.03
(a)
8.29
7.45
7.62
8.51
(a)
(0)
8.24
8.42
(a)
5.74
(a)
7.54
9.28
(a)
8.31
8.09
7.19
(a)
8.42
7.89
8.81
9.00
9.42
Foreign-born, by race— Con.
French .
345
1,184
450
982
279
3,009
1,331
2,324
721
96
39
1
5,342
2,057
43
576
46
622
4
6
110
67
3
128
379
3
61
1
1
103
51
2
66
$9.89
8.98
6.85
7.97
8.27
8.24
7.51
6.64
(a)
6.69
7.74
9.27
(a)
7.21
7.31
7.57
7.10
6.52
9.09
(a)
(a)
6.61
7.15
(a)
8.86
9.79
(a)
6.53
(a)
(a).
7.15
9.03
(•)
9.50
Negro
German
Native-born of foreign father,
by country of birth of father:
Australia
Greek
Hebrew, Russian.
Hebrew, Other
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Irish
Italian, North
Belgium
Italian South
Canada
Italian (not specified)
Lithuanian
Cape Verde Islands.
Cuba
Magyar
Denmark
Norwegian
England
Persian
Finland
Polish
France
Germany
Roumanian
Greece
R us^ian
Ireland
Rutheuian
Italv
Scotch
Netherlands .
Scotch-Irish
New Zealand
Norway
Slovak . .
Portugal
Slovenian
Kussia
Spanish
Scotland
Swedish
Servia ...
Syrian
Spain
Turkish
Sweden
Welsh . .
Switzerland
Alsatian (race not speci-
fied)
Turkev
Wales "
Australian (race not speci-
fied)
South America (country
not specified) .
Austrian (race not speci-
fied)
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
Belgian (race not speci-
fied)
Bohemian and Moravian..
Bulgarian .
South American (race not
specified)
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Swiss (race not specified). .
Cuban
57,712
7.96
Danish
Total native-born of foreign
father
Dutch
15,930
24,966
32.746
8.11
8.04
7.90
English
Finnish
Total native-born
Flemish
Total foreign-born
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed , owing to small number involved.
As in the case of the average daily earnings, it is seen that the
weekly earnings of the women industrial workers are much lower than
those for the men. The average amount earned each week by the
native-born white women of native father was $7.91, as against $8.11
for native-born female wage-earners of foreign father, and $7.90 for
women of foreign birth.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
369
In addition to the earnings of the adult wage-earners information
was secured relative to the average earnings of male and female in-
dustrial workers 14 and under 18 years of age. In the table which
is submitted below the average amount of weekly earnings of male
employees 14 and under 18 years of age is shown according to general
nativity and race. Upon referring to the table it is seen that the
earnings exhibited by the different nativity groups are about the
same. Of the several races of foreign-born employees, the Welsh
have the highest and the Slovenians the lowest average weekly
earnings.
TABLE 24. — Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees 14 and under 18 years
of age, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
4,016
$6.60
Foreign-born, by race— Con.
Finnish
15
$7 31
Negro .... . .
323
6.38
Flemish
3
(a)
Native-born of foreign father,
French
43
7.30
by country of birth of father:
German ...
140
6 60
Australia
6
(a)
Greek
189
5 77
Austria-Hungary
417
6.45
Hebrew, Russian.
130
6 82
Azores
57
6.04
Hebrew Other
35
6 62
Belgium
26
6.43
Irish
43
7 03
Bulgaria
1
(a)
Italian, North
231
6 15
Canada
1 061
615
Italian South
517
6 25
Cape Verde Islands
3
(a)
Lithuanian
25
6 22
Denmark
23
782
Macedonian
5
(a)
England
713
6.55
Magyar
44
7 13
Finland ...
29
9 06
Montenegrin *.
1
(a)
France
48
6 62
3
(a)
Germany. .
1,374
6.45
• Persian
1
a
Greece
2
(a)
Polish
419
595
Ireland
922
6.32
Portuguese
314
5 57
Italy
184
6 14
12
7 24
Netherlands . .
92
6.18
Russian
42
6 29
Norway
16
7 99
Ruthenian
10
7 31
Portugal
46
5 34
Scotch
34
6 82
Koumania .
2
(a)
Servian
2
(a)
Russia
033
5 86
Slovak
128
7 35
Scotland
153
6.74
Slovenian
13
o 96
Sweden
152
7 *69
24
7 50
Switzerland
44
6.56
Svrian
63
5 87
Turkey
3
(a)
Turkish
12
5 01
Wales'
79
6 11
Welsh
34
7 96
Africa (country not speci-
fied)
1
(a)
Austrian (race not speci-
fied)
g
(a)
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
6
(°)
Belgian (race not speci-
fied)
23
7 52
Bohemian and Moravian. .
Bulgarian
31
5
6.15
(a)
Swiss (race not specified). .
1
(a)
Canadian , French
673
5.92
Grand total
13 682
6 42
Canadian Other
34
7 12
Croatian
23
7 86
Danish
1
(a)
father
5 687
6 39
Dutch
33
588
Total native-born
10 026
6 48
Egyptian
1
(a)
Total foreign-born
3 656
^ 6 26
English
285
6 58
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The table which is next presented sets forth, by general nativity
and race, the average amount of weekly earnings 01 female employees
who were 14 but under 18 years of age. The earnings of the females,
it will be seen, average lower than those of the males in the same age
classification.
370
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 25. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 14 and under 18
years of age, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amoun c
of weekly
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of weekly
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
3 12G
$5 25
Foreign-born, by race — Con.
Danish
1
(a)
Negro
4
(a)
Dutch
44
§5.43
English
322
6.51
Furnish
9
(a)
Australia
32
4.19
French
36
6.89
726
4 75
German
135
6.00
73
5 78
Greek
87
5.34
Belgium
22
5.70
Hebrew, Russian
257
6.14
1 425
6.07
Hebrew Other
60
6.09
Cape Verde Islands
4
(a)
Irish
76
6.05
Cuba
1
(a)
Italian North
314
5.90
7
(a)
Italian South
477
5.72
England
782
5.79
Lithuanian
78
4.47
Finland
4
(a)
Magvar
31
4.94
47
5 79
1
(0)
Germany
1,400
5.06
Polish
644
5.43
Greece
7
(a)
Portuguese
318
5.87
India
2
(a)
Roumanian
9
(a)
Ireland
1 218
5.40
Russian
108
5.75
Italy
264
5 54
Ruthenian
12
5.40
Netherlands
105
5.56
Scotch
40
6.22
Norway
7
(a)
Servian
2
(0)
Portugal
42
6.17
Slovak
60
4.41
Roumania
1
(a)
Slovenian
13
4.72
Russia
640
420
Swedish
8
(a)
Scotland
147
5.65
Syrian
57
6.00
Spain
1
(a)
Turkish
1
(a)
Sweden
37
5 83
Welsh
19
3.50
Switzerland
55
5.63
Austrian (race not speci-
Turkey
2
(a)
fied)
9
(a)
Wales
191
3. CO
Belgian (race not speci-
Africa (country not speci-
fied)
23
5.82
fied)
1
(°) •
South American (race not
South America (country
specified)
1
(a)
not specified)
1
(a)
Swiss (race not specified)
3
(a)
Armenian
1
(a)
Grand total ...
14,803
5.46
68
5 83
Bulgarian
1
(°)
Tola! native-born of foreign
Canadian, French
1,044
6.08
father
7,244
5.31
Canadian Other
51
6.04
Total native-born
10 374
5.29
Croatian
9
(a)
Total foreign-born
4 429
5 85
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO GENERAL NATIVITY AND
RACE OF EMPLOYEE.
The table which follows shows, by general nativity and race, the
average amount of daily earnings of all male wage-earners studied
who were 18 years of age or over. As pointed out in the case of weekly
earnings, it should be borne in mind that the following figures repre-
sent an instantaneous view and consequently a maximum earning
capacity. A more extended period of time would show lower earnings
because of lost time and other causes.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
371
TABLE 26. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 18 years of age or over,
by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
26,987
$2.24
Foreign-born, by race— Con.
Flemish
5
(a)
Negro
13, 125
1.77
French
789
$2 28
Indian
6
(a)
German . ...
5,819
2.29
Native-born of foreign father,
Greek
912
1.58
by coun try of birth of father:
Hebrew, Russian
190
2.20
Arabia
1
(a)
Hebrew, Other
102
2 07
Australia
6
(a)
Herzegovinian
132
1 66
Austria-Hungary
820
2.23
Irish
2,854
2.19
Belgium. ... ...
34
2.19
Italian North
6 914
2 23
Bulgaria
2
(a)
Italian South
6 720
1 95
Canada
191
2.30
Italian (not specified)
75
2 10
China
1
(a)
Japanese
144
1 80
Cuba
136
2.49
Korean
7
(a)
Denmark
65
2.26
Lithuanian
4 142
2 01
England
1,828
2.42
Macedonian
89
1 58
Finland.. .
3
(a)
Magyar
4 777
1 97
France
252
2.35
Mexican
183
2 19
Germany. .
4,641
2.34
Montenegrin
151
2 08
Greece
1
(a)
Negro
57
2 06
India
1
(a)
Norwegian
175
2 36
Ireland
3,156
2.27
Polish
13,292
1 90
Italy
156
2.30
Portuguese
8
(a)
Mexico
20
1 97
622
1 76
Netherlands
44
2.33
Russian
2 819
2 06
Norway
45
2 23
Ruthenian
323
1 92
Portugal
1
(a)
Scotch
1 200
2 47
Russia
248
1 98
Scotch-Irish
46
2 36
Scotland
867
2.47
Servian
435
1 82
Spain
37
2 59
Slovak
11 979
2 02
Sweden
178
2 22
2 127
2 13
Switzerland
78
2 52
Spanish
1 683
2 54
Turkey
1
(a)
Swedish
803
2 39
Wales
418
2.48
Syrian
79
1 81
West Indies (other than
Turkish
65
1 63
Cuba)
10
2.28
Welsh
371
2 41
Africa (country not speci-
fied)
6
(a)
West Indian (other than
Cuban)
15
2 15
South America (country
not specified)
1
(a)
Australian (race not speci-
g
(a)
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
42
1.73
Austrian (race not speci-
fied)
1 120
2 36
Bohemian and Moravian. .
Bosnian
2.171
12
2.26
1.83
Belgian (race not speci-
fied)
462
2 21
Bulgarian
506
1 75
Canadian, French
86
2.38
specified)
1
(a)
Canadian, Other.
186
2 42
Swiss (race not specified)
72
247
Croatian . .
4 325
1 90
Cuban
2,819
2 34
Grand total
138 375
2 11
Dalmatian.
16
2 14
Danish *
155
2 33
Dutch
179
2 12
father
13 248
2 W
English
2,645
2.49
Total native-born
53 366
2 15
Filipino
1
(a)
Total foreign-born
85 009
2 09
Finnish
99
2 30
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The highest average daily earnings, as indicated by the table above,
are shown by the second generation of industrial workers, or native-
born of foreign father, followed by the native-born white wage-earners
of native father, who, in turn, are followed by the foreign-born.
Among the races of old immigration from Great Britain and northern
Europe the highest average daily earnings are shown by the English
and the lowest by the Dutch and Irish. Of the races of southern and
eastern Europe, the highest average daily earnings capacity is exhib-
372
The Immigration Commission.
ited by the Spanish and North Italians, and the lowest by the Greeks
and Macedonians. The average amount earned daily by the total of
138,375 male employees for whom information was received was $2.11.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race, the
average amount of daily earnings of 14,416 female wage-earners 18
years of age or over for whom information was received :
TABLE 27. — Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 18 years of age or
over, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
G eneral nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
4,306
2,578
6
267
1
29
1
7
117
47
1,113
1,084
81
1
9
15
1
2
121
32
15
13
13
2
124
2
5
13
115
409
3
46
66
1
8
335
18
$1.25
.77
(a)
1.27
(0)
1.28
(a)
(a)
1.21
1.33
1.29
1.33
1.23
(a)
(a)
1.42
(a)
W..IT
1.20
1.38
1.33
1.11
(a)
1.28
(a)
H.*
1.05
1.20
(0)
1.36
1.17
(0)
W,so
.93
Foreign-born, by race— Con.
Hebrew, Russian
92
31
191
90
740
190
1
395
1
4
5
970
1
83
151
11
16
5
192
75
106
10
4
1
4
1
29
8
3
$1.22
1.20
1.16
1.04
1.30
1.14
(a)
1.15
(a)
(a)
(a)
1.14
(a)
1.15
1.12
1.36
1.36
(a)
1.14
1.31
1.50
1.31
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
1.17
(a)
(a)
Negro. .
Hebrew Other
Native-born of foreign father,
by country of birth of father:
Australia
Irish...
Italian, North
Italian South
Austria-Hungary
Lithuanian
Belgium
Macedonian
Canada
Magyar.
Cuba
Mexican
Denmark
Negro
England
France ...
Polish
Germany
Ireland/.
Roumanian
Italy
Russian
Mexico
Netherlands
Scotch
Norway
Servian
Portugal
Slovak
Roumania. .
Slovenian
Russia
Scotland
Swedish
Sweden. . .
Switzerland...
Turkish
Wales...
Welsh
Foreign-born, by race:
Arabian
West Indian (other than
Cuban)
Bohemian and Moravian. .
Bulgarian
Austrian (race not speci-
fied)
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Belgian (race not speci-
fied)
Croatian
Swiss (race not specified) .
Grand total
Cuban
Danish
14, 416
1.16
Dutch
Total native-born of foreign
father
English
2,975
9,859
4,557
1.29
1.13
1.20
Finnish
French
Total native-born
German . .
Total foreign-born
Greek
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost tune from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
oNot computed, owing to small number involved.
The average amount of daily earnings of the female industrial
workers, as can be readily seen from the table, was considerably,
below that shown by the males. For the native-born white women
the average amount earned each week was $1.25, for those native-
born of foreign father $1.29, and for the total foreign-born $1.20.
The two tabulations next presented set forth the average daily
earnings of industrial workers who were 14 and under 18 years of age.
The first table submitted, which immediately follows, shows, by
general nativity and race, the average daily earnings of 7,363 male
wage-earners who were 14 but under 18 years of a^e. The average
earnings shown by the grand total were $1.38 per diem, the average
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
373
for the total foreign-born $1.63, for the total native-born of foreign
father $1.48, and for those of native birth and native father $1.31 per
day.
TABLE 28. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 14 and under 18 years
of age, by general nativity and race.*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
2,624
1,143
1
412
21
15
38
14
246
29
487
208
102
4
4
7
1
112
130
14
48
10
44
1
52
8
2
3
79
85
1
2
8
42
20
$1.31
.99
W1.43
1.73
1.19
1.67
1.40
1.61
1.68
1.40
1.35
1.60
(a)
(a)
(a)
w
1.39
1.71
1.74
1.51
1.54
1.58
(a)
1.52
(0)
(a)
(a)
1.49
1.63
(a)
(a)
(a)
1.60
1.69
Foreign-born, by race — Con.
German
60
27
3
2
9
6
154
289
3
1
20
12
114
7
8
1
151
14
28
6
27
8
214
37
95
8
4
3
22
13
$1.50
1.18
(a)
ft
('U
1.51
(0)
(0)
1.50
1.38
1.54
(a)
(a)
(a)
1.45
1.70
1.57
(a)
1.58
(0)
1.54
1.45
2.67
(a)
(a)
(a)
1.93
1.S6
Greek
Native-born of foreign father,
by country of birth of father:
Australia
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian . . .
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Cuba
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
Denmark
Lithuanian
France
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Italv
Montenegrin
Negro
Netherlands
Polish
Norway
Roumanian
Russian
Russia
Ruthenian
Scotland
Scotch
Spain
Servian
Sweden
Slovak
Slovenian
Wales
Spanish
> West Indies (other than
Cuba)
Swedish
Syrian
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian. .
Welsh
Austrian (race not speci-
fied)
Canadian French
Belgian (race not speci-
fied)
Grand total
Cuban
7,363
1.38
Dalmatian
Danish
Total native-born of foreign
father
1,948
5,715
1,648
1.48
1.31
1.63
Dutch
English
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost tune from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The average daily earnings of females 14 and under 18 years of age
are shown in the following table, by general nativity and race. The
earnings of the females, it will be noted, in the case of each nativity
group are lower than those shown by the males in the same classifica-
tion.
374
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 29. — Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 14 and under 18 years
of age, by general nativity and race.*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Total
number.
Average
amount
of daily
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,848
$0.93
Foreign-born, by race — Con.
Greek
2
(a)
308
.60
Hebrew, Russian
31
$1.03
Hebrew Other
18
1.01
by country of birth, of father*
Irish
8
(a)
3
(a)
Italian, North
66
.90
178
1 01
Italian South
158
1.24
9
(a)
Lithuanian
17
1.03
Cuba
1
w
Magyar
87
.87
Denmark
7
(a)
Mexican
1
(a)
32
1.93
Polish
136
1.04
France
12
.82
Portuguese
1
(a)
434
.94
Roumanian
7
(a)
201
92
Russian
29
.99
Italy
73
.99
Ruthenian
5
(a)
Netherlands
5
(a)
Scotch
3
a
7
(a)
Slovak
43
1.04
149
.93
Slovenian
8
(a)
11
.94
Spanish
16
1.32
Spain
1
(a)
Austrian (race not speci-
11
1.12
fied)
8
(a)
Switzerland . .
7
(a)
Belgian (race not speci-
Wales
2
(a)
fied)
4
(a)
Foreign-born, by race:
22
1 19
South American (race not
specified)
2
(a)
j
(a\
Canadian Other
1
(a)
Grand total
4,224
.93
36
9 5
Cuban
87
1.16
Total native-born of foreign
Dutch.
14
1 13
father
1,143
.95
English
7
(a)
Total native-born
3, 359
.90
47
1 02
Total foreign-born
865
1.06
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for tune lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
THE RANGE OF WEEKLY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO GENERAL NATIVITY
AND RACE OF EMPLOYEE.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race, the
per cent of male employees 18 years of age or over earning each
specified amount per week. As in the case of average earnings, it
should be noted that the following tables relative to range in earnings
are based upon a single normal week. The earnings for a more
extended period would be proportionately lower for the reason that
lost time through .various causes would become operative.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
375
TABLE 30. — Per cent of male employees 18 years of age > or over earning each specified
'amount per week, by general nativity and race.*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more males reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Average
earnings
per
week.
Per cent earning each specified amount per week.
•Ss
1*
11
Is
s|
Js
|i
§•§
fl i-H 3§
|
§1
il
i
0
i
Native-born of native father:
White
41,933
6,604
831
3,385
90
4,239
408
9,996
8,859
214
367
150
576
1,072
750
208
811
594
1,353
403
8,164
1,323
4,890
377
1,026
9,408
125
3,334
896
11,380
4,154
3,177
1,158
7,596
5,343
7,821
4,661
479
5.331
88
420
24, 223
3,125
1,026
3,311
385
1,711
1,016
10,775
2,334
3.984
812
240
1,249
$14. 37
10. 66
12.89
11.21
13.85
14.24
15.65
14.82
13.57
10.61
12.87
13.94
12.62
15.35
13.76
15.76
16. 80
9.73
13.07
10.31
10.62
14.15
11.37
14.32
12.04
14.13
11.07
13.27
12.92
13.63
8.41
12.71
14.37
13.01
11.28
9.61
11.03
8.95
11.65
12.91
15.28
11.06
8.10
10.90
11.01
9.92
15.24
10.75
11.95
12.15
15.36
8.12
7.65
22.02
(a)
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
(«)
!o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.1
!o
.0
.0
.0
(0)
!o
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
!o
.0
.0
.0
0.3
.4
.5
.4
.0
.5
.0
.3
.2
2.8
.0
.0
.9
.4
.0
1.0
.2
.7
.2
.2
.4
.4
(a)
.0
_ 2
.1
.0
.0
.1
.1
3.9
.5
.5
.1
.5
.9
.3
1.0
.1
.0
.0
.5
1.7
.0
.4
.5
.0
.0
.1
.2
.0
.7
2.1
.1
3.8
5.8
7.1
11.2
2.2
4.8
3.7
1:1
17.3
4.6
2.7
9.9
3.1
2.8
2.9
1.6
22.2
2.4
3.2
12.5
3.3
5.8
.3
2.3
3.7
.0
.7
2.3
2.4
41.1
8.2
4.8
4.4
10.1
23.5
9.7
26.5
3.5
.0
1.4
11.4
44.0
3.1
8.6
14.8
2.4
14.1
1.4
2.7
.4
45.1
55.4
.3
18.9
40.1
19.5
29.1
20.0
19.0
15.9
14.4
21.3
31.3
16.1
11.3
19.3
13.2
13.6
14.4
11.6
37.9
21.1
51.9
33.5
14.8
30.6
11.9
18.3
20.0
32.8
11.9
19.8
19.6
32.4
16.4
12.4
27.1
29.8
36.0
30.4
46.8
29.2
13.6
6.4
30.2
38.1
37.4
34.2
42.1
16.4
35.7
29.8
22.1
9.0
37.8
31.2
6.1
24.6
23.9
37.2
25.2
30.2
26.7
21.0
19.4
22.8
24.4
24.8
33.0
22.0
24.0
18.9
26.7
26.0
16.9
20.9
25.4
25.8
30.5
26.2
30.8
27.6
48.2
21.4
51.2
21.4
39.4
27.6
14.8
31.8
26.9
25.2
23.1
24.7
35.7
19.2
34.0
33.0
21.4
30.4
12.6
40.9
32.1
29.3
19.6
26.0
33.0
33.5
24.5
11.8
7.9
1L1
26.6
15.0
8.3
19.0
14.9
15.6
16.8
15.2
14.9
16.4
7.0
16.6
22.7
14.9
18.3
17.9
12.5
13.7
8.4
15.6
16.1
13.8
16.3
21.7
17.2
12.8
17.8
12.0
34.3
16.2
15.9
3.4
10.2
10.5
15.7
22.1
7.5
11.2
5.6
22.5
20.5
17.9
14.2
2.7
10.7
13.3
5.2
18.6
16.6
21.6
21.0
17.0
3.4
2.1
14.2
ITi
=3=3
15.8
14.8
15.6
15.7
3.5
15.4
8.8
15.6
15.8
16.7
20.2
14.6
10.3
17.2
25.3
17.9
15.7
21.9
13.9
19.0
8.2
22.2
2.2
6.3
18.4
8.6
24.4
10.7
18.3
3.2
27.8
10.3
17.7
2.8
18.5
21.0
12.2
10.5
4.7
8.4
3
8.8
2.8
7.5
2.8
8.9
9.3
11.5
10.1
8.0
3.7
8.4
8.7
4.7
13.3
8.8
11.1
14.2
1.5
8.8
.2
1.6
8.5
1.3
10.3
5.8
7.3
.0
2.7
5.1
8.3
1.3
8.1
10.3
7.5
2.4
1.6
2.8
o
5.2
.4
3.2
1.2
4.4
5.0
5.1
6.3
4.2
1.4
2.5
6.0
5.4
6.8
4.7
3.8
8.6
.2
2.9
.2
.5
5.1
.5
4.0
.8
3.9
.0
.7
2.3
3'. 9
.1
3.9
6.6
2.7
.6
.5
1.1
o
2.4
.4
.6
.6
3.3
2.7
3.4
2.7
2.2
.5
.8
.0
2.1
3.7
2.0
4.3
5.1
.0
.5
.0
.5
1.8
.6
2.1
.4
2.2
.0
_ 2
.'7
1.8
(a)
.8
2.3
1.7
.4
.2
.2
o
5.9
1.0
2.0
.7
3.3
5.2
9.1
5.3
4.2
.9
.8
1.3
1.0
6.6
1.7
10.1
9.1
.0
.7
.0
.3
5.1
.1
2.1
.5
5.3
.8
.2
3.8
2.8
4! 6
3.4
.6
.2
.2
o
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
country ol birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Canada
Denmark
England
France
Germany
Ireland '
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Russia
Scotland
Sweden
Switzerland . . .
Wales .
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian.. ..
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian.
Danish
Dutch
English
Flemish
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North...
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Macedonian .
Magyar
6.5
29.5
26.9
8.8
.8
5.5
6.5
6.8
14.1
5.1
8.9
16.6
23.8
. 7
12! 1
1276
2.6
2.3
13.1
3.1
(a)
1.6
3.6
.8
10.5
1.2
3.6
3.2
12.6
.1
io!2
~5.~8
1.0
1.1
5.2
.8
.0
.7
.8
.3
6.5
.6
.9
.5
6.0
.2
.0
7.5
.4
.0
4.3
.4
.0
.1
.1
.0
4.0
.6
.5
LI
.0
.0
7.1
.2
.0
3.3
.3
'.5
.3
7.9
.1
.2
5.0
.0
.0
31.3
Montenegrin
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian .
Swedish
Syrian. . .
Turkish
Welsh-
Grand total
220,390
12.64
(a)
.4
7.6
2.8
4.8
4.6
1.8
1.4J 2.8
2J2I 4! 9
•«i *-7
Total native-born of foreign father.
Total native-born. . . .
32. 242| 13. 91
80, 7801 13. 89
139,610 11.92
(a)
(a)
(a)
.3
.3
.4
5. 0 18. 7!23. 8
4. 5|20. 5 24. 9
9. 5 26. 9j27. 6
16. 3j 8. 6
15.0 8.2
11.2 4.5
Total foreign-born
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Upon reference to the foregoing table it is seen that the adult male
employees of native birth exhibit a higher range of earnings than
376
The Immigration Commission.
those who were born abroad. The foreign-born industrial workers
show larger proportions than the native-born in each wage clas-
sification up to $12.50 but under $15 each week. At this point the
situation changes; in the higher ranges of earnings the native-born
show a larger proportion in each classification than the foreign-born.
The table which immediately follows shows the per cent df female
employees 18 years of age or over earning each specified amount per
week, by general nativity and race.
TABLE 31. — Per cent of female employees 18 years of age or over earning each specified
amount per week, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more females reporting.
The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Average
earnings
per week.
Per cent earning each specified amount per
week
Under
$2.50.
$2.50
and
under
$5.
$5
and
under
$7.50.
40.1
22.2
60.9
38.4
32.2
34.6
30.8
36.5
45.6
40.9
39.2
33.7
28.6
32.1
26.6
32.6
38.7
39.9
26.3
26.3
24.6
25.1
59.8
40.6
36.2
33.6
51.2
68.4
60.3
39.6
51.6
50.9
58.9
23.6
42.7
26.6
78.6
$7.50
and
under
$10.
,10
and
under
$12. 50
$12. 50
and
under
$15.
$15 or
over.
Native-born of native father, White. .
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
9,019
537
87
2,926
1,855
104
2,749
6,135
171
154
319
433
98
156
304
7,036
633
143
3,165
293
345
1,184
450
982
279
3,609
1,331
2,324
721
96
5,342
2,057
576
622
110
128
379
$7.91
8.86
7.46
8.02
8.19
8.59
8.22
8.10
7.70
8.03
7.62
8.51
8.42
5.74
9.28
8.31
8.09
7.89
8.81
9.00
9.89
8.98
6.85
7.97
8.27
8.24
7.51
6.64
6.69
7.74
7.21
7.31
7.10
9.09
6.61
8.86
6.79
0.3
.0
.0
(a)
!o
.1
.1
.0
.0
.3
.0
.0
.6
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
,0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.4
.4
.0
">,
.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
7.9
11.2
2.3
2.3
5.4
6.7
8.3
5.1
8.2
5.2
15.7
3.0
9.2
45.5
2.6
2.1
3.2
6.3
1.2
.3
.9
4.3
6.9
4.8
2.2
2.5
7.2
8.7
10.8
9.4
6.7
4.6
5.9
1.6
22.7
.8
1.8
34.0
32.4
32.2
44.6
42.1
30.8
36.7
39.7
27.5
33.8
24.1
38.8
34.7
17.3
32.2
46.5
38.2
36.4
45.8
38.6
21.4
32.9
30.9
35.6
35.1
44.9
27.1
16.1
22.6
31.3
33.5
38.7
24.1
41.8
27.3
43.8
16.9
13.9
22.9
3.4
12.6
15.4
20.2
17.8
14.9
13.5
13.0
14.7
15.5
14.3
4.5
25.3
16.2
17.5
10. 5
21.3
31.4
35.1
26.0
2.2
14.3
21.9
16.4
9.5
5.2
4.4
15.6
7.5
5.4
8.9
24.1
7.3
24.2
2.6
2.4
5.4
1.1
1,6
4.0
3.8
4.2
2.8
3.5
5.2
3.8
7.6
13.3
.0
5.6
2.3
1.7
5.6
4.9
3.4
17.4
8.9
.2
2.0
2.9
2.0
3.0
.7
1.2
2.1
.4
.3
1.0
7.7
.0
3.1
.0
1.4
6.0
.0
.4
.8
3.8
2.0
.9
1.8
1.9
2.2
1.4
.0
.0
7.6
.2
.6
1.4
.5
.0
.6
2.6
.0
2.6
1.8
.5
2.0
.6
.1
2.1
.2
.0
.7
1.1
.0
1.6
.0
Azores
Canada
England
France
Germany
Ireland ....
Italy
Netherlands
Russia
Scotland
Switzerland
Wales.
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian . . .
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Dutch
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian . . .
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
' Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese
Russian
Scotch
Slovak
Swedish „
Syrian
Grand total
57,712
7.96
.1
.1
.1
.1
5.4
6.0
6.7
4.4
39.6
37.2
39.2"
37.3
37.1
14.2
15.1
14.7
13.8
.2.7
3.2
2.9
2.4
.9
T2
1.3
.7
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
15,930
24,966
32,746
8.11
8.04
7.90
35.1
36.9
41.6
Total foreign-born
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
The foregoing figures show that the maximum proportion of the
women wage-earners of native birth were earning between $7.50 and
$10 weekly, and those of foreign birth $5 but less than $7.50 each
week. Upon analyzing further the showing for the total native-born,
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
377
it is seen that the female employees of native birth but of foreign
father have their largest proportion in the classification of $7.50 but
under $10 weekly, while those native-born of native father appear in
largest numbers among those receiving between $5 and $7.50 each
week. The average weekly earnings for the native-born women are
only slightly higher than those for the foreign-born females.
The following table shows, by general nativity and race, the per
cent of male employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning each
specified amount each week.
TABLE 32. — Per cent of male employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning each specified
amount per week, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more males reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Aver-
age
earn-
ings
per
week.
Per cent earning each specified amount per week.
Un-
der
$2.50.
$2.50
and
under
$5.
$5
and
under
$7.50.
$7.50
and
under
$10.
$10
and
under
$12.50.
$12.50
and
under
$15.
$15
and
under
117.50.
$17.50
or
over.
Native-born of native father:
White . .
4,016
323
417
57
1,061
713
48
1.374
922
184
92
46
233
153
152
44
79
673
285
43
140
189
130
43
231
517
44
419
314
42
128
63
$6.60
6.38
6.45
6.04
6.15
6.55
6.62
6.45
6.32
6.14
6.18
5.34
5.86
6.74
7.69
6.56
6.11
5.92
6.58
7.30
6.60
5.77
6.82
7.03
6.15
6.25
7.13
5.95
5.57
6.29
7. 35
5.87
0.5
.0
1.2
.0
.3
.3
.0
.3
.4
1.1
.0
2.2
.4
.0
.0
.0
1.3
.6
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.8
.0
.5
1.3
.0
.0
.0
21.1
39.3
22.3
12.3
23.4
20.3
25.0
23.9
20.0
29.9
27.2
47.8
33.0
13.7
15.1
34.1
30.4
25.6
13.0
9.3
21.4
30.2
13.1
16.3
25.1
15.5
25.0
26.3
33.4
16.7
10.9
1.6
47.2
25.7
48.9
71.9
59.4
53.9
35.4
47.7
57. 5
43.5
50.0
41.3
50.2
56.9
37.5
34.1
40.5
60.6
67.0
48.8
47.9
57.1
58.5
51.2
53.2
61.3
45.5
56.8
59.2
57.1
47.7
87.3
22.9
26.6
18.9
15.8
13.0
19.4
33.3
19.4
18.2
17.9
15.2
8.7
11.6
20.9
32.2
15.9
17.7
11.6
13.3
30.2
20.0
12.2
16.9
20.9
15.6
15.9
11.4
13.6
5.1
23.8
32.0
7.9
6.2
7.7
7.4
.0
3.7
5.2
6.3
7.2
2.8
' 6.0
7.6
.0
3.4
7.2
8.6
13.6
7.6
1.6
6.3
11.6
10.0
.5
11.5
9.3
4.8
6.0
11.4
2.1
1.0
2.4
3.9
3.2
1.3
.3
1.0
.0
.3
.6
.0
.9
.7
1.6
.0
.0
1.3
1.3
3.9
2.3
1.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.3
1.3
.6
4.5
.0
.0
.0
5.5
.0
0.3
.0
.2
.0
.0
.3
.0
.'6
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.6
.0
1.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.3
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
0.4
.3
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
!o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Canada
England . ...
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Russia
Scotland
Sweden
Switzerland . . .
Wales.
Foreign-born, by race:
Canadian, French. .
English
French
G ennan
Greek
Hebrew, Russian .
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese
Russian.
Slovak
Syrian
Grand total ... .
13,682
6.43
.5
22.3
51.4
18.9
18.2
20.3
15.1
5.6
5.3
5.9
4.8
.9
.9
1.0
.8
.3
.3
.3
^2
.2
Total native-born of foreign
father
5,687
10,026
3,656
6.39
6.48
6.26
.4
.4
.5
22.8
22.7
21.2
51.9
49.2
57.6
*•
(»)
Total native-born
Total foreign-born.
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
The foregoing table shows that the largest proportion of both
native-born and foreign-born employees 14 and under 18 years of
age were earning $5 but less than $7.50 each week; 47.2 per cent
of the white employees of native birth and of native fatner, 57.6
per cent of those of foreign birth, and 51.9 per cent of the wage-
earners of native birth but of foreign father were each week earning
72289°— VOL 1—11 25
378
The Immigration Commission.
this amount. Slightly more than one-fifth of each nativity group
received weekly between $2.50 and $5, and larger proportions of
native white wage-earners in this age group, both of native and of
foreign father, than of the foreign-born, earned $7.50 but under $10
weekly.
The table which is submitted below shows, by general nativity
and race, the per cent of female employees 14 and under 18 years of
age earning each specified amount per week. The significant fact
disclosed by this taole is that the native-born females, as compared
with the foreign-born, appear in larger numbers in the lower wage
classification of those earning $2.50 and under $5 each week. On
the other hand, the foreign-born exhibit considerably greater pro-
portions earning between $5 and $7.50 weekly and $7.50 and $10
each week.
TABLE 33. — Per cent of female employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning each speci-
fied amount per week, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more females reporting.
The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Average
earnings
per
week.
Per cent earning each specified amount per week.
Under
$2.50.
$2.50 and
under
$5. '
$5 and
under
$7.50.
$7.50 and
under
$10.
$10 or
over.
Native-born of native father,
White
3,126
726
73
1,425
782
47
1,400
1,218
264
105
42
640
147
55
191
68
1,044
51
44
322
135
87
257
60
76
314
477
78
644
318
108
40
60
57
$5.25
4.75
5.78
6.07
5.79
5.79
5.06
5.40
5.54
5.56
6.17
4.20
5.65
5.63
3.60
5.83
6.08
6.04
5.43
6.51
6.00
5.34
6.14
6.09
6.05
5.90
5.72
4.47
5.43
5.87
5.75
6.22
4.41
6.00
3.3
6.7
1.4
.4
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.8
3.0
.0
2.4
8.4
.7
1.8
13.1
1.5
.8
.0
.0
.6
2.2
1.1
.4
.0
1.3
i 1.3
.6
5.1
2.8
.9
2.8
.0
3.3
.0
39.7
51.9
30.1
23.2
30.9
31.9
47.9
37.4
38.3
48.6
19.0
63.1
31.3
43.6
79.1
35.3
23.5
19.6
36.4
21.7
32.6
41.4
23.7
31.7
21.1
29.9
24.9
53.8
34.5
31.4
25.0
17.5
63.3
10.5
45.7
31.0
53.4
57.3
51.0
44.7
37.9
48.0
45.1
40.0
54.8
23.8
56.5
40.0
7.9
39.7
57.4
62.7
45.5
48.4
45.9
54.0
55.3
41.7
53.9
51.3
63.7
35.9
49.8
49.7
59.3
67.5
26.7
84.2
9.6
8.6
12.3
16.6
12.4
19.1
9.9
9.7
8.3
10.5
21.4
4.4
10.9
7.3
.0
16.2
17.1
15.7
15.9
19.6
12.6
3.4
16.7
21.7
21.1
12.1
8.2
5.1
11.2
16.0
10.2
10.0
6.7
5.3
1.7
1.8
2.7
2.5
3.6
2.1
2.1
2.1
5.3
1.0
2.4
.3
.7
7.3
.0
7.4
1.2
2.0
2.3
9.6
6.7
.0
3.9
5.0
2.6
5.4
2.5
.0
1.7
1.9
2.8
5.0
.0
.0
Native-born of foreign father,
by country of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Azores "
Canada
England
France
Germany.
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Russia
Scotland
Switzerland
Wales
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, O ther
Dutch
English
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese
Russian
Scotch
Slovak
Syrian
Grand total
14,803
5.46
2.7
36.8
46.8
11.4
2.4
Total native-born of foreign
father
7,244
10,374
4,429
5.31
5.29
5.85
3.2
3.2
1.4
40.7
40.4
28.4
43.2
44.0
53.4
10.6
10.3
13.8
2.2
2.1
3.1
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
379
THE RANGE OF DAILY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO GENERAL NATIVITY
AND RACE OF EMPLOYEE.
The range in daily earnings of adult wage-earners is set forth in
the following table which shows, by general nativity and race, the
per cent of male employees 18 years of age or over earning each
specified amount per day. The figures are based on a normal work-
ing day and consequently represent the maximum earning capacity
of the operating forces.. A more extended period of time would
show a lower proportionate daily earning ability.
TABLE 34. — Per cent of male employees 18 years of age or over earning each specified
amount per day, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more males reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race.
Num-
ber
report-
ing
com-
plete
data.
Aver-
age
earn-
ings
per
day.
Per cent earning each specified amount per day.
Un-
der
$1.
$1
and
un-
der
$1.25.
$1.25
and
un-
der
$1.50.
$1.50
and
un-
der
$1.75.
12.6
20.7
12.8
12.6
11.0
7.1
9.1
11.7
13.0
10.9
21.0
6.3
6.7
3.6
12.1
57.1
9.3
9.1
28.7
10.4
3.9
11.7
6.7
7.1
10.3
12.2
46.8
17.9
7.8
19.7
14.3
11.2
22.5
17.4
33.3
47.2
15.4
13.1
33.1
4.0
28.5
34.1
21 _n
$1.75
and
un-
der
$2.
12.4
11.6
18.0
14.1
4.4
8.5
9.9
12.5
17.4
7.1
21.8
7.4
22.5
4.5
19.9
13.8
12.8
12.4
23.9
4.3
16.1
13.4
5.6
5.1
3.5
14.4
16.2
23.2
22.5
15.2
19.7
7.5
12.2
70.8
18.1
27.0
15.4
15.3
10.6
14.9
20.0
43.4
17 3
$2
and
un-
der
$2.50.
30.4
20.1
29.3
33.5
28.7
29.2
29.8
29.1
28.1
25.6
22.2
28.3
33.7
26.8
32.3
13.0
25.6
29.6
24.9
37.9
41.3
36.3
32.2
44.4
30.9
32.2
10.5
29.5
18.6
18.9
32.8
32.4
23.9
11.1
23.5
6.7
44.5
19.1
28.5
32.6
30.7
14.8
30 0
$2.50
and
un-
der
$3.
22.7
10.0
22.3
16.8
24.3
33.2
27.8
23.7
22.8
34.0
19.0
35.9
24.7
39.0
17.8
6.9
33.7
26.3
8.7
22.5
19.4
26.8
28.7
26.3
37.4
20.0
3.5
16.8
18.6
3.0
16.7
25.2
13.0
.7
12.2
.0
12.3
39.9
10.6
30.3
9.5
3.7
Ifi 5
$3
and
un-
der
$3.50.
$3.50
and
un-
der
$4.
2.4
.9
1.1
3.7
5.1
2.5
4.4
3.7
2.3
2.6
.8
3.0
3.4
1.0
2.5
.4
1.2
5.9
1.0
3.1
2.6
.0
4.1
1.0
.8
3.0
.1
2.1
.0
.0
1.6
2.3
1.4
.0
1.4
.0
.3
.5
2.6
2.3
.6
.0
1 i
$4
or
over.
Native-born of native father:
White
26,987
13, 125
820
191
136
1,828
252
4,641
3,156
• 156
248
867
178
418
2,171
506
86
186
4,325
2,819
155
179
2,645
99
789
5,819
912
190
102
132
2,854
6,914
6,720
144
4,142
89
4,777
183
151
175
13, 292
622
2.819
$2.24
1.77
2.23
2.30
2.49
2.42
2.35
2.34
2.27
2.30
1.98
2.47
2.22
2.48
2.26
1.75
2.38
2.42
1.90
2.34
2.33
2.12
2.49
2.30
2.28
2.29
1.58
2.20
2.07
1.66
2.19
2.23
1.95
1.80
2.01
1.58
1.97
2.19
2.08
2.36
1.90
1.76
2.06
0.7
6.0
.4
.0
.7
.4
.0
.4
.5
.6
.4
.5
.6
.7
.3
.2
.0
.0
.3
.5
.6
1.7
.2
.0
.5
.4
8.0
.0
4.9
.0
.4
.5
1.0
.0
.2
6.7
1.0
.5
.0
' .0
.9
.6
.1
2.2
11. 3
2.6
1.0
1.5
1.6
3.2
1.3
1.1
3.8
5.6
1.3
1.1
2.6
.9
.4
1.2
1.1
1.4
2.0
.6
.6
1.4
4.0
3.2
1.5
9.1
2.1
8.8
.0
1.1
2.2
2.5
.0
1.5
6.7
2.2
.5
.0
.6
2.7
.6
1.1
4.1
13.3
3.0
.5
3.7
1.1
2.4
2.6
2.6
7.1
4.4
.6
1.1
.7
2.0
4.3
2.3
1.6
7.0
1.3
1.9
3.9
.7
.0
2.4
1.7
5.3
.5
4.9
41.7
2.5
5.1
15.3
.0
.9
2.2
5.3
3.3
.7
1.1
3.8
2.1
s.n
9.7
5.1
6.1
17.3
12.5
12.0
9.5
11.4
8.7
3.2
4.0
11.2
4.5
16.3
8.2
3.8
10.5
10.2
3.4
14.8
10.3
5.0
14.7
11.1
8.2
11.5
.4
4.7
10.8
.8
8.7
11.4
7.1
.0
6.7
3.4
3.2
6.6
12.6
10.9
2.8
.6
K 5
2.7
1.0
4.4
.5
8.1
4.4
4.0
3.5
3.3
5.1
.8
5.7
1.7
4.8
4.1
.0
3.5
3.8
.6
3.3
3.2
.6
5.8
1.0
2.8
3.2
.0
3.2
2.9
.8
2.3
2.2
1.2
.0
2.0
.0
.4
1.1
3^4
.5
.0
9 A
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Canada
Cuba ..
England
France. ...
Germany
Ireland...
Italy
Russia
Scotland
Sweden
Wales
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other...
Croatian
Cuban
Danish .
Dutch
English
Finnish
French
German.
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian . .
Irish
Italian, North..
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin .
Norwegian . . .
Polish
Roumanian
Russian...
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
380
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 34. — Per cent of male employees 18 years of age or over earning each specified
amount per day, by general nativity and race — Continued.
General nativity and race.
Num-
ber
report-
com-
Slete
ata.
Aver-
age
earn-
• ings
per
day.
Per cent earning each specified amount per day.
Un-
der
$1.
$1
and
un-
der
$1.25.
$1.25
and
un-
der
$1.50.
$1.50
and
un-
der
$1.75.
$1.75
and
un-
der
$2.
$2
and
un-
der
$2.50.
$2.50
and
un-
der
$3.
$3
and
un-
der
$3.50.
$3.50
and
un-
der
$4.
$4
or
over.
Foreign-born, by race— Cont'd.
Ruthenian *
323
1,200
435
11,979
2,127
1,683
803
371
$1.92
2.47
1.82
2.02
2.13
2.54
2.39
2.41
0.3
.2
.0
.4
.9
1.0
.0
.3
3.7
1.5
.5
2.4
1.6
3.4
.4
1.6
7.1
1.0
1.4
4.0
2.0
1.2
1.2
1.1
19.5
5.5
34.7
18.4
14.9
9.8
4.1
8.4
18.9
5.4
32.4
19.3
10.0
2.7
12.5
3.5
37.2
32.0
23.4
,58.4
37.8
33.7
36.5
31.8
10.8
32.0
5.7
12.3
25.8
17.5
29.4
32.3
2.2
15.3
1.4
3.3
5.9
14.7
9.2
14.8
0.0
2.2
.2
.6
.7
2.9
3.1
2.2
0.3
5.0
.2
1.0
.5
13.0.
3. 6
4.0
Scotch
Servian
Slovak. .
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish....
Welsh
Grand total.
138,375
13,248
53,366
85,009
2.11
2733
2.15
2.09
1.1
"75
1.9
.6
2.9
1.6
4.3
2.1
5.0
17.4
10.9
14.2
19.4
14.3
30.0
17.8
7.5
1.7
2.2
Total native-born of foreign father.
Total native-born
2.2
5.9
4.4
13.1
12.4
15.5
28.8
27.5
31.6
26.0
20.4
16.2
10.3
8.7
6.8
~2.8
2.1
1.4
3.8
2.5
1.9
Total foreign-born
A study of the foregoing table shows that slightly more than one-
half (53.1 per cent) of the white industrial workers of native birth
and of native father, as contrasted with 54.8 per cent of those of native
birth but of foreign father, and 47.8 per cent of the total number of
foreign-born employees, were earning between $2 and $3 per day.
As compared with the employees of foreign birth, a considerably larger
Eroportion of the native-born employees, both of native and foreign
ither, are in the higher, and a considerably smaller proportion in the
lower, classifications of earnings. In their earning ability the wage-
earners of older immigration bear about the same relation to the
southern and eastern Europeans as the total native-born do to the total
foreign-born employees. The lower range of earnings of the immigrants
of the new immigration, as against those of past years, may be readily
seen from a comparison of the proportions of each class earning under
$1.50 or more than $3 per day. The average daily earnings of the
total number of foreign-born employees were $2.09, as contrasted with
the average of $2.15 shown by those of native birth.
The table following shows the per cent of female employees 18
years of age or over earning each specified amount per day, by general
nativity and race.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
381
TABLE 35. — Per cent of female employees 18 years of age or over earning each specified
amount per day, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more females reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and
race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Average
earnings
per day.
Per cent earning each specified amount per day.
Under -
$1.
Sland
under
$1.25.
$1.25
and
under
$1.50.
$1.50
and
under
$1.75.
$1.75
and
under
$2.
$2 and
under
$2.50.
$2.50 or
over.
Native-born of native
father:
White
4,306
2,578
267
117
1,113
1,084
81
121
124
115
409
335
92
191
90
740
190
395
970
83
151
192
106
$1.25
.77
1.27
1.21
1.29
1.33
1.23
1.17
1.28
1.05
1.20
1.30
1.22
1.16
1.04
1.30
1.14
1.15
1.14
1.15
1.12
1.14
1.50
21.5
78.2
10.9
21.4
16.0
17. r
13.6
19.8
9.7
27.0
23.5
17.0
19.6
29.8
41.1
25.3
.0
30.4
12.5
21.7
37.7
18.2
14.2
31.2
15.7
29.2
40.2
30.5
30.3
34.6
42.1
38.7
42.6
45.5
29.9
27.2
35.6
34.4
32.0
73.7
28.9
50.5
45.8
31.1
45.8
37.7
21.8
3.9
32.2
18.8
26.8
20.3
28.4
18.2
21.8
16.5
5.4
22.7
22.8
16.2
12.2
5.9
14.7
15.9
23*
14.5
9.9
21.9
6.6
14.4
1.2
21.3
12.0
14.4
16.4
21.0
14.0
18.5
9.6
8.3
12.5
29.3
8.9
10.0
10.4
4.2
13.2
10.9
10.8
11.9
9.4
12.3
3.7
.5
4.5
2.6
5.3
6.3
2.5
2.5
3.2
.9
1.5
7.2
.0
4.7
1.1
1.5
2.6
2.5
1.9
.0
5.3
1.6
1.9
5.2
.4
1.1
2.6
5.1
6.2
.0
3.3
7.3
2.6
9.3
8.4
1.1
4.2
.0
21.5
4.7
8.4
.4
7.2
4.0
3.1
11.3
2.1
.2
.7
2.6
1.9
3.5
.0
.0
.8
.9
6.6
2.4
.0
.5
1.1
3.4
.0
.8
.1
.0
.0
.0
16.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by country of
birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
England
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Russia
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Mo-
ravian
Croatian.. . ..
Cuban
German
Hebrew, Russian
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian . .
Magyar. . .
Polish
Roumanian
Russian
Slovak
Spanish
Grand total
14,416
1.16
30.4
31.1
17.3
11.4
3.1
5.0
1.7
Total native-born of for-
eign father
2,975
9,859
4,557
1.29
1.13
1.20
16.5
34.8
20.8
Ti
39.7
24.4
17.9
16.0
15.8
11.4
11.5
5.2
3.3
2.6
4.7
3.8
7.5
2.3
1.7
1.9
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
The preceding table shows slightly higher average daily earnings for
the white women of native birth, both of native and foreign father,
than are exhibited by those of foreign birth, the comparatively low
average for the total native-born being largely due to the low earn-
ings of the native negroes. Considerable proportions of each nativity
group received less than $1 daily, but the largest proportion for each
group were earning $1 but less than $1.25 each day. The native-born
white women, both of native and foreign father, exhibit somewhat
larger proportions in the classification of earnings above $1.25 per
diem than is shown by the foreign-born females.
The range in daily earnings of male employees 14 and under 18
years of age is shown in the table next submitted. The general range
of earnings of employees of this age group is considerably below that
382
The Immigration Commission.
exhibited by the adult wage-earners, the greater number of each
nativity group receiving daily less than $1.75. The striking disclosure
of the table is that the earnings of the foreign-born employees are
higher than those of native birth, this condition of affairs being due
to the fact that the majority of employees of foreign birth are probably
near the maximum age limit of the group and consequently have a
larger earning capacity. The detailed showing according to general
nativity and race follows:
TABLE 36. — Per cent of male employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning each specified
amount per day, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more males reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
Number
Perc
ent eai
•ning e
achsp
day.
reined
amour
it per
General nativity and race.
reporting
complete
data.
earnings
per day.
Un-
der
11.
$1
and
under
SI. 25.
$1.25
and
under
$1.50.
$1.50
and
under
$1.75.
$1.75
and
under
$2.
$2
and
under
$2.50.
$2.50
or
"ever.
Native-born of native father:
White
2,024
$1. 31
22.6
27.1
13.5
15.8
9.1
7.2
4.6
Negro . .
1,143
.99
50.8
19.7
9 9
11 3
4 3
3 5
5
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
412
.43
7.0
32.0
16 7
17 2
8 3
14 8
3 9
England
246
61
5 7
26 4
11 4
18 7
6 9
19 1
11 8
Germany
487
.40
11.9
27.7
18.5
19.5
7 4
10 3
4 7
Ireland
208
35
13 9
32 2
17 8
15 4
8 7
7 2
4 8
Italy
102
60
6 9
31 4
6 9
15 7
3 9
19 6
15 7
Russia... *
112
.39
5.4
41.1
14 3
16 1
5 4
14 3
3 6
Scotland
130
71
3 1
27 7
7 7
14 6
5 4
20 8
9Q g
Sweden...
48
.51
8.3
25.0
12.5
18.8
10.4
18 8
6.3
Wales..
44
.58
2 3
31 8
4 5
31 8
6 8
11 4
11 4
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
52
.52
.0
34.6
11.5
21.2
13.5
15.4
3.8
Croatian.
79
.49
6.3
17.7
15 2
31 6
10 1
17 7
1 3
Ctfban
85
63
8 2
17 6
7 1
24 7
2 4
30 6
q 4
English
42
.60
4.8
42.9
4.8
7.1
4 8
21 4
14 3
German..
60
.50
6 7
26 7
28 3
11 7
3 3
11 7
11 7
Italian, North
154
.83
1.9
14.9
10.4
14.3
5.2
32.5
20 8
Italian, South... .
289
.51
9.3
16.6
14.2
28 0
9 3
18 0
4 5
Magyar
114
.54
9 6
21 1
7 9
20 2
7 9
28 1
5 3
Polish
151
.45
6.0
23.2
17.2
31.1
7.3
11 9
3.3
Slovak
214
.54
7.0
21.5
14 0
27 6
5 6
15 0
9 3
Spanish
95
.67
8 4
20 0
4 2
9 5
9 5
35 8
12 6
Grand total
7,363
.38
19.8
25.1
13.0
17 4
7 6
11 4
5 8
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
1,948
5,715
.48
.31
8.4
23.4
29.6
26.5
T4.5
13 1
18.0
15 6
7.2
7 5
14.4
8 9
779
4 9
Total foreign-born
1,648
.63 -
7 0
20 4
12 8
23 3
7 9
19 8
8 8
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
In the table which is next presented the range in daily earnings of
female wage-earners 14 and under 18 years of age is set forth. As
in the case of the male employees within these age limits, the foreign-
born females exhibit a higher range of earnings than is shown by
those of native birth. This situation, as was mentioned in connection
with the males, is attributable to the fact that the larger number of
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
383
females of foreign birth, especially of those of recent immigration,
approach the maximum age of 18 years and as a result have a greater
earning ability. It is worthy of note also that more than one-half of
the native-born white females were earning less than $1 each day,
and more than one-third of those of foreign birth were receiving daily
$1 but less than $1.25. The detailed showing according to general
nativity and race follows :
TABLE 37. — Per cent of female employees 14 and under 18 years of age earning each speci-
fied amount per day, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more females reporting".
The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Average
earnings
per day.
Per cent earning each specified amount per day.
Under
W,
$land
under
$1.25.
$1.25
and
under
$1.50.
$1.50
and
under
$1.75.
$1.75
and
under
$2.
$2 or
over.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,848
368
178
434
201
73
149
87
47
66
158
87
136
43
$0.93
.60
1.01
.94
.92
.99
.93
1.16
1.02
.90
1.24
.87
1.04
1.04
54.4
92.4
43.3
56.5
57.2
53.4
50.3
12.6
42.6
54.5
29.7
58.6
24.3
34.9
29.4
5.4
30.9
28.3
31.8
26.0
36.2
65.5
36.2
30.3
29.1
26.4
58.8
32.6
10.6
1.1
18.5
9.4
9.5
15.1
8.1
1.1
6.4
12.1
8.2
11.5
8.8
25.6
4.8
.5
6.2
5.3
.5
4.1
4.7
6.9
6.4
3.0
12.7
1.1
7.4
4.6
0.5
.3
.6
.2
.5
1.4
.0
2.3
6.4
.0
.6
2.3
.0
2.3
0.4
.3
.6
.2
.5
.0
.7
11.5
2.1
.0
19.6
.0
.7
• 0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Germany »"
Ireland. .
Italy
Russia..
Foreign-born, by race:
Cuban
German
Italian, North
Italian, South
Magyar
Polish
Slovak
Grand total
4,224
.93
53.5
29.7
9.9
4.8
.6
1.5
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
1,143
3,359
865
.95
.90
1.06
53.2
58.1
35.3
30.4
27.1
39.7
11.1
9.7
10.8
4.4
4.2
7.3
.3
.4
1.5
.5
.4
5.5
Total foreign-born
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost tune from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO INDUSTRY AND GENERAL
NATIVITY AND RACE OF EMPLOYEE.
The table which is next presented sets forth
eral nativity and race, the average amount
male employees 18 years of age or over.
other tabulations for weekly earnings, the
represent a normal week and consequently the
the employees are affected only oy causes
operative within such a short period of time.
, by industry and gen-
of weekly earnings of
As in the case of all
following tabulations
earning possibilities of
which might become
384
The Immigration Commission.
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
385
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386
The Immigration Commission.
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02
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 387
A discussion has been had of the average weekly earnings of indus-
trial workers by general nativity and race. The table immediately
preceding, in addition to making the same exhibit, shows the average
earnings by industry.
Upon reference to the table, it is seen that the native-born white
wage-earners of native father have their highest average weekly
earnings, $16.87, in glass-bottle factories, and their next highest, $16.54,
in the iron and steel industry. In no other industries do the earnings
of native-born American wage-earners average as much as $15 per
week, the lowest earnings of white Americans, $11.02, being exhibited
by those employed in the leather-manufacturing industry. The aver-
age earnings of the native whites of native father in the cotton and
woolen goods manufacturing industries are also small, the average
weekly earnings of employees in the former being $11.60 and in the
latter $11.62. On comparing the totals for the second generation,
or those of native birth but of foreign father, with the totals for the
native-born of native father, it is seen that the average weekly earn-
ings of the former are somewhat higher than the latter in clothing, fur-
niture, gloves, iron and steel, iron-ore mining and copper mining and
smelting, leather, shoes, silk dyeing, silk goods, and woolen and worsted
goods, and considerably higher in all divisions of glass manufacturing.
The higher averages for the native-born employees of foreign father
in glass manufacturing arise from the presence in the industry of
workmen who had acquired skill through long experience of their
races in the industry. The weekly earnings of the native-born French
of foreign father, by way of illustration, average $19.83 in glass bottle
manufacturing, as contrasted with $10.51 for the Italians. With the
exception of those in copper mining and smelting, oil refining, iron-ore
mining, and the manufacture of gloves and collars and cuffs, the aver-
age weekly earnings of foreign-born employees, as shown by the total,
are lower for all industries than those of the native-born. The general
utilization of immigrants of recent years as unskilled workmen, and
their consequent lower earning capacity, are well illustrated by the low
averages for the foreign-born glass workers as contrasted with those
of native birth. The lowest earnings of the foreign-born wage-earn-
ers are shown in connection with the cotton goods manufacturing
industry, where their average weekly earnings are $9.28. The average
weekly rate in the woolen and worsted goods industry is also low, being
only $9.96. Foreign-born workers from Great Britain and northern
Europe seem to show a higher level of average weekly earnings
than those from southern and eastern Europe. This is true, with
the exception of some individuals who have had special industrial
training abroad. One of the most striking facts indicated by a
comparison of the earnings of the races in the different industries is
that earning ability is more the outcome of industrial opportunity
or conditions of employment than of racial efficiency and progress.
This fact becomes evident when the average weekly earnings of
the members of a race or several races in the cotton or woolen and
worsted goods industry are compared with the earnings of the same
race or races in other industries. The Lithuanians, for example, earn
an average of $12.24 weekly in the manufacture of agricultural imple-
ments and vehicles, $11.60 in clothing, $13.60 in copper mining and
smelting, $9.87 in furniture, $12.89 in iron and steel, $11.98 in iron-ore
388
The Immigration Commission.
mining, $9.50 in leather, $12?S5 in oil refining, $10.87 in shoes, $10.67
in sugar refining, but only $7.86 in cotton and $7.97 in woolen and
worsted goods manufacturing. The same condition of affairs will be
disclosed by a further comparison or study of the several races in
different industries.
The table which is next presented shows, by general nativity and
race and by industry, the average weekly earnings for female wage-
earners 18 years of age or over.
TABLE 39. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 18 years of age or
over, by general nativity and race and by industry *
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average for all indus-
tries.
Agricultural imple-
ments and vehicles.
Boots and shoes.
Clothing.
T3
fl
03
«T .
*H °2
!1
1
§
Cotton goods.
1
O
Gloves.
Leather.
Silk goods.
Woolen and worsted
£roods.
Native-born of native father:
White
$7.91
$7.13
$7.98
$7.41
$7.47
$8.34
$5.61
$6.37
$7.13
$7.36
*R ;
Negro *
6.80
(a)
(a)
(0)
(a)
(a)
(«>
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father:
Australia
6.20
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
8 86
7.13
P 4J
970
7.98
(o)
(a)
5 21
(o)
Azores
7.46
7.44
(a)
Belgium
6.57
(a)
(a)
(°)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Canada
8.02
(a)
857
7.44
7' 17
78P
(a)
6.58
7.16
Q •
Cape Verde Islands
(a)
(a)
Cuba
\4
(a)
Denmark
7.78
(a)
(a)
(o)
(a)
(a)
(n\
England
8.19
(a)
8.56
7.47
7?7
8.24
6.44
(aj
(a)
7.95
8
Finland
(a)
(0)
(a)
France
8.59
(a)
7.97
9.60
7' 89
(a)
(o)
9.21
v
Germany
8.22
7.24
8.38
8.74
7.37
8.70
5.86
6.93
764
7.58
8
Greece ...
(a)
(o)
Ireland
8.10
7.73
8.85
8.69
8.00
7.89
5.25
6.93
7.31
fi 77
8
Italy
7.70
(a)
(a)
7. 69
(a)
7.52
(a)
(a)
(a)
8.23
7
Netherlands
8.03
(a)
(a)
(a)
7.98
(a)
New Zealand
(a)
(a
Norway
8.29
(a)
(a)
8.38
(a)
fffl)
7.45
(«)
7.3S
(a)
Russia
7.62
•6.62
8' i R
8.71
(o)
7.13
(a)
6 45
5 53
(a)
Scotland
8.51
(a)
8.73
9.00
(*j
8.13
(a)
9 34
8 .
Servia .
(a)
(a)
Spain
w
(a
Sweden
8714
(a)
(a)
9.29
(a)
7.63
(a)
(°)
(o)
(a)
(a
Switzerland . .
8.42
7 53
(a)
(a)
(a)
8.53
(a
Turkey
(a)
(a)
(a
Wales
South America (country not
specified)
5:74
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
7.90
(a)
(a)
5.20
?
Total
8.11
7.26
8.60
8.85
7.78
7.96
5.71
6.88
7.39
7.24
8
Total native-born
8.04
7.23
8.21
8.54
7.61
8.06
5.66
6.44
7.28
7.28
~^
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
7.54
(a)
(o)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Bohemian and Moravian
B ulgarian .
9.28
(a)
7.03
w
9. 51
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(0)
W
Canadian French
8.31
8.95
7.55
8.49
ijB
(a)
7 19
8 99
8 (
Canadian, Other
8.09
(a)
8.08
7.54
(a)
7.78
(a)
6 87
g
Croatian
7.19
(•)
(a)
7.59
(o)
M
' Cuban
(a)
(a)
Danish
8.42
9.80
5.75
(a)
(o)
(a)
Dutch
7.89
(a)
6.75
9.65
(o)
7 %
7 i
English .. .
8.81
(a)
8.41
9.11
8.23
8.87
(a)
6 93
(•)
9 39
8 (
Finnish...
9.00
(«)
9.89
(a)
8.1
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
tune or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is inade for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
389
TABLE 39. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 18 years of age or
over, by general nativity and race and by industry — Continued.
General nativity and race.
Average for all indus-
tries.
Agricultural imple-
ments and vehicles.
i
1
Clothing.
cd
of
Cotton goods.
I
i
1
Leather.
Silk goods.
f ri
fl M
Foreign-born, by race— Continued.
Flemish
$9.42
$9.04
(a)
French
9.89
(a)
Co)
10.01
(o)
(a)
(o)
$16.08
$10 10
German
8.98
$7.30
17 8Q
JS75
$5.55
9.34
(a)
$8.21
9.26
9.23
Greek
6.85
(o)
6.55
(a)
6.88
(a)
(a)
6.07
Hebrew, Russian
7.97
(oj
7.21
8.09
(a)
7.05
(a)
10.32
7.05
Hebrew Other
8.27
8.32
(a)
(o)
(a)
Irish
8.24
(a)
7 90
Q OO
8.11
8.17
(a)
(a)
8.18
Italian, North
7.51
(°)
7.27
7.54
(0)
7.03
(a)
a
(en
9.32
6.93
Italian, South
6.64
(a)
6.37
6.79
6.89
w
16.14
(a)
8.03
6.43
Italian (not specified),
(a)
(a)
Lithuanian
6.69
7.04
7.57
6.35
7.64
(a)
(o)
4.25
6.98
Magyar
7.74
(a)
(0)
8.67
(0)
M
6?0
(o)
Norwegian
9.27
w
8.97
w
(°)
(o)
Persian
(o)
(•)
Polish
790
7.20
7.19
8.07
(0)
•73?
4.53
5.95
5.61
6.65
Portuguese
7.31
(a)
7.28
7 95
Roumanian
7.57
789
(o)
(0)
Russian
7.10
7.07
(a)
7.71
8.38
6.80
(o)
5.26
691
7.08
Ruthenian
6.52
(a)
6.43
(o)
(a)
Scotch
9.09
9.81
(a)
(a)
8.66
(a)
(a)
(a)
11.39
9.10
Scotch-Irish
(0)
Servian ....
(•)
(0)
(a)
(0)
Slovak
661
(a)
7.37
7.66
6.41
4.44
(a)
5.40
Slovenian
7.15
C«)
7.98
(a)
m)
6.94
(a)
Spanish
(o)
(a)
(o)
Swedish
8 86
(a)
7 18
8 64
9 12
(o)
(a)
9 19
Syrian
6.79
(a)
(o)
7.10
(a)
6.70
Turkish...
(o)
(a)
*
(o)
Welsh.
6.53
(a)
>a\
5.56
(a)
Alsatian (race not specified) . . .
(a)
(a)
Australian (race not specified).
M
(a)
Austrian (race not specified)
7 15
(o)
7.53
(a)
(a)
(°)
7 14
Belgian (race not specified) .
9.03
(a)
(a)
9.73
South American (race not
specified)
(a)
(a)
Swiss (race not specified)
9.50
(o)
(a)
(a)
9.54
(o)
Total foreign-born . .
7.90
7.12
7.89
7.74
7.77
7.93
5.14
6.55
6.39
8.57
7.96
Grand total
7.96
7.17
8.16
8.02
7.63
7.97
5.51
6.46
6.87
7.66
8.18
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the foregoing table it is seen that the average
weekly earnings for the native-born women wage-earners are slightly
higher in the agricultural implement and vehicle, clothing, cotton
goods, glass tableware, leather, shoe, and woolen and worsted goods
manufacturing establishments, and lower in the other industries
specified in the table, than those shown for the total number of
women of foreign birth. The native white women of native father
earn more each week in the woolen and worsted mills than in other
industries ; the , women of native birth and of foreign father more in
the clothing industry; and the women of foreign birth exhibit the
highest average weekly earnings in the silk mills.
The table which immediately follows shows, by general nativity
and race and by industry, the average weekly earnings of male em-
ployees 14 and under 18 years of age.
390
The Immigration Commission.
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
391
x*
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S S
;££^
^^
35
KJ
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables
to this report showing annual earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
i ig i
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»0«0 COiCiO _ _
^
££
is i i iss i i i i i
S
is i i
06
00
s
id
1 :S j £|
S ^5 ^|S :£ : :
IQ
M
yj
9
>d
i
S
s_^d.
ss s si
1 1 i i i
S
-es/es l"?
o •
si'
CO || OS
CO OS
S
S j SS SSSS^S ;S jSSS |£ j£
3
:££ :
S S;
ss \
2 1§
^'J
TS5 2
z
£«£SS^8gS
35322^^2
^
**t* O T— 1 C^I
(N CM CO 00^
SS^SSS^S^
2 (co
I ........
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
41
s^
|£
Austrian Crace not specified).
Belgian (race not specified) . .
Swiss (race not specified)
Total foreign-born
Grand total
i i : i :|
'. '. ' '. '.&
w ^'^ : : : : :
, \
: ;
Jdll
III
:.! c : •
Irtllllllll
Canadian
Canadian
1
ll Sill llll
flftWW^SSOOS
392
The Immigration Commission.
Employees of native birth and of foreign father, as can be seen
from the table, with the exception of those employed in boots and
shoes, clothing, copper mining and smelting, iron-ore mining, leather,
oil refining, silk goods, and woolen and worsted goods manufactur-
ing, have lower average weekly earnings than employees of native
birth and of native father. The wage-earners of foreign birth
exhibit lower average weekly earnings than those of native birth in
all industries except boots and shoes, clothing, copper mining and
smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, iron ore mining, silk goods,
sugar refining, and the manufacture of glass bottles, tableware, and
Elate glass. The employees native-born of native father show their
ighest average weekly earnings, $10.80, in window-glass manufactur-
ing, and their lowest, $4.38, in the silk mills. The industrial workers
of native birth and of foreign father show their highest average weekly
earnings, $11.32, in the iron-ore mines, and their lowest, $4.71, as in
the case of the native Americans, in the silk-goods manufacturing
establishments. The foreign-born wage-earners 14 and under 18
years of age exhibit their highest average weekly earnings, amount-
ing to $9.17, in the iron-ore mines, and their lowest, $5.48, in the
manufacture of silk goods. The low average weekly earnings of
wage-earners 14 and under 18 years of age in the various divisions of
manufacturing and mining may be readily seen from the following
comparative statement according to nativity groups :
Industry.
Foreign-
born.
Native-
born.
Industry.
Foreign-
born.
Native-
born.
Leather
$6. 19
$6.42
vehicles
$7.40
$7.66
Oil refining
7.74
7.78
6 66
5.88
Silk goods
5.48
4.60
Clothing
6.52
5.66
Sugar refining
6.52
5.61
Copper mining and smelting. . .
8.42
5 82
8.29
6 03
Woolen and worsted goods. . .
Glass bottles
5.84
6.35
6.38
5.76
Furniture
6.21
6.44
Plate glass
8.04
7.81
7.96
7.83
Tableware
6.83
5.78
Iron-ore mining
9.17
6.58
The following table shows, by general nativity and race and by
industry, the average weekly earnings of female employees 14 and
under 18 years of age:
TABLE 41. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 14 and under 18
years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry.*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
§1
1
1
1
|
General nativity and race.
•*fi
tin
p
gm
111
i
bC
a
fa
0
1
S"
li
j
^ tyO
«.s
'ill
|
1
IT
o
1
^
§ W
^
m
o
5
0
O
O
«
CO
5
Native-born of native father:
White
$5.25
(0)
$5.21
$5.02
$4.78
$6.01
$4.18
$4.63
$5.78
$4.13
$6.12
. Negro
(0)
(a)
(a)
Native-born of foreign father, by
,
country of birth of father:
4 19
(o)
(o)
(o)
3 91
Austria-Hungary
4.75
(o)
5.64
5.59
(0)
5.93
4.38
3.63
5.73
Azores
5.78
5.76
(0)
Belgium
5.70
/a\
(a)
(0)
(0)
(a)
w
Canada
6.07
5 94
(O)
4.98
6.11
(a)
5.09
607
Cape Verde Islands
(o)
(0)
Cuba...
w
(a)
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
393
TABLE 41. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees 14 and under 18
years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry — Continued.
General nativity and race.
g|
Agricultural im-
plements and
vehicles.
Boots and shoes.
Clothing.
Collars, cuffs, and
shirts.
Cotton goods.
aS
1
O
3
!
Silk goods.
Woolen and wor-
sted goods.
Native-born of foreign father, by
country of birth of father— Con.
(o)
(o)
(a)
(o)
(a)
(0)
$6 A
(o)
£ 88
M
m
$6 35
$3.89
$4.28
$6.50
Finland
(o)
(0)
6. A
(o)
6.86
4.23
4.87
7 68
Germany
5.06
56.61
5.32
55.04
$5.23
6.52
4.10
$5.92
4.17
6.47
Greece
(a)
(a)
(O)
(a)
Ireland
5.40
(a)
6.18
(0)
4.56
5.90
(0)
6.00
4.12
6.13
Italy
5 54
(o)
5 . 81
(a)
6 47
(a)
5.55
4.63
5 80
5.56
(a)
5.60
(0)
Norway
(a)
(0)
M
(o)
6.17
6.03
(a)
(o)
(o)
Russia
4.20
(a)
4.77
(a)
6. is
3.69
(o)
5.41
3.60
6.20
Scotland
5.65
(0)
(0)
(a)
6.22
(o)
(0)
4.25
6.40
(0)
5.83
(a)
(o)
(a)
5.96
(o)
(o)
Switzerland
5.63
(0)
(a)
Turkey
(o)
(0)
Wales
S60
(a)
(a)
3.50
a
Africa (country not specified)
(o)
(«)
South America (country not
specified)
(0)
(o)
Total
5.31
6.68
5.63
5.23
5.07
6.12
4.14
(0)
5.83
4.07
6.23
Total native-born
5.29
6 69
5.35
5.21
4.89
6.09
4.15
$4.66
5.81
4.08
6.19
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
(a)
(0)
Bohemian and Moravian
5.83
(0)
5.86
(a)
(o)
(0)
Bulgarian
(0)
a
Canadian French
6.08
(a)
(a)
(o)
6 19
(o)
5 91
Canadian, Other
6.04
(aj
M
5.50
(o)
(o)
6.49
Croatian
(o)
(a)
(o)
(o)
M
Danish
w
(°)
Dutch
5.43
(o)
5 30
English . .
6.51
(0)
(«)
7.11
(o)
4.28
6.48
Finnish
(o)
(0)
(o)
French
(o)
(o)
(o)
6 92
German
6.00
(o)
7.04
5.15
7.70
w
(a)
5.09
6 12
Greek
5.34
(a)
5 72
3 75
5 25
Hebrew, Russian
6.14
6.37
6.13
(o)
(o)
6.20
6.47
Hebrew Other
6.09
(o)
6.24
M
M
(o)
Irish
6.05
M
(a)
6.57
3.91
6 53
Italian, North
5.90
(o)
M
6.07
w
5.85
(a)
(°)
5 29
6 06
Italian, South
5.72
(o)
6.09
5.56
(a)
5.98
w
4.87
5.96
Lithuanian
4.47
(a)
(o)
5.08
(o)
3 13
5 82
Macvar
4 94
w
6 05
w
/o\
3 98
Norwegian
(a)
(o)
* '
Polish
5.43
6.79
(0)
5. ft
(o)
6.01
(a)
5.42
3.79
5.73
Portuguese . .
5.87
(0)
5.85
(a)
Roumanian
(o)
(a)
(o)
(")
Russian • .
5.75
(a)
(o)
5.68
(o)
5.87
(o)
3.52
Efc
Ruthenian
5.40
(o)
(o)
(a)
Scotch
6.22
(0)
6.75
(a)
(a)
5.81
Servian . .
(a)
(o)
Slovak
4 41
(a)
(a)
w
(a)
xflx
4 03
Slovenian
4.72
(o)
(a)
(o)
(o)
Swedish
(o)
(a{
(a)
(a)
^ '
(a)
Syrian
6.00
'
(a)
6.42
Turkish
(0)
(o)
Welsh
3.50
3 50
Austrian (race not specified). .
Belgian (race not specified) . . .
(a)
5.82
(0)
SI
(a)
5.12
(a)
(«)
South American (race not
specified)
(0)
Swiss (race not specified) . . .
(°)
(o)
Total foreign-born
5 85
6 65
6 31
5 80
6 29
6 17
4 53
5 35
4 32
6 09
......
Grand total...
5.46
6.67
5.43
5.47
5.02
6.12-
4.21
4.66
5.69
4.12
6.16
72289C
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
-VOL 1—11 26
394
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows, by general nativity and industry, the
average weekly earnings of 220,390 male employees 18 years of age
or over and of 13,682 who were 14 and under 18 years of age:
TABLE 42. — Average amount of weekly earnings of male employees, by general nativity
and industry .*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
18 YEARS OF AGE OR OVER.
Industry.
Native-born.
Total
native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total.
Native father.
Foreign
father.
White.
Negro.
Agricultural implements and vehicles
Boots and shoes
$13. 23
12.57
14.59
12.58
$11.38
10.03
(a)
$13. 62
12.84
15.66
11.89
13.78
10.45
12.31
19.54
13.67
15.07
17.22
12.31
16.62
14.24
12.15
13.67
12.75
13.15
13.12
11.74
$13. 38
12.64
15.39
12.36
12.98
10.89
11.81
17.05
13.00
14.56
15.89
11.67
15.86
11.22
11.50
14.01
12.58
13.05
12.98
11.69
$12.89
11.19
12.91
14.09
13.87
9.28
11.58
12.63
11.48
13.59
14.11
12.80
13.29
13.96
10.27
13.71
11.99
12.18
11.64
9.96
$13. 09
12.11
13.30
12.56
13.57
9.68
11.67
15.73
12.07
14.20
15.11
12.23
14.35
12.72
10. 64
13.81
12.13
12.50
11.82
10.49
Clothing
Collars, cuffs, and shirts
Copper mining and smelting
12.49
11.60
11.43
16.87
12.86
14.29
15.58
11.49
g
10.50
9.98
12.90
(a)
12.63
Cotton goods
Furniture
Glass:
Bottles .
Plate glass ....
Tableware
Window glass
Gloves
Iron and steel
16.54
11.60
11.02
14.83
12.46
12.89
13.42
11.62
10.64
10.61
9.75
12.07
Iron ore mining
Leather .
Oil refining
Silk dyeing
Silk goods . .
Sugar refining
8.25
(a) .
Woolen and worsted goods
Total...
14.37
10.66
13.91
13.89
11.92
12.64
14 AND UNDER 18 YEARS OF AGE.
Agricultural implements and vehicles
Boots and shoes
$7.78
5.84
5.32
5.69
7.92
(0)
(a)
(a)
$7.57
5.96
5.73
(a)
8.70
6.01
6.41
5.35
7.60
5.53
(•)
(°)
7.65
11.32
6.63
7.79
(0)
4.71
5.49
6.40
$7.66
5.88
5.66
5.65
8.29
6.03
6.44
5.76
7.81
5.78
10.05
4.90
7.83
6.58
6.42
7.78
6.42
4.60
5. fcl
6.38
$7.40
6.66
6.52
$7.62
5.99
6.17
5.65
8.31
5.94
6.38
5.85
7.87
7.40
10.16
4.90
7.85
6.77
6.36
7.77
6.72
4.73
5.87
6.19
Clothing
Collars, cuffs, and shirts
Copper mining and smelting.
8.42
5.82
6.21
6.35
8.04
6.83
(0)
Cotton goods
Furniture
6.09
6.50
5.98
7.98
6.03
10.80
5.25
8.04
6.81
6.14
7.77
(a)
$6.22
8
Glass:
Bottles.
Plate glass
Tableware
Window glass
Gloves
Iron and steel
7.44
5.79
(0)
7.96
9.17
6.19
7.74
(t«
6.52
5.84
Iron ore mining
Leather
Oil refining
Silk dyeing..
6.13
4.38
5.76
6.31
Silkgoods ?.
........
W
Sugar refining
Woolen and worsted goods
Total . .
6.60
6.38
6. 39 6. 48
6.26
6.42
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lest
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the foregoing table it is seen that the highest
average weekly earnings of the total number of native-born wage-
earners, amounting to $17.05, is shown in connection with the man-
ufacture of glass bottles, and the lowest, $10.89, among those em-
ployed in cotton mills. Of the total foreign-born, the highest average
weekly earnings, $14.11, are exhibited by the employees of window-
glass factories, and the lowest, $9.28, by cotton-mill operatives.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
395
The average weekly earnings of the total number of native-born
employees engaged in all the specified forms of manufacturing and
mining is $13.89, as contrasted with $11.92 for the wage-earners of
foreign birth, $13.91 for those of native birth and of foreign father,
and $14.37 for native-born whites of native father.
Of the 13,682 male employees who were 14 and under 18 years of
age, the average weekly earnings were $6.42. Among those of native
birth the highest average weekly earnings, amounting to $10.05, are
shown by those engaged in the manufacture of window glass, and the
lowest, $4.60, by silk-mill operatives. Of the foreign-born industrial
workers in this age group, the highest average weekly earnings, $9. 17,
are exhibited by the iron-ore mine workers, and the lowest, $5.48,
by the employees of silk goods manufacturing establishments. The
considerably higher average weekly earnings shown by employees of
copper mines and smelters and iron-ore mines, as contrasted with the
earnings of employees of manufacturing establishments, are probably
due to the fact that in mining, under existing methods, it is possible
for a youth to do the same kind of work and receive approximately
the same remuneration as an adult.
The table which immediately follows shows, by general nativity
and industry, the average amount of weekly earnings of 57,712
female employees 18 years of age or over, and of 14,803 who were 14
and under 18 years of age:
TABLE 43. — Average amount of weekly earnings of female employees, by general nativity
and industry*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
18 YEARS OF AGE OR OVER.
Industry.
Native-born.
Total
native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total.
Native father.
Foreign
father.
White.
Negrp.
Agricultural implements and vehicles
Boots and shoes
$7.13
7.98
7.41
7.47
8.34
5.61
6.37
7.13
7 36
$7.26
8.60
8.85
7.78
7.96
5.71
6.88
7.39
7.24
8.61
$7.'23
8.21
8.54
7.61
8.06
5.66
6.44
7.28
7.28
8.52
$7. 12
7.89
7.74
7.77
7.93
5.14
6.55
6.39
8.57
7.96
$7.17
8.16
8.02
7.63
7.97
5.51
6.46
6.87
7.66
8.18
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
•"(ay
Clothing
Collars, cuffs, and shirts
Cotton goods
Glass tableware
Gloves
Leather. .
Silk goods
Woolen and worsted goods
8.35
(a)
Total
7.91
$6.80
8.11
8.04
7.90
7.96
14 AND UNDER 18 YEARS OF AGE.
Agricultural implements and vehicles
Boots and shoes . .
(°)
$5 21
(a)
$6.68
5 63
$6.69
5 35
$6.65
6 31
$6. 67
5 43
Clothing
5.02
5 23
5 21
5 80
5 47
Collars, cuffs, and shirts
4 78
5 07
4 89
6 29
5 02
Cotton goods
6 01
6 12
6 09
6 17
fi 12
Glass tableware
4.18
4 14
4 15
4 53
4 21
Gloves
4 63
(a)
4 66
4 fifi
Leather
5 78
5 83
5 81
5 35
c en
Silk goods
4 13
4 07
4 08
4 32
4 12
Woolen and worsted goods
6.12
(a)
6 23
6 19
6 09
6 16
Total .
5 25
(a)
5 31
5 29
5 85
C AC
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no' account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
396
The Immigration Commission.
The average weekly earnings for all females 18 years of age or over
are $7.96. Of those of native birth the highest average weekly earn-
ings, $8.54, are exhibited by the employees of clothing manufac-
turing establishments, and the lowest, $5.66, by the employees of
glass tableware factories. Of the total number of women wage-
earners of foreign birth, the highest average amount of weekly
earnings, $8.57, is shown by silk-mill operatives, and the lowest,
$5.14, by those employed in the manufacture of tableware.
The average weekly earnings for all female employees 14 and
under 18 years of age are only $5.46. Among both the native-born
and foreign-born females who were working for wages the highest
average weekly earnings are shown by those employed in connec-
tion with the manufacture of agricultural implements and vehicles,
and the lowest by silk-mill operatives.
AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO INDUSTRY AND GENERAL
NATIVITY AND RACE OF EMPLOYEE.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race and
by industry, the average amount of daily earnings of male employees
18 years of age or over. The figures of the table are for a normal
day, and consequently approximate the normal earning capacity of
employees. The returns for a more extended period show propor-
tionately lower earnings.
TABLE 44. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 18 years of age or over,
by general nativity and race and by industry *
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average
for all in-
dustries.
Cigars
and to-
bacco.
Coal min-
ing (bitu-
minous).
Construc-
tion
work.
Oil refin-
ing.
Slaugh-
tering
and meat
packing.
Native-born of native father:
White
$2.24
$1.97
$2.31
$2 43
$2.77
$2 21
Negro
1 77
1 23
1 98
1 80
(a)
2 05
Indian
(«)
(a)
(0)
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
Arabia
(a)
(a)
Australia
(a)
(a)
(a)
Austria-Hungary
2 23
2 13
2 16
fa)
2 67
235
Belgium
2.19
2 23
(o)
Bulgaria
(a)
(a)
Canada
2 30
(a)
2 28
(a)
2 88
225
China
(a)
a
Cuba
249
249
(a)
Denmark
2 26
(a)
1 89
(a
(a)
2 31
England
2.42
2.34
2 44
2 61
2 83
2 32
Finland. . .
(a)
(a)
France
235
1 99
2 41
(a)
(a)
2 36
Germany
2.34
2.16
2 41
2 89
2 68
2 30
Greece
fa)
(a)
India
(«)
(a)
Ireland
2.27
2.13
2 32
2 80
2 77
2.22
Italy
2.30
2 30
2 36
1 71
Mexico
1 97
(a)
(a)
1 75
Netherlands
2.33
(o)
225
2.33
Norway
2.23
w
(o)
2 19
Portugal
(a)
(o)
Russia
1 98
1 79
1 99
(a)
(a)
201
Scotland
2.47
2.67
2 47
(a)
(a)
2 44
Spain
2.59
2 63
(a)
Sweden
2 22
(a)
2 30
(a)
(a)
2 17
Switzerland
2 52
2 38
2 45
(a)
M
2 48
Turkey
(a)
(a)
Wales...
2.48
a
2.49
(a)
Col
2.54
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost, during the year.
oNot computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
397
TABLE 44. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 18 years of age or over,
by general nativity and race and by industry — Continued.
General nativity and race.
Average
for all in-
dustries.
Cigars
and to-
bacco.
Coal min-
ing (bitu-
minous).
Construc-
tion
work.
Oil refin-
ing.
Slaugh-
tering
and meat
packing.
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father— Continued.
West Indies (other than Cuba)
$2.28
(a)
(a)
(a)
(0)
(a)
South America (country not specified)
(a)
(aj
Total
2.33
$2.20
$2.38
$2.81
$2.74
$2.27
Total native-born .
2.15
1.72
2.25
2.23
2.75
2.20
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
1.73
(a)
(a)
1.79
Bohemian and Moravian
2.26
1.84
2.34
(a)
(a)
2.22
Bosnian
1.83
(a)
(a)
(a)
Bulgarian
1.75
(a)
2.07
1.53
1.70
Canadian, French.
2.38
(*)
2.31
(a)
2.33
Canadian Other
2.42
(a)
2.30
(a)
(a)
2.43
Croatian
1.90
(0)
1.98
1.58
2.22
1.85
Cuban
2.34
2.34
Dalmatian
2.14
(a)
1.44
(a)
Danish
2.33
(a)
2.25
(a)
(a)
2.32
Dutch
2.12
(a)
2.18
(a)
2.08
English . ..
2.49
2.38
2.50
2.68
3.16
2.42
Filipino
(a)
(a)
Finnish
2.30
2.24
2.38
(a)
2.25
Flemish
(0)
(a)
(a)
French
2.28
2.27
2.28
(a)
(a)
2.12
German
2.29
2.14
2.35
2.45
2.72
2.25
Greek
1.58
1.33
2.01
1.58
(a)
1.67
Hebrew, Russian
2.20
2.62
(a)
2.16
Hebrew, Other
2.07
1.60
(a)
2.26
Herzegovinian
1.66
(a)
1 42
1.82
Irish
2.19
1.99
2.24
2.33
2.83
2.14
Italian North
2.23
1.54
2.28
1.86
1.91
Italian, South.
1.95
1.87
2.14
1.58
(0)
1.73
Italian (not specified)
2.10
(a)
2.15
(a)
Japanese
1 80
1.80
Korean
(a)
(a)
Lithuanian
2.01
(a)
2.25
,1.73
1.81
Macedonian
1.58
1.07
1.80
(a)
1.68
Magyar
1.97
1.22
2.00
1.77
2.24
1.85
Mexican .
2.19
2.47
2.44
1.63
Montenegrin
2.08
(a)
2.13
(a)
1.82
Negro
2.06
2.09
(a)
(0)
Norwegian
2.36
(a)
2.19
2.82
(a)
2.19
Polish
1.90
1.67
1.99
1.59
2.29
1.81
Portuguese
(a)
(a)
(a)
Roumanian
1.76
(a)
1.84
1.56
1.77
Russian.
2.06
1.66
2.26
1.50
(a)
1.77
Ruthenian
1.92
1.98
(a)
(a)
1.76
Scotch
2.47
(a)
2.48
(a)
(a)
2.36
Scotch-Irish
2.36
2.50
2.22
Servian
1 82
(a)
2 04
1 58
1 74
Slovak..
2.02
1.67
2.03
1.69
2.30
1.81
Slovenian
2.13
1.65
2.18
(a)
(a)
1.83
Spanish. .
2.54
2.56
(a)
w
1.63
Swedish >.
2.39
(a)
2.41
2.70
2 66
2.33
Syrian
1.81
(a)
1.90
1.50
1.87
Turkish.
1.63
1.41
1.70
Welsh
2 41
2 41
(a)
(a)
2 33
West Indian (other than Cuban)
2.15
2.12
(°)
Australian (race not specified)
(a)
(a)
Austrian (race not specified)
2.36
1.82
2.53
1.61
1.90
Belgian (race not specified)
2.21
(a)
2.28
1.96
South American (race not specified)
(a)
w
Swiss (race not specified) .
2.47
(a)
2.52
2.45
2.48
Total foreign-born
2.09
2.21
2.16
1.68
2.42
1.95
Grand total
2.11
1 92
2 19
1 81
2 51
2 04
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race and
by industry, the average amount of daily earnings of female employees
18 years of age or over.
398
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 45. — Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 18 years of age or
over, by general nativity and race and by industry.*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average
for all in-
dustries.
Cigars and
tobacco.
Oil refin-
ing.
Slaughter-
ing and
meat
packing.
Native-born of native father:
White
$1.25
$1.25
(a)
$1 19
Negrc
.77
.76
1 09
Native-born of foreign father, by country of birth of
father:
Australia
(a)
(a)
(a)
Austria-Hungary
1.27
1. 29
1 20
Belgium
(a)
(a)
Canada
1.28
1.27
1 30
Cuba
(a)
(a)
Denmark . .
a
a
(a)
England
1.21
1.20
1 28
France
1 33
1.33
(a)
Germany
1.29
1.31
$1. 35
1. 19
Ireland
1.33
1.34
(a)
1 22
Italy...... .
1.23
1.24
(a)
Mexico.
(a)
(a)
Netherlands
(a)
(a)
(a)
Norway
1.42
1.45
(«)
Portugal
(a)
(a)
Roumania ....
(a)
(a)
Russia
1.17
1.24
1.09
Scotland
1.20
1.21
(a)
Sweden
1.38
(a)
(a)
Jo)
Switzerland . . .
1.33
1.33
(a)
(a)
Wales
1.11
1.10
s
Total.
1.29
1.31
1.37
1.19
Total native-born . . .
1. 13
1.13
1.37
1. 19
Foreign-born, by race:
Arabian .
(a)
(a)
Bohemian and Moravian
1.28
1.32
1.25
Bulgarian
(a)
(0)
(a)
Canadian, French
(a)
(°)
(a)
Canadian, Other
1.31
1.32
(a)
Croatian
1.05
.86
1. 19
Cuban
1.20
1.20
Danish .
(a)
(a)
(a)
Dutch
1.36
1.35
(a)
English •
L17
1. 17
(a)
Finnish
(a)
a)
French
(a)
a
German..
1.30
1.25
1 41
Greek
93
93
Hebrew, Russian
1.22
1.23
(a)
Hebrew, Other..
1.20
1.20
(a)
Irish
1 16
1 15
1 20
Italian, North
1.04
1.04
Italian, South
1.30
1.30
Lithuanian
1. 14
a)
1 14
Macedonian
(a)
a)
Magyar
1. 15
1. 11
1 46
Mexican
(a)
(a)
Negro
(a)
(a)
Norwegian . . .
(a)
(«)
Polish ...
1. 14
1. 15
(a)
1 14
Portuguese
(a)
(a)
Roumanian
1. 15
1. 10
1.26
Russian
1.12
1. 12
1 13
Ruthenian
1 36
1 36
Scotch
1 36
1 35
(a)
Servian
(a)
(a)
0
Slovak ....
1 14
1 14
(a)
1 15
Slovenian
1 31
1 22
1 40
Spanish...
1.50
1.50
Swedish
1.31
a)
(a)
Syrian
a
a)
Turkish
a
0)
Welsh
a
a)
West Indian (other than Cuban)
a
°)
Austrian (race not specified)
1 17
1 12
(a)
Belgian (race not specified)
(a)
(«)
Swiss (race not specified)
W
(a)
Total foreign-born
1.20
1.20
(a)
1.20
Grand total
1 16
] 15
1.36
1 20
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
399
The following table shows, by general nativity and race and by
industry, the average amount of daily earnings of male employees
14 and under 18 years of age.
TABLE 46. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 14 and under 18 years
of age, by general nativity and race and by industry*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average
for all
indus-
tries.
Cigars
and
tobacco.
Coal min-
ing (bitu-
minous).
Construc-
tion
work.
Oil refin-
ing.
Slaugh-
tering
and meat
packing.
Native-born of native father:
White
$1.31
$0.97
$1.51
$1.38
(a)
$1.42
Negro
.99
.77
1.24
1.34
1.50
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
fa)
Austria-Hungary
1.43
90
1.44
(a)
1.50
Belgium
1.73
(a)
1.74
Canada
1.19
(a)
(a)
1.30
Cuba
1.67
1.67
1.40
(a)
1.40
England
1.61
.98
1.64
1.73
France
1.68
(a)
1.73
Germany
1.40
1.11
1.60
(a)
(a)
1.34
Ireland .
1.35
1.16
1.45
(0)
1.35
Italy
1.60
1.63
1.60
Mexico
(a)
(a)
•1
Netherlands
fa)
w
a)
Norway
(a)
a)
Roumania
fa)
fa)
Russia
1.39
(a)
1.43
1.36
Scotland
1.71
(a)
1.75
(a)
Spain
L74
1 74
Sweden
1.51
1.62
1.52
Switzerland
1.54
(a)
(a)
(°)
Wales.
1.58
1.59
\4
West Indies (other than Cuba)
fa)
^ '
Total
1.48
1.25
1.57
(a)
$1.16
1.40
Total native-born
1.31
.93
1.51
1.38
1.17
1.42
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
1.52
(a)
1.54
1.52
Bulgarian
(a)
fa)
fa
Canadian, French
(a)
(a
Canadian, Other
(a)
fa)
Ja
Croatian
1.49
(a)
1.47
(a)
1.52
Cuban
1 63
163
Dalmatian
!a)
(a)
Danish .
a)
fa)
a)
Dutch...
a)
a
a
English
1 60
(a)
1. 66
(a)
a
French
1.69
1.72
a)
German. .
1.50
(a)
1 65
1.43
Greek
1.18
.96
(a)
Hebrew, Russian
a)
fa)
Hebrew, Other
(a)
Co)
Herzegovinian
fa)
a)
'
fa)
(a
Irish :
m
(a
Italian, North..
1.83
(°)
1.91
fa)
fa
Italian, South
1 51
1 45
1 62
146
(a
Italian (not specified).
(a)
(a)
Japanese
(a)
(a)
Lithuanian
1.50
(a)
1.58
Macedonian
1.38
1 36
(«)
fa)
Magyar
1.54
.73
1.63
\4
(a)
!a)
Mexican
So)
fa)
a\
Montenegrin
a)
w
°)
Negro
4
(a)
Polish
145
M
1 45
fa)
1.49
Roumanian
1.70
(a)
(a)
a
Russian..
1.57
(a)
1 71
a
Ruthenian
(a)
(a)
a
Scotch
1.58
1 60
a
Servian
(a)
1 (°)
a
Slovak
1.54
(a)
L57
(a)
L48
Slovenian
1 45
M
L58
Spanish...
2.67
*67
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period Indicated but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
400
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 46. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees 14 and under 18 years
of age, by general nativity and race and by industry — Continued.
General nativity and race.
Average
for all
indus-
tries.
Cigars
and
tobacco.
Coal min-
ing (bitu-
minous).
Construc-
tion
work.
Oil refin-
ing.
Slaugh-
tering
and meat
packing.
Foreign-born, by race — Continued.
Swedish
fa)
(0)
(a)
(a)
Syrian
(a)
(a)
(•)
(a)
Welsh
w
(a)
Austrian (race not specified)
$1.93
$2. 23
(a)
Belgian (race not specified)
1 86
(a)
1.99
(a)
Total foreign-born
1.63
$1.73
1.65
$1.49
$1.22
$1.47
Grand total
1.38
1.07
1.54
1.45
1.19
1.43
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race and
by industry, the average amount of daily earnings of female employees
who were 14 and under 18 years of age.
TABLE 47. — Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 14 and under 18
years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average for
all indus-
tries.
Cigars and
tobacco.
Oil refining.
Slaughter-
ing and
meat pack-
ing.
Native-born of native father
White
$0.93
$0.92
$1.02
Negro
.60
.60
(a)
Native-born of foreign father, by country of birth of
father:
Australia
(a)
(a)
Austria-Hungary
1.01
" .98
(a)
1.09
Canada .
(a)
(a)
(a)
Cuba
(a)
(a)
Denmark
(0)
w
(o
England
.93
.91
(a)
(a
France
.82
(a)
(a
Germany
.94
.94
(a)
.94
Ireland
.92
.92
w
.95
Italy
.99
.99
(a
Netherlands
(a)
(a)
(a
Norway.
(a)
(a)
(o
Russia
.93
.90
.98
Scotland
.94
(a)
(a)
Spain
(a)
(a)
Sweden
1. 12
(a)
(o)
(o)
Switzerland...
(a)
(a)
(«)
Wales. .
(a)
(a)
Total
.95
.94
$1.11
.99
Total native-born
.90
.89
1 11
1.00
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
1.19
1.12
1.25
Canadian, French
(a)
(a)
Canadian, Other. .
(a)
(a)
Croatian
95
.84
1.05
Cuban
1.16
1.16
Dutch
1.13
1.14
(a)
English
(a)
(a)
(a)
German. . .
1.02
.96
E 1.12
Greek
(a)
(a)
Hebrew Russian
1.03
.99
(a)
Hebrew, Other
1.01
1.02
w
Irish . ...
(a)
(a)
Italian North
.90
.90
Italian South
1.24
1 24
Lithuanian . . .
1.03
(a)
1.07
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period Indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 401
TABLE 47.— Average amount of daily earnings of female employees 14 and under 18
years of age, by general nativity and race and by industry — Continued.
General nativity and race.
Average for
all indus-
tries.
Cigars and
tobacco.
Oil refining.
Slaughter-
ing and
meat pack-
ing.
Foreign-born, by race— Continued.
$0.87
$0.86
(a)
(a)
(a)
Polish
1.04
1.00
(a)
$1.07
(a)
(a)
a
a
(0)
.99
.98
w
Ruthenian
(a)
(a)
Scotch.
(a)
(a)
Slovak
1.04
1.02
(0)
(°)
(a)
(0)
(a)
1.32
1.32
Austrian (race not specified)
(a)
a)
(0)
Belgian (race not specified)
(a)
°)
(o)
(a)
o)
Total foreign-born
1.06
1.05
(a)
1.10
Grand total...
.93
.92
$1.13
1.03
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS ACCORDING TO INDUSTRY AND GENERAL
NATIVITY OF EMPLOYEE.
The table which immediately follows shows, by general nativity
and industry, the average daily earnings of male employees who were
18 years of age or over, and of those who were 14 and under 18 years
of age. In the first age group are 138,375 wage-earners, and in
the second 7,363. As in the case of all other tables of daily earnings,
the following table represents a normal day and consequently tends to
approximate the maximum earning capacity of employees.
TABLE 48. — Average amount of daily earnings of male employees, by general nativity
and industry*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
18 YEARS OF AGE OR OVER.
Industry.
Native-born.
Total
native-
born.
Foreign-
born.
Total.
Native father.
Foreign
father.
White.
Negro.
Cigars and tobacco
$1.97
2.31
2.43
2.77
2.21
$1.23
1.98
1.80
(a)
2.05
$2.20
2.38
2.81
2.74
2.27
$1.72
2.25
2.23
2.75
2.20
$2.21
2.16
1.68
2.42
1.95
$1.92
2.19
1.81
2.51
2.04
Coal mining (bituminous) " ...
Construction^work
Oil refining
Slaughtering and meat packing
Total
2.24
1.77
2.33
2.15
2.09
2.11
14 AND UNDER 18 YEARS OF AGE.
Cigars and tobacco
$0.97
$0.77
$1.25
$0.93
$1.73
$1.07
Coal mining (bituminous)
1.51
1.24
1.57
1.51
1.65
1.54
Construction work
1.38
1.34
(a)
1.38
1.49
1.45
Oil refining
(a)
1.16
1.17
1.22
1.19
Slaughtering and meat packing
1.42
1.50
1.40
1.42
1.47
1.43
Total
1.31
.99
1.48
1.31
1.63
1.38
* This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost, during the year.
<* Not computed, owing to small number involved.
402
The Immigration Commission.
Upon comparing the wage-earners 18 years of age or over accord-
ing to industries, it is seen that the native-born whites pi native
father have the highest average daily earnings in the oil-refining
establishments, followed, in the order named, by those engaged
in construction work, bituminous coal mining, slaughtering and
meat packing, and cigar and tobacco manufacturing. Of the
industrial workers native-born of foreign father, the highest average
daily earnings are shown in construction work, followed by oil refin-
ing, bituminous coal mining, slaughtering and meat packing, and
cigar and tobacco manufacturing, in the order named. In the case
of the foreign-born industrial workers, the highest^ earnings are
exhibited by those employed in oil refining, followed in consecutive
order by those engaged in the manufacture of cigars and tobacco,
bituminous coal mining, slaughtering and meat packing, and con-
struction work. Of those employed in cigar and tobacco factories,
the foreign-born show an average daily wage of $2.21, as compared
with $1.97 for the native white of native father, and $2.20 for
the native-born of foreign father. In the case of the bituminous
coal mine workers, an average daily wage of $2.19 is shown for the
whole industry, $2.16 for the foreign-born workers, $2.38^ for ^the
native-born of foreign father, and $2.31 for the white of native birth
and of native father. In the oil-refining plants and slaughtering and
meat packing establishments, the native-born wage-earners show con-
siderably higher average daily earnings than do those of foreign birth.
Of the employees 14 and under 18 years of age, the foreign-born
exhibit the highest average daily earnings, $1.65, in the bituminous
coal mines, and the lowest, $1.22, in the oil refineries. The total
native-born also exhibit the highest average daily earnings, amount-
ing to $1.51, in the bituminous coal mines, and the lowest, $0.93 per
day, in the manufacture of cigars and tobacco.
The following table shows, by general nativity and industry, the
average daily earnings of 14,416 female employees 18 years of age or
over, and of 4,224 who were 14 and under 18 years of age.
TABLE 49. — Average amount of daily earnings of female employees, by general nativity
and industry*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
18 YEARS OF AGE OR OVER.
Industry.
Native-born.
Total
native-
bom.
Foreign-
born.
Total.
Native father.
Foreign
father.
White.
Negro.
Cigars and tobacco
$1.25
(a)
$0.76
$1.31
1.37
1.19
$1.13
1.37
1.19
$1.20
<?»
$1.15
1.36
1.20
Oil refining
Slaughtering and meat packing
1.19
1.09
Total
1.25
.77
1.29
1.13
1.20
1.16
14 AND UNDER 18 YEARS OF AGE.
Cigars and tobacco
$0 92
$0 60
$0 94
$0 89
81 05
$0 92
Oil refining
1 11
1 11
Co)
1 13
Slaughtering and meat packing
1 02
(a)
99
1 00
1 10
1 03
Total
93
60-
95
90
1 06
93
*Thls table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
403
The average daily earnings exhibited by the female industrial
workers 18 years of age or over is $1.16. The native-born women
show their highest average daily earnings, $1.37, in connection with
the oil-refining industry, and the lowest, $1.13, among those employed
in cigar and tobacco factories. The average for the total number of
women of foreign birth is $1.20 a day in the two branches of manufac-
turing for which the averages have been computed.
As regards the female wage-earners 14 ana under 18 years of age,
the average daily earnings are $0.93. The maximum for the native-
born females is $1.11, earned by those employed in oil refineries, and
the minimum is $0.89, earned by employees of cigar and tobacco fac-
tories. The foreign-born females in this age group show maximum daily
earnings of $1.10 in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry, the
minimum, of $1.05, being in the manufacture of cigars and tobacco.
AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN THE SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT-
PACKING INDUSTRY, ACCORDING TO GENERAL NATIVITY AND RACE
OF EMPLOYEE:
The following table shows, by general nativity and race, the aver-
age hourly earnings of male employees 18 years of age or over
employed ~in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry. The
returns for a large number of employees in this industry are shown
on an hourly basis for the reason that irregularity in working con-
ditions renders a longer period less satisfactory. The figures represent
the maximum earning capacity of employees.
TABLE 50. — Average amount of hourly earnings of male employees 18 years of age or
over in slaughtering and meat packing, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average
amount
of hourly
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Average
amount
of hourly
earnings.
Native-born of native father:
White
$0.221
.210
(•)
Foreign-born, by race — Continued.
English
W
$0.218
.103
(°)
.203
(a)
(0)
.181
.188
(0)
(a)
(a)
.190
«»
n
(a)
.183
.180
(0)
(a)
m
M
(°)
Negro
French
Indian
German
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Greek
(a
(a
(a
(•
.259
.205
)
l
)
Hebrew (other than Russian)
Italian, North
Canada
Italian, South
England
Lithuanian
France
Magyar
Germany
Mexican
Ireland
Negro.
Mexico
Norwegian . . .
Netherlands
Polish
Scotland
Roumanian
Spain
Russian
Russia
Ruthenian
Wales
Scotch
Africa (country not specified)
Total
Servian
Slovak
.235
Slovenian
Total native-born
Swedish
.219
.218
w
(°)
.190
(a)
Turkish.
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
Swiss (race not specified)
Bulgarian
Total foreign-born
Canadian, French
.192
Croatian
Grand total
Danish
.204
*Thls table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
404
The Immigration Commission.
The following table shows, by general nativity and race, the aver-
age hourly earnings of female employees who were 18 years of age or
over and who were employed in slaughtering and meat packing:
i
TABLE 51. — Average amount of hourly earnings of female employees 18 years of age or
over in slaughtering and meat packing, by general nativity and race*
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
General nativity and race.
Average
amount
of hourly
earnings.
General nativity and race.
Average
amount
of hourly
earnings.
Native-bora of native father:
White
(a)
Foreign-born, by race— Continued.
Bulgarian
(a)
Negro
$0.160
Croatian
$0.212
Native-born of foreign father by country
Dutch
(a)
of birth of father:
German
a
Denmark
(a)
Lithuanian .... ...
. 138
Germany
(a
Polish
a)
Ireland
(a
Russian
a)
•Russia
(a
Servian
a)
Slovak
a\
Total
(a)
Slovenian
(a)
Total native-born
.153
Total foreign-born
.165
Foreign-born, by race:
Grand total
.162
Bohemian and Moravian
(a)
*This table shows wages or earnings for the period indicated, but no account is taken of voluntary lost
time or lost time from shutdowns or other causes. In the various tables in this report showing annual
earnings allowance is made for time lost during the year.
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Employees in this industry 14 and under 18 years of age were
represented by numbers too small to admit of computations for
separate races. For the total male employees in this age group,
however, average hourly earnings were found to be $0.166, the total
native-born males reporting $0.171. The average hourly earnings
for the total female employees 14 and under 18 years of age were
$0.151, and for the total foreign-born females $0.163.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
405
ANNUAL EARNINGS OF MALE HEADS OF FAMILIES.
The table which immediately follows shows, by general nativity
and race of individual, the range in annual earnings of male heads
of families who were employed in mines and manufacturing estab-
lishments.
TABLE 52. — Per cent of male heads of families earning each specified amount (approxi-
mate) per year, by general nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more male heads of selected families. The totals, however, are
for all races.]
I
>er ce
ntear
ning-
General nativity and race of indi-
vidual.
Number
working
for wages.
Under $100.
$100 and un-
der $200.
$200 and un-
der $300.
$300 and un-
der $400.
$400 and un-
der $500.
$500 and un-
der $600.
$600 and un-
der $700.
$700 and un-
der $800.
$800 and un-
der $900.
$900 and un-
der $1,000.
o
0 M
if
«e
Native-born of native father:
White
1,015
0 3
1 i
2 5
5 7
10 2
15 3
15 0
20 5
7 5
8 0
14 0
Negro
121
.0
.8
4 1
31 4
?7 3
?5 6
5.0
4 1
.0
8
g
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
24
26
.0
0
.0
0
4.2
0
12.5
0
25.0
23 1
16.7
19 ?,
4.2
11.5
16.7
15.4
12.5
3.8
8.3
11 5
.0
15 4
English
42
o
.0
7 1
14.3
11 9
19 0
7 1
11 9
9 5
2 4
16 7
German
209
o
1 0
1 9
5 3
12 4
14 4
16 3
16 3
5 3
13 9
10 A
Irish
264
o
.8
3.0
8.7
13 6
15.5
13 3
13 6
5 7
10 6
15 2
Polish
77
o
o
1 3
18 2
15 6
10 4
15 6
16 9
6 5
2 6
10 A
Foreign-born:
Armenian
88
1 1
6 8
15 9
18 2
14 8
11 4
18 2
8 0
4 5
1 i
Bohemian and Moravian
420
1.4
1.4
5.5
13 8
?rt ?
?fl ?,
13 1
15 0
2 9
4 0
2 4
Brava
27
o
o
3 7
22 2
37 0
22 2
14 8
o
o
o
Canadian French
433
g
1 6
5 3
15 0
14 1
17 6
19 6
14 3
2 8
4 g
40
Croatian
555
2 7
4 3
10 5
21 8
22 9
18 0
8 3
8 8
1 6
7
4
Cuban
40
o
o
2 5
2 5
o
15 0
12 5
32 5
5 0
12 5
17 "i
Dutch
127
o
0
2 4
15 7
18 9
24 4
20 5
12 6
3 1
1 6
Q
English
400
3
1 0
2 0
i7 5
13 3
16 3
14 8
19 0
8 0
8 3
no
9.o
Finnish
136
o
2 2
£3
3 7
13 2
14 7
58 1
3 7
1 5
Flemish
78
o
7 7
6 4
2 6
19 2
25 6
11 5
20 5
2 6
3 8
o
French
123
o
1 6
5 7
14 6
30 1
24 4
16 3
1 6
2 4
2 4
German
842
2
2 7
5 1
11 5
17 9
16 2
14 3
14 1
5 2
5 6
7 1
Greek
45
6 7
15 6
13 3
?6 7
11 1
11 1
8 9
o
4 4
Q
2 2
Hebrew
640
1 i
3 8
10 3
17 8
16 7
14 8
16 1
10 2
4 5
2 0
2 7
Irish
574
2
2 1
4 0
9 4
16 0
16 4
18 5
12 0
4 2
8 9
8 4
Italian, North ....
571
5
5 3
11 0
19 4
19 3
14 5
10 3
13 8
2 5
2 5
Q
Italian, South
1,323
1 0
6 7
18 2
24 3
20 8
11 0
7 1
5 9
1 9
1 7
11
Lithuanian ....
751
1 2
3 1
8 9
18 5
28 1
20 6
9 7
4 4
2 1
16
1 7
Magyar
831
2 3
7 8
12 6
22 6
20 2
15 6
10 5
6 4
g
Mexican
38
o
o
10 5
52 6
26 3
7 9
2 6
o
o
'o
Norwegian
24
o
o
o
o
o
8 3
o
25 0
16 7
20 8
on o
Polish
2,005
g
5 3
11 4
23 4
21 9
17 6
9 7
6 0
1 4
1 7
5
Portuguese
243
4
2 1
9 9
38 7
22 2
15 6
8 2
2 5
4
o
Roumanian
68
44
14 7
7 4
11 8
16 2
22 1
16 2
5 9
'o
1 5
Russian
75
2 7
4 0
9 3
40 0
21 3
8 0
9 3
5 3
o
o
Ruthenian
537
g
4 5
11 9
21 6
27 6
19 4
8 4
2 6
1 3
1 3
g
Scotch
117
9
9
2 6
11 1
11 1
15 4
10 3
9 4
7 7
7 7
OQ 1
Servian
55
16 4
21 8
30 9
14 5
9 1
5 5
1 8
Q
o
Slovak
1,211
1 2
3 8
11 0
24 2
23 2
15 9
10 7
6 3
1 8
1 5
Slovenian
161
g
3 7
7 5
17 4
23 0
13 7
14 9
14 9
1 9
1 9
Spanish
35
o
o
o
2 9
o
5 7
2 9
17 1
2 9
25 7
42 Q
Swedish
444
o
2
2
2 9
8 1
14 4
19 4
27 0
12 4
60
8^
Syrian
112
7 1
16 1
13 4
24 1
11 6
11 6
10 7
5 4
o
o
Welsh
82
1 2
4 9
7 3
11 0
12 2
13 4
20 7
8 5
2 4
4 9
10 A
Grand total..
15, 038
1 0
3 9
8 8
17 7
19 0
16 1
12 0
10 7
3 3
3 5
4 O
Total native-born of foreign father.
Total native-born
673
1 809
.0
2
.6
9
2.5
2 6
8.6
S r>
14.4
12 9
14.4
15 6
14.1
14 0
15.8
17 6
6.1
6C
9.8
80
13.7
Total foreign-born
13,229
1 i
4 3
9 7
19 0
19 8
16 2
11 8
9 7
2 8
2 9
2 8
406
The Immigration Commission.
It is evident from a comparison of the totals in the foregoing
table that the native-born heads of families have a higher range of
annual earnings than those of foreign birth. The greater propor-
tion of the former earn yearly between $400 and $800, while the
greater proportion of the latter earn between $300 and $600. Of the
heads of families who were white native-born of native father, or
native Americans, 50.8 per cent earn between $500 and $800 per
annum. In the lower ranges of annual earnings the heads of fami-
lies who were born abroad exhibit a much greater proportion than
those of native birth, while in the higher ranges of annual earnings
the situation is reversed. Only 2.8 per cent of the foreign-born
heads of families, as compared with 13 per cent of the total native-
born and 14 per cent of those white of native birth and native
father, have yearly earnings in excess of $1,000. On the other
hand, only 12.2 per cent of all the native-born heads of families
and 9.6 per cent of those white of native birth and native father,
as contrasted with 34.1 per cent of the total number of foreign
birth, earn under $400 each year. The races of old immigration
from Great Britain and northern Europe also have a higher range
of annual earnings than have those of recent immigration from
southern and eastern Europe. This fact is illustrated by the fol-
lowing comparison, in which the heads of families of foreign birth
are grouped according to the principal classifications of earnings:
TABLE 53. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to annual earnings of
foreign-born male heads of families, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Race.
$200 and
under
$300.
$300 and
under
$400.
$500 and
under
$600.
$700 and
under
$800.
$1,000 or
over.
Old immigration:
Canadian, French
5 3
15 0
17 6
14 3
4 9
Dutch
2 4
15 7
24 4
12 6
g
English
2 0
7 5
16 3
19 0
9 8
German . . .
5 1
11 5
16 2
14 1
7 1
Irish
4 0
9 4
16 4
12 0
8 4
Norwegian
o
o
8 3
25 0
29 2
Scotch
2 6
11 1
15 4
9 4
23 1
Swedish
2
2 9
14 4
27 0
8 6
Welsh
7 3
11 0
13 4
8 5
10 4
New 'immigration :
Armenian
15 9
18 2
11 4
8 0
0
Brava . .
3 7
22 2
22 2
Q
Q
Croatian
10 5
21 8
18 0
0 0
4
Greek
13 3
26 7
11 1
Q
Hebrew
10 3
17 8
14 8
10 2
2 7
Italian North
11 0
1Q 4
14 5
13 8
Italian, South
18 2
24 3
11 0
5 9
1 4
Lithuanian
8 9
18 5
20 6
4 4
1 7
Magyar
12 6
22 6
15 6
6 4
Polish
11 4
23 4
17 6
6 0
5
Portuguese
9 9
38 7
15 6
2 5
Q
Ruthenian
11 9
21 6
19 4
2 6
^
Slovak
11 0
24 2
15 9
6 3
g
Slovenian
7 5
17 4
13 7
14 9
g
Syrian
13 4
24 1
11 6
5 4
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
407
ANNUAL EARNINGS OF MALE WAGE-EARNERS IN THE HOUSEHOLDS
STUDIED.
The table which is submitted below shows, by general nativity and
race of individual, the approximate annual earnings of males in the
households studied who were 18' years of age or over.
TABLE 54. — Yearly earnings (approximate) of males 18 years of age or over, by general
nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and
race of individual.
Number
working
for wages
and re-
porting
amount.
Average
earnings.
Number earning—
Per cent earning —
Under
$200.
Under
$400.
Under
$600.
Under
$1,000.
Under
$200.
Under
$400.
Under
$600.
Under
$1,000.
Native-born of native
father:
White
1,454
165
98
112
10
4
7
7
48
113
6
7
13
452
27
611
14
15
16
13
8
196
11
22
24
61
11
119
34
182
517
1
51
534
604
987
43
15
150
522
144
98
170
1,098
823
2
847
714
874
2,678
68
1.488
$666
445
490
527
744
(a)
(a)
(a)
522
586
(a)
(a)
481
619
492
612
402
408
452
395
(a)
537
408
431
465
362
263
557
486
454
549
"U
255
538
410
782
674
555
673
683
539
479
579
300
(0)
.513
636
480
396
482
454
55
4
6
4
230
77
37
37
1
2
1
2
12
32
632
151
70
73
2
1,288
164
95
107
9
3.8
2.4
6.1
3.6
«)
15.8
46.7
37.8
33.0
a
43.5
91.5
71.4
65.2
(a)
88.6
99.4
96.9
95.5
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Mo-
ravian
Canadian, French...
Canadian, Other
Cuban
1
2
4
29
67
1
4
10
237
18
331
12
13
15
12
3
127
11
20
19
54
11
64
25
130
334
1
46
529
375
828
8
5
94
216
32
63
133
632
794
2
559
357
643
2,352
63
1 9fifi
5
5
48
105
6
6
13
417
25
553
14
14
16
13
8
186
11
21
23
61
11
116
32
182
505
1
51
534
585
985
36
14
148
478
143
96
169
1,030
821
2
826
650
867
2,657
68
1 474
a
0)
4.2
3.5
£
(:4
11.1
5.9
(a
(a
ia
a
a)
3.6
%
8.3
8.2
(a)
7.6
2.9
12.6
2.9
(a)
5.9
30.7
4.5
14.1
.0
(a)
L5
2.1
9.2
2.9
4.6
26.6
%
2.7
4.5
10.4
.0
t; A.
a
a
25.0
38.3
:
gr
48.1
24.9
(a
(o
(a
(o
(a)
33.2
(a)
50.0
37.5
67.2
(a)
23.5
41.2
39.6
23.8
(0)
45.1
90.4
27.8
50.2
4.7
(«)
20.7
12.5
5.6
19.4
27.1
24.2
80.6
(0)
33.3
16.1
39.2
55.4
17.6
9fi A
1
59.3
o)
a)
g>4
66.7
54.2
a
a
a
a
a
64.8
(a)
90.9
79.2
88.5
(0)
53.8
73.5
71.4
64.6
(a)
90.2
99.1
62.1
83.9
18.6
(a)
62.7
41.4
22.2
64.3
78.2
57.6
96.5
(a)
66.0
50.0
73.6
87.8
82.6
CK 1
0
92.9
(0)
|
92.3
92.6
90.5
(<*
£
:
94.9
(0)
95.5
95.8
100.0
(0)
97.5
94.1
100.0
97.7
ffi.o
100.0
96.9
99.8
83.7
(«)
98.7
91.6
99.3
98.0
99.4
93.8
99.8
(a)
97.5
91.0
99.2
99.2
100.0
GO 1
Danish
Dutch
2
4
English
Finnish
Flemish
1
1
4
107
13
152
' 7
9
6
7
2
65
3
11
9
41
9
28
14
72
123
1
23
483
168
495
2
3
31
65
8
19
46
266
663
2
282
115
343
1,484
12
545
French .
German
20
3
36
1
4
1
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Masvar
Norwegian
Polish
7
Portuguese
Ruthenian . . .
Scotch
2
2
5
4
9
1
23
15
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Welsh
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Mo-
ravian
Bosnian
Brava
3
164
27
139
Bulgarian
Canadian, French. . .
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
.....
8
3
9
5
51
219
£
40
19
39
279
Dutch
English
Finnish..
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Gypsy .
Hebrew...
Irish....
Italian, North
Italian, South . .
Japanese
Lithuanian . . .
sn
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
408
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 54. — Yearly earnings (approximate} of males 18 years of age or over, by general
nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and
race of individual.
Number
working
for wages
and re-
porting
amount.
Average
earnings.
Number earning—
Per cent earning—
Under
$200.
Under
$400.
Under
$600.
Under
$1,000.
Under
$200.
Under
$400.
Under
$600.
Under
$1,000.
Foreign-born— Cont'd .
Macedonian
90
1,552
57
1
28
3,479
335
150
162
929
163
173
1,733
205
52
521
302
296
100
$232
395
379
Wm
428
410
402
400
418
703
212
442
484
938
722
370
281
623
37
214
1
86
802
39
1
90
1,355
55
1
3
2,936
304
129
140
824
75
171
1,439
140
4
140
253
292
51
90
1,547
57
1
21
3,462
335
150
161
926
133
173
1,726
204
34
483
302
296
88
41.1
13.8
1.8
(a)
.0
8.9
3.0
20.0
9.3
7.2
1.2
49.7
6.2
6.3
.0
.4
14.9
36.8
7.0
95.6
51.7
68.4
Wo
45.9
54.6
43.3
54.9
45.9
18.4
92.5
43.7
36.6
3.8
3.1
51.7
72.0
27.0
100.0
87.3
96.5
(a)
10.7
84.4
90.7
86.0
86.4
88.7
46.0
98.8
83.0
68.3
7.7
26.9
83.8
98.6
51.0
100.0
99.7
100.0
(a)
75.0
99.5
100.0
100.0
99.4
99.7
81.6
100.0
99.6
99.5
65.4
92.7
100.0
100.0
88.0
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin
Norwegian
Polish
310
10
30
15
67
2
86
107
13
1,598
183
65
89
426
30
160
758
75
2
16
156
213
27
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
2
45
109
7
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Grand total
Total native-born of
foreign father
Total native-born
26,616
475
2,353
10,896
19,885
25,887
8.8
40.9
74.7
97.3
93.4
91.8
98.1
2,059
3,678
22,938
566
600
455
113
172
2,181
612
919
9,977
1,238
2,021
17,864
1,924
3,376
22,511
5.5
4.7
9.5
29.7
25.0
43.5
60.1
54.9
77.9
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number Involved.
Upon comparing the totals of the nativity groups, it is seen that
the average annual earnings of the 22,938 foreign-born wage-earners
18 years of age or over in the households studied were only $455,
as contrasted with average yearly earnings of $566 for the 2,059 in-
dustrial workers of native birth but of foreign father, and of $666 for
the 1,454 native-born white wage-earners of native father. Only a
small percentage of the last-named group were earning under $400
annually, while the greater proportion were earning between $600
and $1,000 per year. On the other hand, the greater number of
wage-earners in all the industries studied, either of native birth and
of foreign father or of foreign birth, were receiving as a result of their
labor less than $600 per annum. It is a striking fact that of the
total number of foreign-born wage-earners 77.9 per cent were receiv-
ing under $600 per year, and 43.5 per cent under $400. Only 1.9
per cent of the foreign-born earned more than $1,000 a year, as con-
trasted with 6.6 per cent of the native-born wage-earners of foreign
father, and 11.4 per cent of the native-born white persons of native
father, or native Americans.
The differences in earning ability of the foreign-born wage-earners
of past immigration from Great Britain and northern Europe and
those of recent immigration from southern and eastern Europe are
quickly apparent from the division according to general nativity
next presented.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
409
TABLE 55. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to yearly earnings (approxi-
mate) of males 18 years of age or over, by general nativity and race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
NATIVE-BORN OF FOREIGN FATHER, BY RACE OF FATHER.
Old immigration.
Average
earnings.
New immigration.
Average
earnings.
Canadian, French
$527
Hebrew
$492
Canadian, Other .
744
Italian, North
402
Dutch
522
Italian South
408
English
586
Lithuanian
452
German
619
Magyar
395
Irish
612
Polish
537
Scotch
465
Portuguese
408
Swedish
557
Ruthenian
431
Welsh
486
Slovak
362
Slovenian
263
FOREIGN-BORN.
Canadian, French
$538
Armenian
$454
Danish
674
Brava
426
Dutch
555
Bulgarian
255
English
673
Croatian
410
German
579
Greek
300
Irish
636
Hebrew
513
Norwegian .
872
Italian North
480
Scotch...
703
Italian, South. .
396
Swedish...
722
Lithuanian
454
Welsh
623
232
Magyar
395
Polish
428
Portuguese
410
Roumanian .
402
Russian
400
Ruthenian
418
Servian
212
Slovak
442
Slovenian
484
Syrian
370
Turkish
281
ANNUAL EARNINGS OF FEMALE WAGE-EARNERS IN THE HOUSEHOLDS
STUDIED.
The table next submitted shows, by general nativity and race of
individual, the approximate annual earnings of females in the house-
holds studied who were 18 years of age or over, and who were em-
ployed for wages:
TABLE 56. — Yearly earnings (approximate) of females 18 years of age or over, by general
nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General aativity and race of indi-
vidual.
Number
working
for wages
and re-
porting
amount.
Average
earnings.
Number earning—
Per cent earning—
Under
$200.
Under
$300.
Under
$400.
Under
$200.
Under
$300.
Under
$400.
Native-born of native father:
White
338
10
48
80
3
1
$365
106
294
329
(«)
(a)
45
9
13
13
114
10
30
33
2
1
217
10
41
59
2
1
13.3
(«)
27.1
16.3
ffi
33.7
(«)
62.5
41.3
S2
64.2
(«)
85.4
73.8
ft
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Cuban
72289 '
a Not computed, owing to small number Involved.
-VOL 1—11 27
410
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 56. — Yearly earnings (approximate] of females 18 years of age or over, by general
nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and race of indi-
vidual.
Number
working
for wages
and re-
porting
amount.
Average
earnings.
Number earning—
Per cent earning—
Under
$200.
f
Under
$300.
Under
$400.
Under
$200.
Under
$300.
Under
$400.
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father— Continued.
Danish
5
25
46
1
8
132
23
299
3
7
5
3
1
2
48
10
8
20
15
5
68
9
37
30
2
197
10
13
11
14
9
86
1
6
49
113
111
125
111
66
254
104
100
329
143-
1
14
199
35
3
98
14
3
24
68
6
(«)
$287
382
(0)
(0)
292
385
378
(a)
(a)
a'
a
a
a
286
282
W347
264
(a)
351
(a)
282
246
(a)
320
369
203
369
326
W369
8
324
301
277
284
348
331
211
255
298
263
288
(a)
212
301
375
(0)
217
263
"W
256
(«)
1
22
25
1
7
108
12
164
2
5
4
3
1
1
39
10
5
14
14
4
47
8
30
27
1
145
6
13
6
8
7
50
1
4
39
88
98
101
73
45
231
94
87
287
125
1
13
158
20
3
93
11
3
19
62
4
(a)
24.0
4.3
(a)
(a)
19.7
4.3
11.7
(«)
(a
(a
(a
g
22.9
(a)
(a)
10.0
(«)
(a)
11.8
(a)
27.0
36.7
(a)
17.8
(a
(a
(a
<1
i
20.4
25.7
26.1
24.8
12.6
24.2
47.2
26.9
19.0
28.3
20.3
8
16.1
11.4
(a)
46.9
(a)
(a)
25.0
27.9
(a.)
(a)
64.0
23.9
(a)
(IL
21.7
27.8
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a
(a
(a)
58.3
(a)
(g.o
8
33.8
(«)
62.2
60.0
(a)
38.1
(a
(a
(a
(a)
12 <
(a)
(?)
34.7
53.1
48.6
54.4
36.0
43.9
79.9
66. 3
44.0
64.4
52.4
«)
(a)
51.3
25.7
(a)
77.6
(a)
(")
29.2
60.3
(a)
48.9
(%.o
54.3
(«)
(°)
81.8
52.2
54.8
ft
ft
(°)
(°)
81.3
(a)
(a)
70.0
(«)
(a)
69.1
(")
81.1
90.0
(«)
73.6
(a)
(a)
w
(a)
(•)
58.1
(a)
(")
79.6
77.9
88.3
80.8
65.8
68.2
90.9
90.4
87.0
87.2
87.4
(«)
TO
79.4
57.1
(a)
94.9
(a)
(a)
79.2
91.2
(«)
Dutch *
6
2
16
11
1
3
60
5
83
2
5
2
2
1
English .
Flemish
French
3
26
35
German
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North
Italian, South
3
1
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
11
1
1
2
5
28
4
1
3
11
2
23
6
23
18
Portuguese . .
Ruthenian
Scotch
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
8
4
10
11
Welsh
Foreign-born:
Armenian. .
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Canadian, French
35
1
7
1
3
2
12
1
2
10
29
29
31
14
16
120
28
19
93
29
1
8
32
4
2
46
5
1
6
19
3
75
2
11
6
6
2
27
1
2
17
60
54
68
40
29
203
69
44
212
75
1
11
102
9
3
76
8
2
7
41
3
Canadian Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew...
Irish..
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Maevar
PO&. .::::::::::"":
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch • . . .
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian . . .
Welsh.. .
Grand total
3,609
304
819
1,766
2,780
22.7
77.0
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
875
1,223
2,386
339
344
284
135
189
630
335
459
1,307
600
827
1.953
15.4
15.5
26.4
38.3
37.5
54.8
68.6
67.6
81.9
Total foreign-born
i Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
411
The average annual earnings, as shown in the foregoing table, for the
3,609 females in the households studied who were working for wages
were $304. The earnings of the foreign-born women were much lower
than those of the native-born, and the earnings of the native-born
white women °f native father were somewhat higher than those of
the native-born of foreign father. A large proportion of the foreign-
born women (26.4 per cent) earned less than $200 per annum, and
the greater number of female wage-earners of foreign birth (54.8 per
cent) earned under $300 annually. Only 19.1 per cent of the women
of foreign birth who were working for wages received more than $400
a year, as compared with 31.4 per cent of the women of native birth
but of foreign father, and 35.8 per cent of those of native birth and of
native father.
The comparative showing made by the races of old and of new
immigration may be readily seen from the following classification of
the average earnings:
TABLE 57. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to yearly earnings (approx-
imate) of females 18 years of age or over, by general nativity and race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
NATIVE-BORN OF FOREIGN FATHER, BY RACE OF FATHER.
Old immigration.
Average
earnings.
New immigration.
Average
earnings.
Canadian, French
$329
Hebrew.
$385
Dutch
287
Polish
286
English
382
Portuguese
282
German.. .
292
Slovak.
264
Irish
378
Scotch
347
Swedish
351
FOREIGN-BORN.
Canadian, French
$320
Armenian
«282
Canadian, Other
369
Croatian . . .
203
Danish
326
Greek
277
English
369
Hebrew.
284
German. .
301
Italian, North
331
Irish
348
Italian South
211
Scotch
375
Lithuanian
255
Swedish
306
Magyar
298
Polish
263
Portuguese..
288
Russian
212
Ruthenian . .
301
Slovak
217
Slovenian
263
Syrian
256
412
The Immigration Commission.
ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME.
The average amount and range in amount of the annual income of
families the heads of which were wage-earners in mines and manu-
facturing establishments is shown in the table next presented :
TABLE 58. — Per cent of families having a total yearly income of each specified amount
(approximate), by general nativity and race of head of family.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more families reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.
Twenty-two families are included which report income as "none."]
General nativity and r • f
head of family.
Number
of families
included.
Average
family
income.
Per cent of families having a total income —
Under
$300.
Under
$500.
Under
$750.
Under
$1,000.
Under
$1,500.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,070
124
24
27
42
213
292
77
101
437
29
477
560
43
129
425
137
79
130
887
49
660
675
583
1,380
763
860
39
26
2,038
258
69
76
571
123
59
1,243
163
37
460
142
90
$865
517
621
891
842
894
926
681
730
773
562
903
702
881
772
956
781
798
757
878
632
685
999
657
569
636
611
472
1,015
595
790
805
494
569
1,142
462
582
684
1,099
974
594
893
2.2
4.0
.0
3.7
.0
1.9
1.7
1.3
8.9
3.7
.0
1.9
10.4
2.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
7.6
3.8
2.4
16.3
9.1
2.1
9.1
16.6
6.9
12.9
7.7
.0
10.5
2.3
10.1
6.6
10.0
.0
32.2
10.9
6.1
.0
.9
17.6
6.7
13.5
55.6
33.3
14.8
23.8
11.7
15.8
29.9
27.7
22.4
44.8
10.9
37.9
4.7
16.3
11.8
6.6
17.7
26.9
15.1
51.0
33.5
12.1
36.4
50.9
33.2
40.2
69.2
3.8
44.0
27.9
29.0
57.9
43.3
9.8
66.1
43.8
37.4
2.7
6.3
47.2
17.8
45.1
88.7
75.0
51.9
47.6
46.0
41.8
64.9
57.4
60.2
89.7
44.2
68.9
23.3
56.6
37.9
43.8
50.6
56.2
44.9
75.5
69.4
38.4
70.8
79.5
73.9
75.5
92.3
11.5
79.0
60.9
62.3
89.5
82.1
31.7
86.4
77.9
72.4
13.5
34.8
76.1
45.6
72.7
97.6
100.0
74.1
69.0
73.7
64.0
85.7
84.2
80.8
96.6
72.1
84.1
67.4
79.8
62.4
90.5
82.3
80.0
70.9
81.6
87.0
61.0
88.7
91.4
90.8
90.7
97.4
50.0
91.4
79.8
76.8
98.7
94.4
47.2
93.2
92.0
87.7
37.8
66.7
88.0
60.0
93.6
99.2
100.0
85.2
92.9
89.7
89.7
100.0
95.0
94.1
100.0
91.0
93.8
97.7
94.6
88.9
95.6
93.7
96.2
91.5
93.9
97.0
84.1
96.7
98.5
97.6
98.0
100.0
96.2
97.8
90.7
88.4
100.0
98.9
77.2
98.3
98.9
95.1
91.9
89.1
97.2
90.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
English
German . . .
Irish...
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian ...
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish . ...
Flemish
French
German . .
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar. . .
Mekican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumaniap
Russian
Ruthenian....
Scotch
Servian
Slovak .
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh.
Grand total
15,726
721
7.6
31.3
64.0
82.6
95.0
Total native-bora of foreign
father
707
1,901
13,825
866
843
704
1.7
2.2
8.4
17.3
17.6
33.2
47.9
49.0
66.0
72.1
74.1
83.8
91.5
93.2
95.2
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
413
Upon reference to the totals of the foregoing table, it is seen that
the annual average income of the 15,726 households the heads of
which were industrial workers was $721. About one- twelfth of the
families the heads of which were of foreign birth had an annual
income under $300, and about one-third (33.2 per cent) had an in-
come per annum less than $500. Only 16.2 per cent of the families
the heads of which were of foreign birth had a yearly income in
excess of $1,000. On the other hand, only 13.5 per cent of the fami-
lies the heads of which were native Americans (of native birth and
of native father) and only 17.3 per cent of those the heads of which
were of native birth but of foreign father had incomes under $500
per annum, while 54.9 per cent of the former and 52.1 per cent of the
fatter had an annual family income above $750. More than one-
fourth of the families the heads of which were of native birth, whether
of native or of foreign father, received a yearly income above $1,000,
but more than nine-tenths of the families of southern and eastern
European races had an annual family income below this amount.
The comparison of the average annual incomes of immigrant families
of old and new immigration may be readily seen in the following
classification of the foreign-born of the principal races:
TABLE 59. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to average annual family in-
come of the foreign-born, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Old immigration.
Average
family
income.
New immigration.
Average
family
income.
Canadian French
$903
Armenian.
$730
Dutch
772
Croatian
702
English
956
Hebrew.
685
German
878
Italian, North
657
Irish
999
Italian, South. ....
569
1 015
Lithuanian
636
Scotch
1.142
Magyar
611
Swedish
974
Polish
595
Welsh
893
Portuguese. .
790
Ruthenian
569
Slovak
582
Slovenian
684
Syrian
594
Upon comparing the yearly incomes of the two classes of immi-
grants, it is seen that the highest average shown by any race of
recent immigration is below the lowest average shown by any race of
past immigration.
SOURCES OF FAMILY INCOME.
The two tables which are next presented take up in detail the
sources of family income and the relative importance of the sources
specified. In this connection the first table submitted shows, by
general nativity and race of head of family, the proportion of families
which had an income within the year from husband, wife, children,
boarders or lodgers, and other sources. By the term "within the
year" is meant the twelve months immediately preceding the collec-
tion of the information.
414
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 60. — Per cent of families having an income within the year from husband, wife,
children, boarders or lodgers, and other sources, by general nativity and race of head of
family.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more families reporting.
Twenty-two families are excluded which report
The totals, however, are for all races.
port income as "none."]
General aativity and race of head of
family.
Number
of
families
included.
Per cent of families having an income from —
Earnings of —
Contri-
butions
of
children.
Pay-
ments of
boarders
or lodgers.
Other
sources.
Husband.
Wife.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,070
124
24
27
42
213
292
77
98
437
29
477
560
43
129
424
137
79
130
884
49
660
675
583
1,372
760
859
39
26
2,038
258
69
76
571
123
58
1,242
163
37
460
142
90
94.9
97.6
100.0
96.3
100.0
98.1
90.4
100.0
•89.8
96.1
93.1
90.8
99.1
93.0
98.4
94.3
99.3
98.7
94.6
95.2
91.8
97.0
85.0
97.9
96.4
98.8
96.7
97.4
92.3
98.4
94.2
98.6
98.7
94.0
95.1
94.8
97.5
98.8
94.6
96.5
78.9
91.1
7.2
4.8
12.5
22.2
7.1
3.8
5.5
1.3
25.5
4.1
3.4
12.6
.9
11.6
.8
9.2
.0
3.8
33.1
6.7
16.3
3.6
5.5
6.0
11.2
3.2
5.5
.0
.0
4.9
27.9
1.4
7.9
9.6
4.1
3.4
4.3
5.5
8.1
2.4
28.2
1.1
21.5
10.5
4.2
11.1
26.2
14.6
30.5
3.9
24.5
33.9
10.3
45.1
7.3
23.3
41.9
37.7
9.5
34.2
27.7
39.9
16.3
24.1
50.1
13.6
18.2
11.4
12.7
10.3
38.5
14.5
29.5
4.3
5.3
13.5
43.9
.0
14.1
12.9
24.3
34.3
31.7
48.9
10.0
6.5
4.2
25.9
11.9
7.0
13.0
6.5
23.5
9.2
17.2
14.3
57.5
9.3
4.7
12.0
9.5
17.7
10.0
16.5
26.5
17.9
13.9
35.2
34.3
. 56.4
53.4
17.9
3.8
45.0
20.2
78.3
51.3
51.7
10.6
89.7
35.4
34.4
18.9
12.4
28.2
11.1
12.3
12.1
4.2
3.7
16.7
15.0
13.4
2.6
22.4
19.9
10.3
10.7
5.4
11.6
11.6
11.6
10.2
17.7
16.9
• 19.1
12.2
1 7.1
16.7
14.8
9.8
15.7
8.6
82.1
19.2
9.7
20.9
7.2
5.3
12.6
22.0
3.4
11.8
3.7
8.1
20.9
8.5
•22.2
Negro.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
English
German.
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava...
Canadian, French. . .
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch...
English...
Finnish
Flemish
French. .
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North . .
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian . . .
Polish...
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian.
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian . .
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish. .
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh
Grand total
15,704
95.8
6.9
22.2.
30.1
12.6
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
706
1,900
13,804
95.3
95.2
95.8
5.2
6.3
6.9
19.8
20.2
22.5
10.6
10.0
32.9
12.0
12.2
12.7
Total foreign-born
Upon reference to the foregoing table, it is evident that almost all
families studied, or slightly more than 95 per cent of those in each
nativity group, had an income from the earnings of husbands. In
the case of income from earnings of wives, contributions of children,
or from unspecified sources, each nativity group also shows about
the same proportion of families. The households the heads of which
were foreign-born wage-earners, however, show a much larger per-
centage receiving a contribution from the payments of boarders or
lodgers than those the heads of which were native-born white persons
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
415
of native father or of foreign father. The tendencies exhibited by the
different races become more evident in the table which is next sub-
mitted. This table shows the sources of family income in detail accord-
ing to general nativity and race of head of family, and, in contrast
to the table immediately preceding, each source or combination of
sources specified is exclusive of all other sources.
TABLE 61.— Source of family income in detail, by general nativity and race of head of
family.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more families reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.
Twenty-two families are excluded which report income as "none. ]
General nativity and race of
head of family.
Number of families in-
cluded.
Per cent of families having entire income from—
i
C3
1
<£
1
"5J
i
,&
0
2
o
T3
§g
&
C3
1
•d
§
<£ '
^s
•d§
I*
3
O w
•sp
T) to
S3
1*
~e
g ®
«2
%
I
1
1
S
5
£
V
T3
IE
•°a
•S3
o3 m
O
<2
E
d
£
T3
.73
,0
O
I'd
11
SS
§5
8
i
8
!
TJ
w
a^
ISS
§§'l
§H
I"
w
^
W
%
HH
Native-born of native father:
White
1,070
124
24
27
42
213
292
77
98
437
29
477
560
43
58.4
71.0
75.0
48.1
52.4
67.6
50.7
85.7
29.6
46.2
69.0
32.7
34.3
51 2
3.1
4.0
12.5
11.1
4.8
3.3
1.7
1.3
12.2
2.3
.0
8.0
.S
9^3
14.0
5.6
4.2
11.1
16.7
7.5
16.1
3.9
8.2
20.8
.0
29.6
3.8
14.0
35.7
25.9
7.3
21.5
14.6
22.6
8.2
17 7
0.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.7
.0
1.0
.5
.0
1.3
.0
.0
.0
1.2
.0
1.3
1.5
1.6
.0
0
6.7
4.0
4.2
14.8
4.8
4.2
7.5
6.5
14.3
6.6
10.3
6.3
52.0
9.3
3.9
7.1
9.5
12.7
3.8
9 6
0.3
.0
.0
3.7
.0
.0
1.0
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
2.3
.0
!o
.0
.0
i
1.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.7
.0
1.0
. 2
.0
1.5
.0
.0
.0
!c
.0
.8
fj
0.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.c
.3
.0
.0
.0
3.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
!o
.0
.0
.1
1.6
.8
.0
.0
.0
3^1
.0
5.1
2.3
3.4
4.2
2! 3
.8
2.6
.0
1.3
.8
1 6
0.2
.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
1.9
.2
.0
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
5
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
!o
.0
.0
.0
.(
.(
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
14.0
13.7
4.2
11.1
21.4
16.0
16.1
2.6
27.6
20.8
13.8
14.3
8.4
11.6
12.4
14.6
10.2
19.0
21.5
23.2
16.3
9.7
20.0
17.8
14.2
19.7
14.3
82.1
19.2
13.2
26.4
11.6
6.6
15.6
26.0
5.2
14.7
6.1
13.5
24.1
14.8
26.7
Negro
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian...
Canadian. French
English
German
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian ....
Bohemian and Moravian...
Brava ....
Canadian French
Croatian
Dutch
129
424
137
79
130
884
49
660
675
583
1,372
760
859
39
2(
2,038
258
69
76
571
123
58
1,242
163
37
460
142
90
46.5
41.3
73.0
43.0
30.8
37.3
38.8
54.4
33.2
41.0
39.7
28.7
32.1
10.3
46.2
35.8
29.5
20.3
43.4
27.8
38.2
8.6
44.0
48.5
56.8
44.3
28.9
35.6
.8
5.7
.0
1.3
26.2
2.8
12.2
2.0
1.8
3.9
6.6
1.8
2.1
.0
.0
3.5
17.1
1.4
.0
5.3
3.3
1.7
2.3
4.9
2.7
1.1
11.3
1.1
English
Finnish ....
Flemish
French
Greek..
18.4
13 9
.0
2.0
0
.0
o
.0
1 7
4.1
.3
.0
.0
Irish...
26.5
7.4
9.3
5.0
4.8
.0
26.9
8.5
14.3
.0
2.6
5.8
26.0
.0
7.8
9.2
13.5
23.0
9.9
26.7
.7
.9
.9
.1
.3
.0
.0
.1
1.9
.0
.0
.4
.8
.C
. -
.6
.0
.C
. 7
.0
6.4
27.3
26.5
43.7
43.5
5.1
.0
37.7
7.4
65.2
46.1
41.7
4.1
79.3
29.3
29.4
10.8
6.1
16.2
2.2
.1
'.1
.1
.6
.0
.0
Wo
.0
.C
!o
.c
!c
2.7
!o
1.0
.0
.1
.0
.1
.0
.0
.1
.8
.0
.0
!c
0
!(
.(
8^5
.0
!c
.0
.c
!o
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
!(
.0
!o
.(
!o
7.9
.3
1.9
t
.i
2.6
3.J
L2
.0
.0
1.1
1.6
.0
.1
.0
.(
4.{
5.6
1.8
.3
.6
.3
.8
.0
3.8
.3
1.2
.0
1.3
.4
.0
.0
!e
.c
2!l
2.2
.<
.(
.0
.(
l'.<
.(
!(
5.2
. i
.6
.0
.0
1.4
.0
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar.
Mexican
Norwegian . . .
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian..
Slovak
Slovenian...
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh
Grand total
15,704
40.7
61.3
60.3
38.0
3.8
12.7
.5
23.2
.6
VJ-— -
J
.1
_^-_j- ._•
.1
!i
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.4
.5
.4
.2
!e
.3
15.9
14.0
14.0
16.2
Total native-born of foreign
father
70(
1,900
13,804
3.0
3.1
3.9
11.2
12.4
12.8
,4
'.5
6.7
6.5
25.5
;i
Total native-born ..
Total foreign-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
416
The Immigration Commission.
One of the most striking contrasts exhibited by the foregoing table
is the greater dependence of native-born than of foreign-born families
exclusively upon the earnings of heads, 60.3 per cent of the former and
only 38 per cent of the latter relying entirely upon the wages of the
head of the family for their support. The totals as to the proportion
of families having an income from contributions of husbands and chil-
dren are about the same in the case of each nativity group, the large
extent to which children in the families of the races of old immigra-
tion contribute to the family support doubtless offsetting the almost
entire lack of such source of income in case of the families of southern
and eastern European immigrants. The fact already mentioned as
to the dependence of families the heads of which were foreign-born
upon the contributions of boarders or lodgers is even more strikingly
set forth in the table under discussion than in the one preceding, 25.5
per cent of the foreign-born families as contrasted with only 6.5 per
cent of the total native-born having an income entirely from husbands
and boarders or lodgers. As regards the families of the several races,
the tendencies exhibited may be more quickly seen by the division
of the families the heads of which were foreign-born into two groups,
according to whether the heads were of old or recent arrival in the
United States. In making this division only the principal races and
sources of income are considered.
TABLE 62. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to source of family income
of the foreign-born, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Race.
Per cent of families having entire income
from—
Husband.
Husband
and
children.
Husband
and
boarders
and
lodgers.
Unspeci-
fied
sources.
Old immigration:
Canadian, French. . .
32.7
41.3
37.3
33.2
46.2
38.2
35.6
29.6
69.0
34.3
51.2
38.8
54.4
41.0
39.7
28.7
32.1
35.8
29.5
20.3
43.4
27.8
8.6
44.0
48.5
28.9
29.6
25.9
22.6
26.5
26.9
26.0
26.7
8.2
.0
3.8
14.0
8.2
17.7
7.4
9.3
5.0
4.8
8.5
14.3
.0
2.6
5.8
.0
7.8
9.2
9.9
6.3
7.1
9.6
6.4
.0
4.1
2.2
14.3
10.3
52.0
9.3
18.4
13.9
27.3
26.5
43.7
43.5
37.7
7.4
65.2
46.1
41.7
79.3
29.3
29.4
16.2
14.3
14.0
23.2
20.0
19.2
26.0
26.7
27.6
13.8
8.4
11.6
16.3
9.7
17.8
14.2
19.7
14.3
13.2
26.4
11.6
6.6
15.6
5.2
, 14.7
6.1
14.8
English
German
Irish
Norwegian
Scotch"
Welsh
New immigration:
Armenian
Brava
Croatian
Cuban
Greek
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese ...
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Syrian ... ...
The above comparison emphasizes the differences already noted in
the discussion for the nativity groups. It is worthy of note, however,
that the families or members of races of old immigration from Great
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
417
Britain and northern Europe receive a greater proportion of the
family income from the earnings of heads, the contributions of chil-
dren, and unspecified sources, while the southern and eastern Euro-
peans derive their income mainly from the earnings of husbands and
the contributions of boarders or lodgers. That contributions of chil-
dren are less general in the latter class of families is probably due to
the fact that children of these households have not in any consider-
able proportions reached working age. The fact that a larger pro-
portion of old than of more recent immigrant families depend upon
sources of income other than those specified arises from the fact that
the former have been in the United States for a longer period of time
and have consequently entered into more diversified occupations.
THE IMMIGRANT AND ORGANIZED LABOR.
The extent to which industrial workers are members of labor organ-
izations is set forth in the following table, which shows, by general
nativity and race of individual, affiliation with trade unions of 24,594
males in the households studied who were 21 years of age or over and
who were working for wages:
TABLE 63. — Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are
for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
working
General nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Affiliated with trade
unions.
Number.
Per cent.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,273
162
60
88
14
1
6
2
36
84
1
3
5
348
9
480
6
3
4
4
5
128
7
3
11
23
2
56
21
181
537
1
49
605
573
923
177
29
6
20
5
13.9
17.9
10.0
22.7
•1
o)
°> .0
7.1
° UA
!a
a
i
6.3
II
8.9
19.0
22.1
4.8
.0
.2
23.2
4.7
Negro
Native-born of foreign fa
Bohemian and Mora-*
Canadian, French
her, by race of father:
rian
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
3
Danish
Dutch
English
6
Finnish. . .
Flemish
French
German
49
Hebrew . . .
Irish...
82
Italian, North
Italian, South. ..
Lithuanian
3
2
Magyar
Norwegian
Polish
8
Portuguese
Ruthenian
1
2
3
Scotch
Slovak... .
Slovenian
Swedish...
5
4
40
26
1
Welsh .
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Mora1
Bosnian
nan
Brava .
Bulgarian
1
133
43
Canadian, French
Croatian
« Not computed, owing to small number involved.
418
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 63. — Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working
for wages, by general nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Affiliated with trade
unions.
i
Number.
Per cent.
Foreign-born — Continued .
44
14
152
524
185
60
169
1,101
700
2
761
724
' 881
2,428
71
1,408
76
1,501
56
1
27
3,280
297
141
150
684
165
160
1,706
204
54
515
257
282
100
10
2
3
87
22.7
(a)
2.0
16.6
.0
5.0
11.2
4.6
5.9
(a)
21.4
14.8
39.8
10.6
.0
35.3
.0
9.7
100.0
(a)
3.7
9.5
2.7
.0
24.7
21.1
17.6
.0
13.7
1.5
22 2
9^3
5.4
.0
39.0
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
3
19
51
41
French
German
Greek
Gypsy
Hebrew .
163
107
351
258
Irish . .
Italian North
Italian. South
Japanese
Lithuanian
497
Macedonian .
Magyar
146
56
Mexican
Montenegrin
Norwegian
1
313
8
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
37
144
29
Ruthenian
Scotch ..
Servian
Slovak
234
3
12
48
14
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian .
Turkish
Welsh
39
Grand total
24,594
3,325
199~
405
2,920
13.5
iZi
14.2
13.4
Total native-born of foreign father
1,410
2,845
21, 749
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the preceding table, it is seen that only a very
small proportion, amounting to but 13.5 per cent, of the total number
of wage-earners studied were members of labor organizations. A
very slightly greater proportion, less than 1 per cent, of the native-
born than of the foreign-born, and only one-half of 1 per cent more
of the native-born white of native father than of the foreign-born,
were affiliated with labor unions. Of the wage-earners native-born
of foreign father, the French Canadians, who are largely employed in
the more skilled occupations of the cotton and woolen mills, show the
highest degree of membership in labor organizations, followed, in the
order named, by the Welsh, Irish, Germans, Slovaks, Swedes, English,
Poles, and Bohemians and Moravians. The large proportion of negro
unionists is not due to any special tendency on the part of this race
to affiliate with labor organizations, but to the fact that the greater
proportion of the small number of negroes for whom information
was received were miners in unionized localities.
Of the wage-earners of foreign birth, the showing of the Cubans and
Spanish are representative of these races only in the cigar and tobacco
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
419
factories in the South. The exhibit made by the Mexicans is also
due to the fact that all the members of this race for whom information
appears in the table were coal miners in the Southwest and had to
join the labor unions before they could secure work. The comparative
tendencies exhibited by the races of the older immigration from Great
Britain and northern Europe, and of the more recent arrivals from
southern and eastern Europe, are set forth in the following statement :
TABLE 64. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to affiliation of the foreign-
born with trade unions, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Per cent
Per cent
affiliated
affiliated
Old immigration.
with
trade
New immigration.
with
trade
unions.
unions.
Canadian, French
23.2
Croatian .
4.7
Dutch :
2.0
Greek
5.9
English
16.6
Hebrew.
21.4
German. . .
4.6
Italian, North
39.8
Irish
14.8
Italian, South.
10.6
Scotch
17.6
Lithuanian
35.3
Swedish
9.3
Magyar
9.7
Welsh
39.0
Polish
9.5
Portuguese
2.7
Russian
24.7
Ruthenian
21.1
Slovak
13.7
Slovenian
1.5
Syrian •
5.4
These figures must not, however, be taken as representative of
racial tendencies except in a few cases, for the reason that the
information shown for one race may be for but one or two industries
in which the race is employed and which are so controlled by labor
organizations that membership in the labor unions is necessary to
secure employment. On the other hand, a race or several races may
be employed in an industry or industries in which no labor unions
exist. For example, the North Italians, who are extensively engaged
in bituminous coal mining, are principally employed in the Middle
West and Southwest, where the labor forces are controlled by the
labor unions. On the other hand, the Slovaks are employed in largest
numbers in the bituminous mines or coke plants of western Pennsyl-
vania, where the influence of labor organizations is slight. The fact
that certain races are most extensively employed in highly unionized
localities and industries is indicative of comparatively greater assimi-
lation and progressiveness on the part of the members of such races.
For a more satisfactory study of racial tendencies in this respect,
however, reference must be made to the situation among the wage-
earners in each industry where the variations in conditions of employ-
ment are unimportant.
RENT IN ITS RELATION TO STANDARD OF LIVING.
The rent payments made by the households studied the heads of
which were wage-earners afford a valuable insight into the cost of
living, but they are chiefly significant in their bearing upon standards
and methods of living. Of the total number of 13,122 households
studied which rented their apartments, the following table shows, by
420
The Immigration Commission.
general nativity and race of head of household, the average .rent
payments monthly per apartment, per room, and per person:
TABLE 65. — Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Number of
households
Av
erage rent pe
r —
General nativity and race of head of household.
paying rent
and report-
ing amount.
Apartment.
Room.
Person.
Native-born of native father:
White ....
862
111. 55
$2.24
$2.81
Negro
140
4.34
1.59
1.25
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian . .
7
(a)
(a)
(a)
Canadian, French
18
13.25
2.59
2.25
Canadian, Other
11
10.95
2.41
2.46
Dutch
3
(a)
(a)
(0)
English
23
11.46
2.09
2.42
German. .
151
11.58
2.1,8
2.86
Irish
248
12.16
2.29
2.46
Polish
51
8.38
1.95
1.93
Foreign-born:
Armenian
109
11.17
2.34
2.25
Bohemian and Moravian
170
7.72
2.06
1.71
Brava
30
7.41
1.95
1.99
Bulgarian
135
5.91
2.47
.97
Canadian, French
464
9.84
2.01
1.70
Croatian .'
460
8.55
2.10
1.09
Cuban
41
11.70
2.46
2.47
Danish
10
10.20
1.96
2.49
Dutch....
42
7.49
1.39
1.45
English
380
10.40
2.08
2.34
Finnish
62
5.33
1.44
1.34
Flemish
45
7.59
2.08
1.76
French
105
7.43
1.79
1.98
German. . .
549
10.06
2.12
1.98
Greek
223
9.02
2.19
1.47
Hebrew
690
11.81
3.04
2.26
Irish
505
10.47
2.06
1.97
Italian, North
458
7.66
2.03
1.40
Italian, South
1,256
8.64
2.34
1.58
Japanese
2
(a)
(a)
(a)
Lithuanian
637
8 81
220
1.47
Macedonian
12
5.53
2.46
.78
Magyar
774
8.27
2.30
1.30
Mexican
36
4 58
1 63
97
Norwegian . .
13
6.81
1.12
1.15
Polish
1,679
7 30
2 00
1.24
Portuguese
202
8.53
1.84
1.31
Roumanian
71
12.86
2.63
1.02
Russian
72
7 46
2 26
1.27
Ruthenian
488
7.61
2.20
1.15
Scotch
89
12.19
2 48
2.41
Servian
66
9 78
1 99
1 03
Slovak
1,064
6.84
1.92
1.18
Slovenian
128
7.96
2 03
1.44
Spanish
36
11 69
2 29
2 49
Swedish
265
11.03
2 22
2.38
Syrian
147
9.80
2 38
2 09
Turkish
50
13 70
2 18
1 54
Welsh
43
10.45
1.98
1.97
Grand total
13 122
8 96
2 17
1 60
Total native-born of foreign father
512
11.50
2 23
2 50
Total native-born
1 514
10 86
2 20
2 58
Total foreign-born
11,608
8.72
2 16
1.51
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
In the foregoing table it is seen that the highest average monthly
rents per apartment, per room, and per person are paid by the house-
holds the heads of which were native-born white persons of native
father. The monthly rent payments per apartment and per room of the
households the heads of which were of native birth but of foreign father
are practically the same as those of the households the heads of which
were of native birth and of native father, but the monthly rent out-
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
421
lay per capita is somewhat smaller in the former class of households
than in the latter.
Without the presence of any disturbing factors, the monthly rents
per apartment and per room would be indicative of standards of
living. It may be, however, that a high monthly rental is paid for
an apartment, but a large number of persons live in it. On the other
hand, in the case of the housing facilities in connection with some
such industry as mining, the company-house system may be followed,
and the only houses available consist of those upon which a fixed
charge per room is made, the rental for any house being dependent
upon the number of its rooms. Under these conditions the rent per
person is the only criterion of standard of living.
As a matter of fact, in the case of the greater numBer of industries,
the households the heads of which are of foreign birth adopt the
practice of crowding as large a number of persons as is possible into the
apartment or rooms in order to reduce the average outlay per person.
As a consequence, the average monthly rent per capita affords an
indication of the congestion and of the living arrangements not
obtainable from the other two rent classifications. A striking illus-
tration of this situation may be seen in the case of the Turkish house-
holds in the table. The monthly rent paid by the households of this
race averages $13.70 per apartment ana $2.18 per room, but the rent
each month per capita is only $1.54, plainly indicating that a large
number of persons are crowded into the apartments and rooms. The
higher standard of living and smaller degree of congestion in
households the heads of which were born in Great Britain and north-
ern Europe, as compared with those of southern and eastern Europe,
is exhibited by the following classification of some of the leading facts
of the table. The average rent payments monthly per capita of the
foreign-born of some of the principal races of the old immigration
were as follows:
Canadian, French $1. 70
Danish 2. 49
Dutch 1. 45
English 2. 34
German.. 1.98
Irish $1. 97
Scotch 2.41
Swedish 2. 38
Welsh.. 1.97
From the above showing it is seen that of the races from Canada,
Great Britain, and northern Europe, the smallest degree of conges-
tion and highest standard of living is exhibited by the Danish,
Scotch, Swedish, and English households. A considerably lower
standard is indicated by the Irish, Germans, and Welsh. The French
Canadians fall greatly below the three last-named races. The contrast
afforded by the comparison of the monthly rent payments per person
of the foreign-born 01 the southern and eastern European and oriental
races is as follows :
Armenian $2. 25
Brava 1. 99
Bulgarian 97
Croatian 1. 09
Greek 1.47
Hebrew 2 26
Italian, North 1. 40
Italian, South 1. 58
Lithuanian 1.47
Macedonian 78
Magyar 1. 30
Mexican $0. 97
Polish 1. 24
Portuguese 1. 31
Roumanian 1. 02
Russian 1. 27
Ruthenian 1. 15
Servian 1. 03
Slovak 1.18
Slovenian 1. 44
Syrian 2. 09
Turkish 1.54
422 The Immigration Commission.
With the exception of the Armenian, Brava, Hebrew, and Syrian
households, which approach the figures of the older immigrants in
their monthly rent payments per person, the lower standard of living
of the southern and eastern European and oriental races is apparent.
This is especially noticeable in the case of the Croatians, Macedonians,
Bulgarians, Mexicans, Roumanians, Servians, and Slovaks. The
tendencies toward congestion and its effect upon living arrangements
thus indicated become more manifest in the discussion of the subse-
quent tabulations having to do with the number of persons in apart-
ments, rooms, and sleeping rooms of the households studied.
BOARDERS AND LODGERS.
One of the most significant features in connection with the house
holds the heads of which were of recent immigration, as compared
with the households of the older immigrants or native Americans,
is the almost entire absence of a separate or independent family life.
The system of living which prevails in the southern and eastern
European households among the wage-earners in any branch of min-
ing or manufacturing in any section of the country, is that of the
boarding group. This method of domestic economy is termed in the
idiom of industrial communities, the " boarding-boss system." It
consists of a living arrangement under which the head, usually a
married man, assumes charge of the household, and the boarders or
lodgers, numbering from 2 to 20, pay a fixed amount monthly for
lodging, cooking, and washing. The food for the household is usually
purchased by the head, each member of the group reimbursing the
head for the specific articles bought for his consumption; or the total
cost of the food consumed is divided equally each week or month
among the members composing the group. Many variations upon
this arrangement are met with, but some form of it constitutes the
method of living usually followed by recent immigrant households.
The wife of the head, or some woman employed by him or the group,
does the cooking, washing, and housework. This group system of
living, which causes congestion and insanitary conditions, and renders
impossible any satisfactory form of family life, is made possible by
the low standards of the recent immigrants and by their desire to live
as cheaply as possible, or, in the case of families, to supplement the
earnings of the head as an industrial worker. In native American
families, or those whose heads are native-born of native father,
when boarders or lodgers are kept as a source of additional income
the payment of a fixed rate of a specified amount for board during a
certain period is the plan adopted. This class of families, however,
usually derives its supplementary income from the earnings of the
children. Of the total number of 17,171 families studied, the table
next presented shows, by general nativity and race of head of house-
hold, the number and percentage which had boarders or lodgers.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
423
iers, by general
TABLE 66. — Number and per cent of households keeping boarders or
nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[Information relating to boarders or lodgers covers only immediate time of taking schedule and not the
entire year. Boarders are persons who receive both board and lodging.]
General nativity and race of head of household.
Total num-
ber of
households.
Households keeping
boarders or lodgers.
Number.
Per cent.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142-
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
3
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
114
6
1
7
3
2
5
15
42
4
25
44
9
17
78
367
4
2
9
59
10
14
14
154
15
138
108
223
512
10.0
4.1
4.0
(a)
(a)
(a)
13.2
6.6
13.4
5.1
20.8
8.8
30.0
12.2
15.4
59.5
9.3
10.0
6.3
12.8
7.0
16.5
9.6
16.2
6.6
18.4
14.8
34.2
33.5
(0)
57.6
(0)
53.6
21.4
3.8
48.4
25.9
77.9
54.7
56.9
8.9
92.8
36.0
32.8
17.9
12.0
30.9
2.0
14.9
Negro . .
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Dutch
English
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian French
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German ....:
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
456
Macedonian
Magyar
488
9
1
1,020
60
60
41
302
12
64
475
57
7
58
51
1
14
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish . . .
Swedish.
Syrian
Turkish ...
Welsh
Grand total
17, 171
5,177
30.1
Total native-born of foreign father
727
2,014
15, 127
79
199
4,978
10.9
9.9
32.9
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
In the foregoing table it is seen that only 10 per cent of the house-
holds the heads of which were native-born white persons of native
father and 10.9 per cent of the households the heads of which were
of native birth out of foreign father have boarders or lodgers, as
424
The Immigration Commission.
contrasted with 32.9 per cent of the households the heads of which
were of foreign birth. Moreover, the showing for the total number
of households the heads of which were foreign-born is rendered
more favorable than it would be if limited to the households of recent
immigration by the small percentage of boarders or lodgers in the
households of older immigrants. The relative extent to which
boarders or lodgers are kept by southern and eastern European and
Brftish and northern European immigrant households is strikingly
shown by the following percentages taken from the foregoing tabula-
tion, representing the principal races of both classes of immigrants:
TABLE 67. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to the keeping of boarders
or lodgers in households of the foreign-born, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Old immigration
Per cent
keeping
boarders
or lodg-
ers.
New immigration.
Per cent
keeping
boarders
or lodg-
ers.
Canadian, French
15 4
Armenian
20 8
Danish
10 0
Brava
30 0
Dutch
6.3
Bulgarian
12.2
English
12 8
Croatian
59 5
German
16 2
Greek
6 6
Irish
14.8
Hebrew
18 4
Norwegian
3 8
Italian, North...
34 2
Scotch
8 9
Italian, South
33 5
Swedish
12 0
Lithuanian
57 6
Welsh
14 9
Magyar
53 6
Polish . . .
48 4
Portuguese
25 9
Roumanian
77.9
Russian
54 7
Ruthenian
56.9
Servian
92 8
Slovak
36 0
Slovenian
32 8
Syrian
30 9
Turkish
2 0
None of the races of older immigration show as large a proportion
as one-fifth of their households with boarders or lodgers, while more
than one-fourth of the Brava, Portuguese, Slovenian, and Syrian
households, more than one-third of the North and South Italian,
Polish, and Slovak, and more than one-half of the Croatian, Lithua-
nian, Magyar, Roumanian, Russian, Ruthenian, and Servian house-
holds, have boarders or lodgers. By far the largest proportion of
households with boarders or lodgers is exhibited by the Servians,
with 92.8 per cent of such households, followed by the Roumanians,
with 77.9 per cent.
The real significance of this situation in its bearing upon conges-
tion and living conditions does not become fully apparent, however,
until the next table is presented. This shows, by general nativity
and race of head of household, the average number of boarders or
lodgers per household. Two sets of averages are computed. The
first is based upon the total number of households studied and the
second is restricted to the number of households keeping boarders or
lodgers.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 425
TABLE 68. — Average number of boarders or lodgers per household, by general nativity and
race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[Information relating to boarders or lodgers covers only immediate time of taking schedule and not the
entire year. Boarders are persons who receive both board and lodging.}
General nativity and race of head of house-
hold.
Total
number of
households.
Number of
households
keeping
boarders
or lodgers.
Number of
boarders
or lodgers.
Average number of
boarders or lodgers
per household —
Based on
total num-
ber of
households.
Based on
number of
households
keeping
boarders
or lodgers.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1.530
3
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
114
6
1
7
3
2
5
15
42
4
25
44
9
17
78
367
4
2
9
59
10
14
14
154
15
138
108
223
512
191
12
1
8
3
2
9
28
64
5
49
62
24
141
189
2,344
6
2
9
109
39
34
26
487
27
193
182
773
1,569
0.17
.08
.04
.44
.25
.12
.24
.12
.20
.06
.41
.12
.80
1.01
.37
3.80
.14
.10
.06
.24
.27
.40
.18
.51
.12
.26
% .25
1.18
1.03
(a)
1.59
.00
2,43
.36
.08
1.46
1.36
9.53
2.20
1.77
.13
6.72
1.16
1.23
.38
.24
1.05
.48
.30
1.68
(a)
(:|
1
W1.S7
1.52
(a)
1.96
1.41
(a).
8.29
2.42
6.39
(a)
(a)
(a)
1.85
3.90
2.43
1.86
3.16
1.80
1.40
1.69
3.47
3.06
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other...
Dutch
English
German . . .
Irish...
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian. .
Brava
Bulgarian.
Canadian, French . .
Croatian
Cuban
Danish..
Dutch
English..
Finnish
Flemish..
French
German
Greek
Hebrew ....
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
456
1,258
2.76
Macedonian ....
Magyar
488
9
1
1,020
60
60
41
302
12
64
475
57
7
58
51
1
14
2,212
15
2
3,066
316
734
165
942
18
464
1,530
214
15
117
173
24
28
4.53
(a)
(a)
3.01
5.27
12.23
4.02
3.12
1.50
7.25
3.22
3.75
W,02
3.39
(a)
2.00
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian. . .
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish..
Syrian
Turkish...
Welsh
Grand total '.
17,141
5,177
17,881
1.04
3.45
Total native-born of foreign father. ..
727
2,014
15, 127
79
199
4,978
120
323
17,558
.16
.16
1.16
1.52
1.62
3.53
Total native-born
Total foreign-born . .
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
72289°— VOL 1—11 28
426
The Immigration Commission.
Upon reference to the table, it is seen that the households the
heads of which were native-born white persons of native father have
only 168 boarders or lodgers to each 100 households (based on the
number of households keeping boarders and lodgers), and the total
number of households the heads of which were native-born whites of
foreign father have only 152 boarders or lodgers for each 100 house-
holds, as contrasted with 353 boarders or lodgers for each 100 house-
holds the heads of which were of foreign birth. Upon comparing
the races of recent and past immigration among the households the
heads of which were foreign-born, the larger number of boarders or
lodgers in the households of the former is at once apparent. The
showing made by the principal races of each follows:
TABLE 69. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to number of boarders or
lodgers to each 100 households of the foreign-born keeping boarders or lodgers, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Old immigration.
Number
of
boarders
or lodgers.
New immigration.
Number
of
boarders
or lodgers.
English
185
Armenian
196
316
Bulgarian
829
Irish
169
Croatian
639
Scotch
150
Greek
180
Swedish
202
Hebrew
140
Welsh
200
Italian, North
347
Italian, South
306
Lithuanian .< .
276
453
Polish
301
Portuguese . .
527
1,223
Russian
402
Ruthenian
312
Servian
725
Slovak
322
Slovenian
375
Syrian
339
Among the races of old immigration, the Germans exhibit by far
the largest number of boarders or lodgers per 100 households. Of the
races of recent immigration, the Hebrew is the only race approaching
the situation among the native-born households. The Greek house-
holds show a small average number among those keeping boarders
or lodgers, but as practically all Greek households are boarding
groups, which class of household does not appear in this table, the
showing for the race is more favorable than it would otherwise be.
SIZE OF APARTMENTS.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race of
head of household, the per cent of households occupyirg apartments
of each specified number of rooms.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
427
TABLE 70.— Per cent of households occupying apartments of each specified number of
rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race of
head of household.
Total
number
of house-
holds.
Average
number
of rooms
per
apart-
ment.
Per cent of households occupying apartments of
each specified number of rooms.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 or
more.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,139
148
25
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
«139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
791
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
5.37
2.78
5.08
5.76
5.70
5.56
4.61
4.83
4.35
3.80
2.41
4.99
4.01
4.70
5.60
5.84
5.17
3.60
4.27
4.45
5.11
4.13
3.94
5.37
3.89
3.84
4.08
3.75
2.86
6.04
3.82
4.84
4.84
3.35
3.61
5.02
4.88
3.62
4.06
5.15
5.34
4.19
6.28
5.46
0.4
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
33.1
.0
1.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.1
.0
.7
.3
1.3
.3
.0
.8
1.7
.6
1.9
.0
.0
.9
.0
5.2
1.3
.9
.0
4.3
.8
5.7
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
2.3
51.4
.0
.0
1.3
.3
1.3
.8
7.4
16.7
41.0
.4
10.7
.0
.0
.7
1.3
24.6
14.1
13.0
2.1
17.7
6.0
1.0
8.0
18.3
4.8
10.9
31.0
.0
11.5
2.2
5.2
17.3
12.2
.0
.0
15.3
11.5
.0
.0
7.9
.0
1.1
6.6
20.9
16.0
.0
3.1
4.5
12.8
10.8
18.6
10.0
5.0
7.7
18.8
11.6
.0
2.1
8.2
29.6
12.9
13.0
8.3
11.1
30.0
6.0
28.3
22.5
26.7
30.1
52.4
3.8
26.1
18.1
9.1
34.7
35.6
9.6
2.9
27.8
21.8
2.6
4.3
26.7
.0
11.7
19.7
25.0
20.0
21.1
16.8
16.3
44.9
35.8
35.7
53.3
10.1
27.9
38.6
25.6
10.0
7.6
23.6
19.0
31.8
24.7
28.8
31.4
39.4
21.1
39.7
29.7
36.4
34.9
16.7
11.5
38.7
27.2
24.7
40.0
37.7
18.5
27.5
41.0
29.3
20.5
27.0
33.3
20.0
16.0
27.4
1.4
12.0
23.7
24.3
34.8
17.9
30.0
13.8
16.7
1.4
37.2
17.7
44.2
35.0
37.5
30.4
6.3
18.8
23.3
24.6
23.0
15.2
31.3
15.5
14.6
19.1
14.9
.0
30.8
15.3
32.3
22.1
5.3
7.5
43.7
37.7
9.8
11.5
43.6
29.9
20.0
16.0
19.1
22.6
.0
44.0
34.2
30.1
22.4
12.8
12.5
19.8
3.3
2.9
19.0
8.8
18.6
45.0
22.2
20.2
17.6
17.6
19.2
19.5
9.7
6.7
21.5
5.8
9.7
10.6
5.3
.0
15.4
5.3
9.1
19.5
1.3
4.3
20.7
17.4
4.2
12.6
28.2
22.1
7.3
38.0
30.9
21.2
.7
8.0
21.1
24.3
21.7
10.3
10.0
4.6
.0
5.8
7.9
4.4
.0
10.0
29.9
16.3
.7
4.7
6.2
16.4
5.8
2.4
19.2
2.0
3.5
1.8
2.1
.0
38.5
2.3
11.2
14.3
.0
1.7
7.4
10.1
1.1
7.5
5.1
16.7
4.2
26.0
21.3
Negro ...
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
English
German. ...
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French . . .
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese. .
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian .
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish..
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh..
Grand total. .
a 17, 141
4.34
1.0
8.8
19.0
31.3
19.6
12.4
7.8
Total native-born of foreign
father
727
2,014
a 15, 127
5.48
5.22
4.22
.0
.2
1.2
.7
5.3
9.3
5.2
7.1
20.5
20.5
20.4
32.8
27.8
25.6
18.8
25.4
21.9
11.1
20.4
19.4
6.2
Total native-born
Total foreign-born . .
a Including 1 apartment not reporting number of rooms.
The largest proportion, or 31.3 per cent, of the 17,141 households
included in the foregoing table occupy apartments of 4 rooms; prac-
tically the same proportions, or 19 per cent and 19.6 per cent respec-
tively, occupy apartments of 3 and 5 rooms; 12.4 per cent occupy
apartments of 6 rooms; 8.8 per cent and 7.8 per cent, respectively,
occupy apartments of 2 and 7 or more rooms; and 1 per cent occupy
428 The Immigration Commission.
apartments of only 1 room. The average number of rooms
per apartment is 4.34. It is seen that considerably over 50
per cent of the households the heads of which were either native
white of native father or native-born of foreign father, as compared
with 36.1 per cent of those the heads of which were foreign-born and
only 8.4 per cent of those the heads of which were native negro of
native father, occupy apartments of 5 rooms or more, while only 29
per cent of the households the heads of which were native white of
native father and 26.4 per cent of those the heads of which were
native-born of foreign father, as compared with 63.8 per cent of
those households the heads of which were foreign-born and 98 per
cent of those the heads of which were native negro of native
father, occupy apartments of 4 rooms or less. The proportion of
households the heads of which were native negro of native father
occupying apartments of 2 rooms is noticeably large (51.4 per
cent) as compared with slightly less than 10 per cent of those the
heads of which were foreign-born, and less than 5 per cent of those
the heads of which were native-born of either native father white or
foreign father.
Considering by race the households the heads of which were foreign-
born, it is seen that those the heads of which were Bulgarians, Slo-
venians, or Roumanians, with 33.1, 5.7, and 5.2 per cent, respectively,
are the only ones at least 5 per cent of which occupy apartments of
1 room, several races having no households so reported. None of
those households the heads of which were Cubans, Danes, Norwegians,
Scotch, Spaniards, Swedes, or Turks occupy apartments of less than
3 rooms, and none of those the heads of which were Danes or
Turks occupy apartments of less than 4 rooms. Over 50 per cent of
the households the heads of which were Armenians, French Canadians,
Cubans, Danes, Dutch, English, Germans, Irish, Norwegians, Portu-
guese, Roumanians, Scotch, Servians, Spaniards, Swedes, Turks, or
Welsh occupy apartments of 5 rooms or more; and those the heads
of which were Danes, Dutch, Norwegians, Turks, or Welsh show
over 50 per cent occupying apartments of 6 rooms or more. Over 25
per cent of the households the heads of which were Dutch, Nor-
wegians, or Turks occupy apartments of 7 or more rooms. None
of She households the heads of which were Mexicans, less than 10 per
cent of those the heads of which were Russians, and 10.1 per cent and
15.1 per cent, respectively, of those the heads of which were Bulga-
rians or Slovaks, occupy apartments of 5 or more rooms.
The fact that the households the heads of which were Roumanians
or Turks show large proportions occupying apartments of 4 rooms
or more may give the idea that these households are commodious.
This idea is dispelled to a certain extent by a reference to the table
showing the average number of persons per household.
SIZE OF HOUSEHOLDS.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race of
head of household, the per cent of households of each specified number
of persons.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
429
TABLE 71. — Per cent of households of each specified number of persons, by general nativity
and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and
race of head of
household.
Total
num-
ber of
house-
holds.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
house-
hold.
Per cent of households of each specified number of persons.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10 or
more.
Mati ve-born of native
father:
White...
1,139
148
25
38
-226
313
78
120
501
30
o!39
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
791
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
4.15
3.62
.56
.58
.11
.98
.55
4.98
5.14
3.73
6.19
5.82
7.65
4.65
4.05
5.68
4.52
4.92
4.66
3.90
5.19
6.13
5.27
5.45
5.50
5.65
5.89
6.44
4.67
5.88
6.06
6.68
12.47
5.93
6.66.
5.40
9.62
5.87
5.82
4.82
4.90
4.80
8.92
5.26
0.0
2.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
' 1.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
Wo
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
18.2
35.1
16.0
10.5
13.7
11.8
11.5
10.0
7.6
26.7
9.4
6.1
7.5
11.6
20.0
8.3
17.4
11.3
5.9
27.4
12.1
4.4
6.7
8.5
8.4
8.6
5.8
6.8
14.3
3.8
6.1
5.6
5.2
14.7
2.1
8.1
2.9
6.6
12.1
7.7
9.1
7.3
.0
10.6
27.1
24.3
20.0
23.7
26.1
16.9
20.5
22.5
15.2
26.7
13.7
12.8
7.9
30.2
15.0
9.7
19.3
21.8
25.9
21.2
17.8
12.4
16.0
12.3
16.2
15.2
10.1
10.5
16.7
15.4
10.8
9.5
9.1
13.3
8.5
14.8
7.2
12.1
16.1
23.1
18.4
23.0
.0
8.5
20.5
10.8
20.0
26.3
26.1
17.9
20.5
15.8
20.0
23.3
15.1
16.6
9.6
11.6
40.0
16.7
18.4
23.2
17.6
20.5
16.2
11.9
18.0
17.6
17.2
15.8
12.3
14.3
19.0
3.8
12.7
16.8
6.5
12.0
10.2
14.8
1.4
14.9
11.5
17.9
20.2
21.8
4.0
19.1
13.4
10.1
16.0
10.5
16.8
17.3
23.1
16.7
21.0
13.3
16.5
15.8
11.0
14.0
10.0
11.1
15.4
11.3
18.8
11.6
15.9
13.3
16.4
17.8
14.7
12.9
19.5
14.4
23.8
30.8
15.3
15.1
2.6
9.3
13.4
21.5
4.3
15.2
11.5
20.5'
18.8
18.2
10.0
18.1
8.6
8.8
4.0
10.5
8.0
12.8
9.0
15.0
12.0
3.3
6.5
11.7
10.9
16.3
5.0
19.4
11.7
9.2
14.1
9.6
12.4
16.8
17.5
15.0
14.1
13.6
15.5
10.9
7.1
7.7
16.0
13.8
2.6
14.7
14.1
14.1
5.8
14.9
13.2
10.3
12.6
13.3
26.0
18.1
6.1
4.7
12.0
5.3
6.2
8.9
9.0
5.0
9.8
.0
7.2
12.1
8.9
4.7
5.0
13.9
9.8
7.7
8.2
6.2
10.0
12.4
10.0
10.7
8.9
12.0
13.0
11.2
7.1
11.5
12.6
9.9
5.2
9.3
15.1
8.1
5.8
12.1
8.0
10.3
9.3
6.7
4.0
9.6
3.3
.7
12.0
10.5
.4
7.0
2.6
5.8
7.6
3.3
9.4
10.5
9.6
4.7
.0
9.0
4.1'
4.9
5.9
1.4
5.7
10.6
8.4
6.6
7.2
8.2
11.1
8.2
9.5
15.4
10.1
10.3
1.3
6.7
14.1
8.9
15.9
10.3
6.9
5.1
7.0
4.2
14.0
9.6
1.8
2.7
.0
2.6
1.3
4.2
2.6
4.2
3.6
.0
6.5
6.5
8.1
2.3
5.0
5.6
2.2
7.0
2.4
1.4
3.7
7.5
3.7
5.1
4.1
5.8
6.1
6.8
.0
.0
6.4
4.7
6.5
8.0
12.1
2.2
8.7
5.5
6.9
2.6
2.9
1.2
6.0
4.3
0.9
.7
.0
.0
.9
3.2
1.3
5.0
3.4
3.3
14.4
7.9
26.6
4.7
.0
6.3
1.7
3.5
.0
.7
6.0
10.6
3.2
6.4
8.7
7.9
6.6
16.9
2.4
11.5
9.8
14.2
61.0
12.0
10.5
7.4
47.8
8.4
13.8
2.6
1.9
3.6
36.0
2.1
Negro
Nrative-born of for-
eign father, by race
of father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
English
German.
Irish...
Polish...
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and
Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian,French.
Croatian
Cuban
Danish..
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew . . .
Irish
Italian, North . . .
Italian, South. . .
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian . . .
Polish... .
Portuguese.
Roumanian
Russian.
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish...
Syrian
Turkish...
Welsh...
Grand total....
Total native-born of
foreign father
«17, 141
5.63
••..•••
4.62
4.28
5.81
.1
9.1
14.9
15.7
15.2
17.5
14.6
15.3
13.3
11.0
9.5
13.8
10.4
8.0
5.1
8.2
727
2,014
ol5, 127
.1
.2
W
12.4
17.3
8.0
20.8
24.6
13.6
20.8
19.9
15.2
8.1
6.8
10.9
4.5
3.6
8.6
2.9
2.2
5.5
1.9
1.2
9.1
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Including 1 household not reporting number of rooms.
b Less than 0.05 per cent.
430
The Immigration Commission.
The preceding table shows that, of 17,141 households studied, the
largest proportion, or 15.7 per cent, are composed of 4 persons. The
proportions of those composed of 5, 3, and 6 persons follow in the
order named, while 10.4 per cent are composed of 7 persons, 9.1 per
cent of 2 persons, 8.2 per cent of 10 or more persons, 8 per cent of 8
persons, and 5.1 per cent of 9 persons. Only 0.1 per cent are com-
posed of 1 person.
It is seen that the proportion of households composed of each
specified number of persons above 5 is largest among those the heads
of which were foreign-born, next largest among those the heads of
which were native-born of foreign father, and smallest among those
the heads of which were native-born of native father, either white
or negro ; those the heads of which were native white of native father
show the smallest proportions composed of 6 or 9 persons, while those
the heads of which were native negro of native father show the small-
est proportions composed of 7, 8, or 10 or more persons. Less than
1 per cent of the households of each nativity group except native
negro of native father, which shows 2 per cent, are composed of 1
person. Considering by race the households the heads of which were
foreign-born, it is seen that 67.5 per cent of the Roumanian, 56.5 per
cent of the Servian, 42 per cent of the Turkish, 34.7 per cent of the
Croatian, and over 15 per cent of the Bulgarian, Greek, Magyar, Polish,
Portuguese, Russian, Ruthenian, and Slovenian, are composed of 9
or more persons, as compared with less than 5 per cent of the English,
Mexican, Swedish, and Syrian households composed of this number
of persons, and 5 per cent of those the heads of which were Danish.
Less than 10 per cent of the Brava or Flemish households are com-
posed of more than 7 persons, and less than 10 per cent of the French
households are composed of more than 6 persons.
CONGESTION.
The following table shows, by general nativity and race of head
of household, the average number of persons per apartment, per
room, and per sleeping room:
TABLE 72. — Average number of persons per apartment, per room, and per sleeping room,
by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race of head of household.
Total num-
ber of
households.
Average number of persons per—
Apartment.
Boom.
Sleeping
room.
Native-born of native father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
4.15
3.62
4.56
5.89
4.50
4.29
4.58
4.11
4.98
4.55
0.77
1.30
.90
1.15
.95
.73
.80
.72
.90
.99
1.84
2.25
2.43
2.04
1.86
2.03
1.81
1.84
1.96
2.57
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Dutch
English
German. .
Irish .
Polish...
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
431
TABLE 72.— Average number of persons per apartment, per room, and per sleeping room,
by general nativity and race of head of household — Continued.
General nativity and race of head of household.
Total num-
ber of
households.
Average number of persons per—
Apartment.
Room.
Sleeping
room.
Foreign-born:
Armenian
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
3
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
4.98
5.14
3.73
6.19
5.82
7.65
4.65
4.05
5.68
4.52
4.92
4.66
3.90
5.19
6.13
5.27
5.45
5.50
5.65
(a)
5.89
7.08
6.44
4.67
5.88
6.06
6.68
12.47
5.93
6.66
5.40
9.62
5.87
5.82
4.82
4.90
4.80
8.92
5.26
1.03
1.18
.98
2.53
1.17
1.88
.99
.72
.97
.87
1.37
1.09
.88
1.02
1.48
1.36
1.02
1.42
1.47
(°\.«
3.15
1.72
1.63
.97
1.58
1.38
2.57
1.77
1.84
1.08
1.97
1.62
1.43
.94'
.92
1.15
1.42
.96
1.97
2.54
2.24
3.20
2.07
3.18
2.15
1.62
2.34
1.89
2.92
2.26
1.81
2.15
2.13
2.55
1.98
2.59
2.62
(°)
2.45
3.70
2.92
3.27
2.28
2.77
2.39
3.72
2.85
2.83
2.18
2.89
2.90
2.66
2.02
2.02
1.87
1.95
2.11
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava ... •
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian . . .
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English..
Finnish
Flemish
French.
German. . .
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese .
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican ....
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian . ,
Scotch...
Servian
Slovak. .
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Grand total
17,141
5.63
1.30
2.46
Total native-born of foreign father
727
2,014
15, 127
4.62
4.28
5.81
.85
.82
1.38
1.99
1.92
2.53
Total native-born. . . .
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
A comparison of the totals of the foregoing table discloses the
fact that the foreign-born households have a higher average number
of persons per apartment, per room, and per sleeping room than
have the native-born, whether of native or foreign father. The
contrast among the nativity groups is most marked in the aver-
age number of persons per room and per sleeping room. For each
100 rooms the foreign-born households have 138 persons, those the
heads of which were native-born of foreign father 85 persons, and
those the heads of which were native-born white of native father 77
432
The Immigration Commission.
persons. In the case of the sleeping rooms, tfhe households the heads
of which were foreign-born show 253 persons for each 100 sleeping
rooms, those the heads of which were native-born of foreign father
show 190 persons, and those native-born of native father white
show 184 persons. Among the households the heads of which were
native-born of foreign father the greatest degree of congestion per
sleeping room is indicated by the Polish, Bohemian and Moravian,
French Canadian, and Dutch races. Among the households the
heads of which were foreign-born the races of recent immigration
from eastern and southern Europe as a general rule show a higher
average number of persons per room and per sleeping room than
the households the heads of which were or old immigration from
Great Britain and northern Europe. The most crowded conditions
in the households are shown by the Bohemian and Moravian,
Bulgarian, Croatian, Macedonian, and Roumanian races. The con-
trast between the races of the old and the new immigration may
be more sharply set forth by a division of the several races on
the basis of the average number of persons per room and per
sleeping room, which is made in the table which immediately follows:
TABLE 73. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to average number of per-
sons per room and per sleeping room among the foreign-born, by race.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
Old immigration.
Average number
of persons per —
New immigration.
Average number
of persons per—
Room.
Sleeping
room.
Room.
Sleeping
room.
1.17
.97
.87
1.02
1.02
.97
1.08
.92
.96
2.07
2.34
1.89
2.15
1.98
2.28
2.18
2.02
2.11
Armenian
1.03
.98
2.53
1.88
1.48
1.36
1.42
1.47
1.44
3.15
1.72
1.58
1.38
2.57
1.77
1.84
1.97
1.62
1.43
1.15
1.42
1.97
2.24
3.20
3.18
2.13
2.55
2.59
2.62
2.45
3.70
2.92
2.77
2.39
3.72
2.85
2.83
2.89
2.90
2.66
1.87
1.95
Dutch
Brava..
English
Bulgarian
German .... ...
Croatian
Irish
Greek
Norwegian
Hebrew
Scotch
Italian, North
Swedish
Italian, South
Welsh
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Syrian
Turkish
The succeeding table shows, by general nativity and race of head
of household, the average number of persons per room and the num-
ber and per cent of households having each specified number of
persons per room.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
433
TABLE 74. — Persons per room, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race
of head of household.
Total
num-
ber of
house-
holds.
Average
number
of persons
per room.
Number of households hav-
ing each specified number
of persons per room.
Per cent of households hav-
ing each specified number
of persons per room.
lor
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
lor
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
Native-born of native
father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
3
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
0.77
1.30
* .90
1.15
.95
.73
.80
.72
.90
.99
1.03
1.18
.98
2.53
1.17
1.88
.99
.72
.97
.87
1.37
' 1.09
.88
1.02
1.48
1.36
1.02
1.42
1.47
(a)
1.44
3.15
1.72
1.63
.97
1.58
1.38
2.57
1.77
1.84
1.08
1.97
1.62
1.43
.94
.92
1.15
1.42
.96
375
118
12
15
6
5
11
66
141
44
76
361
18
6135
367
550
24
3
75
208
116
55
77
529
196
610
416
552
1,313
3
691
11
816
40
15
1,886
185
70
65
502
84
62
1,188
142
17
227
127
47
51
30
34
1
1
7
9
1
32.9
79.7
48.0
ft
ft
29.2
45.0
56.4
63.3
72.1
60.0
697.1
72.5
89.1
55.8
15.0
52.1
45.1
81.7
64.7
52.7
55.8
86.7
81.4
56.9
84.5
85.8
(a)
87.4
(a)
89.6
95.2
57.7
89.6
79.7
90.9
86.7
94.5
62.2
89.9
90.1
81.6
43.6
46.8
77.0
94.0
54.3
2.6
23.0
A°
(a)
(a)
(a)
2.6
.9
2.6
3.8
.8
16.0
3.3
678.4
6.7
43.8
7.0
.0
3.5
3.9
24.6
12.9
6.2
9.3
27.4
21.6
4.9
23.4
30.9
(°)
24.1
(a)
40.6
33.3
3.8
33.9
20.3
74.0
42.7
52.2
12.6
55.1
36.8
25.9
.0
2.7
7.9
12.0
4.3
0.6
6.1
.0
(a)
M
(0.}o
.4
.0
.0
.0
2.8
.0
651.8
.2
16.5
.0
.0
.7
.2
9.2
1.2
1.4
1.3
8.8
1.1
.3
3.4
6.0
%
ft
4.8
.0
6.0
.9
39.0
13.3
10.4
.7
13.0
7.8
6.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0.1
.0
.0
(a)
(a)
Wo
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
633.1
.0
3.7
.0
.0
.7
.0
3.5
.0
.0
.1
1.8
.0
.0
.3
.7
(°)
(°L
.0
.0
.6
.0
18.2
2.7
.9
.0
7.2
1.7
1.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Mora-
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Dutch
English
1
2
8
3
1
80
1
6109
34
270
3
German
1
Irish
Polich
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
14
3
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
672
1
102
646
"~23~
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
5
18
35
11
9
88
62
162
36
153
473
1
191
8
370
14
1
714
47
57
32
277
17
38
485
45
1
1
13
1
2
12
20
8
2
22
92
1
18
7
92
2
"~i26~
2
30
10
55
1
9
103
11
1
English
Finnish . .
5
Flemish
French
German
1
4
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
2
11
1
3
6
23
Italian, South
Japanese .
Lithuanian
Macedonian..
Magvar
Mexican
Norwegian
""is"
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
14
2
5
Russian.
Ruthenian
Scotch...
Servian
5
22
3
Slovak... .
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
13
13
6
4
Syrian
Turkish. .
Welsh
Grand total
17, 141
1.30
612,703
63,963
6847
6194
674.1
623.1
2.2
4.0
625.7
64.9
.1
.8
65.5
61.1
.0
(c)
61.3
Total native-born of for-
eign father
727
2,014
15, 127
.85
.82
• 1.38
300
793
611,910
16
80
63,883
1
17
6830
41.3
39.4
678.7
Total native-born . .
1
6193
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
6 Not including 1 household not reporting number of rooms.
c Less than 0.05 per cent.
434 The Immigration Commission.
The preceding table shows that in the 17,141 households investi-
gated there is an average of 1.30 persons per room. The average
number of persons per room is seen to be largest in the house-
holds the heads of which were foreign-born, there being an average
of 1.38 persons per room in these households. Those the heads of
which were native-born negroes follow closely with an average of 1.30
persons per room, while those the heads of which were native-born of
foreign father show an average of 0.85 person, and those the heads of
which were native-born whites of native father an average of 0.77
person per room. Considering by race the households the heads of
which were foreign-born, it is seen that the Macedonian, Koumanian,
and Bulgarian households show an average of 3.15, 2.57, and 2.53
persons per room, respectively ; none of those of any other race show
an average , number of persons per room SL» high as 2, although all,
except those the heads of which are Brava, Cuban, Danish, Dutch,
English, French, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish, and Welsh, show an
average of more than 1 person per room. The households the heads
of which are Danish show the lowest average number of persons per
room, or 0.72.
Considering that section of the table which shows the per cent of
households having each specified number of persons per room, it is
seen that of the total number of households, 74.1 per cent have 1 or
more, 23. 1 per cent 2 or more, 4.9 per cent 3 or more, and 1 . 1 per cent 4 or
more persons per room. Of the total number of households, those the
heads of which were native-born negroes show the largest proportions
having 1 or more and 3 or more persons per room; those the heads of
which were native-born whites of native father show the smallest pro-
portion in the first instance and those the heads of which were native-
born of foreign father the smallest proportion in the second instance.
The households the heads of which were foreign-born show the largest
proportions having 2 or more and 4 or more persons per room ; those
the heads of which were native-born of foreign rather show the
smallest proportion in the first instance and those the heads of which
were native-born negroes and native-born of foreign father show
none in the second instance. The households the heads of which
are Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Servians, with 33.1 per cent, 18.2
per cent, and 7.2 per cent, respectively, are the only ones show-
ing as high as 4 per cent having 4 or more persons per room. Several
races report no households so congested. The households of the races
mentioned, with the addition of the Croatian, Magyar, Russian, and
Ruthenian, are the only ones showing as high as 10 per cent having 3
or more persons per room, the proportions ranging from 51.8 per cent
of those the heads of which are Bulgarians to 10.1 per cent of those the
heads of which are Magyars.
The difference between the races of older immigration and those of
more recent immigration is noticeable in the classifications of the
households having 1 or more and 2 or moxe persons per room, the
proportion shown by the races of older immigration being smaller in
each instance.
The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race of head
of household, the average number of persons per sleeping room and the
number and per cent of households having each specified number of
persons per sleeping room.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
435
TABLE 75. — Persons per sleeping room, by general nativity and race of head of household.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity
and race of head
of household.
Total
number
of
house-
holds.
Average
number
of persons
per sleep-
ing room.
Number of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
Per cent of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
0.5
3.4
.0
(a)
Native-born of na-
tive father:
White
1,139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
'78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,53C
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
1.84
2.25
2.43
2.04
1.86
2.03
1.81
1.84
1.96
2.57
1.97
2.54
2.24
3.20
2.07
3.18
2.15
1.62
2.34
1.89
2.92
2.26
1.81
2.15
2.13
2.55
1.98
2.59
2.62
3i7C
2.92
3.27
2.28
2.77
2.39
3.72
2.83
2.85
2.18
2.89
2.90
2.66
2.02
2.02
1.87
1.95
2.11
614
103
20
13
7
12
21
126
186
66
75
397
24
6127
324
554
27
103
258
125
59
78
615
153
6628
6417
540
1,310
644
11
820
41
19
1,879
188
70
67
487
88
61
1,159
149
26
310
93
29
60
193
51
9
6
58
18
4
14
10
1
6
5
53.9
69.6
80.0
w
16.9
34.5
36.0
(«)
5.1
12.2
16.0
(«)
1.2
6.8
4.0
(a)
Negro
Native-born of for-
eign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
Canadian,
French
Canadian, Other
Dutch
English
3
5
32
53
35
19
196
12
691
75
358
11
2
51
60
81
31
24
204
46
6319
6119
279
681
260
11
460
2i
1,043
67
62
40
277
28
27
723
79
6
102
27
1
6
9
11
2
95
5
663
14
195
4
55.3
55.8
59.4
84.6
62.5
79.2
80.0
691.4
64.0
89.8
62.8
35.0
71.5
56.0
88.0
69.4
53.4
64.9
67.7
683.8
657.0
82.7
85.6
(a)
90.0
97.6
73.1
89.2
81.0
90.9
89.3
91.7
65.2
88.4
87.9
85.6
66.7
63.9
56.4
58.0
63.8
13.2
14.2
16.9
44.9
15.8
39.1
40.0
665.5
14.8
58.0
25.6
10.0
35.4
13.0
57.0
36.5
16.4
21.5
20.4
642.6
616.3
42.7
44.5
(a)
32.9
(a)
50.5
59.5
26.9
49.5
28.9
80.5
53.3
52.2
20.7
39.1
54.8
45.4
15.4
21.0
16.4
6.0
27.7
2.7
2.9
14.1
1.7
19.0
16.7
645.3
2.8
31.6
9.3
.0
10.4
2.0
33.1
12.9
4.1
6.9
6.2
615.9
64.0
16.1
17.2
(0)
10.1
(a)
24.0
40.5
3.8
18.6
7.8
40.3
20.0
19.2
8.9
15.9
26.9
15.5
.0
7.2
7.3
2.0
9.6
w.o
.9
.6
7.7
.0
7.2
6.7
620.1
.4
14.3
2.3
.0
1.4
.7
15.5
2.4
.0
2.3
2.2
65.5
61.2
5.7
6.9
(a)
8.8
23.8
3.8
6.8
1.3
20.8
8.0
7.0
1.5
7.2
11.9
9.2
.0
2.3
1.8
.0
4.3
'.4
.3
2.6
.0
2.8
.0
64.3
.0
6.3
.0
.0
.7
.7
8.5
1.2
.0
.6
.9
62.7
6.1
2.0
2.8
9.5
3.8
2.6
.9
2.6
5.3
3.2
.0
1.4
5.8
5.2
.0
.2
.0
.0
2.1
German
2
2
6
1
1
2
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and
Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
36
628
2
88
1
14
66
Canadian,
French
Croatian
39
Cuban
Danish
Dutch . . .
15
9
47
11
6
65
14
6119
629
105
263
80
|
1
392
18
31
15
102
8
11
355
27
2
3
22
2
""22
5
641
69
37
105
1
23
1
80
10
1
143
2
16
6
37
o
A
5
157
16
1
3
12
1
""*€
62C
61
13
43
1
1
55
4
4
17
....
77
9
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German . .
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North.
Italian, South.
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian...
Magyar
Mexican ,
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian . . .
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
35
12
1
. 9
11
1
Syrian . . .
Turkish. . .
Welsh
4
2
Grand total..
Total native-born
of foreign father.
Total native-born..
Total foreign-born . .
17,141
2.46
c 13, 193
c6,321
143
387
c5, 934
c2,506
c959
c376
c77.0
62.0
58.0
c79.5
c36.9
19.7
19.2
C39.2
c!4.6
- •
4.3
5.3
c!5.9
c5.6
1.5
1.7
c6.1
c2.2
•
.6
.7
c2.4
727
2,014
15, 127
1.99
1.92
2.53
451
1,168
c 12, 025
31
107
c2, 399
11
35
c924
4
15
c361
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
6 Not including 1 household not reporting number of sleeping rooms.
c Not including 3 households not reporting number of sleeping rooms.
436 The Immigration Commission.
The table shows an average of 2.46 persons per sleeping room in
the 17,141 households investigated, there being an average of 2.53
in the households the heads of which were foreign-born, 2.25 in those
the heads of which were native-born negroes, 1.99 in those the heads
of which were native-born of foreign father, and 1.84 in those the
heads of which were native-born whites of native father.
Among the foreign-born it is seen that in the Bulgarian, Mexican,
Macedonian, Croatian, and Roumanian households the average num-
ber of persons per sleeping room is over 3, and in the households
of each other race except the Armenian, Danish, English, French,
Irish, Syrian, and Turkish, the average number is over 2 ; the aver-
age number in the households the heads of which were of the races
excepted above is over 1 . In the households the heads of which were
native-born of foreign father, the average number of persons per
sleeping room ranges from 2.57 in those the heads of which were
native-born of Polish parentage, to 1.81 in those the heads of which
were native-born of English parentage.
That section of the table which gives the per cent of households
having each specified number of persons per sleeping room shows 77
per cent of the 17,141 households as having 2 or more, 36.9 per cent
as having 3 or more, 14.6 per cent as having 4 or more, 5.6 per cent
as having 5 or more, and 2.2 per cent as having 6 or more persons
per sleeping room. The households the heads of which were foreign-
born show the largest proportion having each specified number of
persons per sleeping room, except 5 or more and 6 or more, in which
classes those the heads of which were native-born negroes show the
largest proportions. The households the heads of which were native-
born whites of native father show the smallest proportion in each
classification except that of 4 or more persons per sleeping room, in
which those the heads of which were native-born of foreign father
show the smallest proportion. Of the households of the several for-
eign races, those the heads of which were Croatian, Finnish, Mexican,
Russian, Slovak, or Slovenian are the only ones 5 per cent of
which have 6 or more persons per sleeping room; less than 10 per
cent of the households of each race except the Bulgarian, Croatian,
Finnish, Mexican, Roumanian, and Slovak, have 5 or more persons
per sleeping room. The households the heads of which are of the
races excepted in the foregoing statement are the only ones 25 per
cent of which have 4 or more persons per sleeping room, and also,
with the addition of those the heads of which are Magyar, Rus-
sian, or Ruthenian, the only ones 50 per cent of which have 3 or
more persons per sleeping room. The proportions of households with
2 or more persons per sleeping room range from 97.6 pe,r cent of
those the heads of which are Mexicans, to 35 per cent of those the
heads of which are Danish.
The effect of crowding within the households upon the living and
sleeping arrangements is exhibited in the table following, which
shows, oy general nativity and race of head of household, the number
and per cent, of households regularly sleeping in all except each
specified number of rooms.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
437
TABLE 76. — Number and per cent of households regularly sleeping in all except each speci-
fied number of rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household,
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race
of head of household.
Total
num-
ber of
house-
holds.
Aver-
age
num-
ber of
rooms
per
house-
hold.
Aver-
age
num-
ber of
sleeping
rooms
per
house-
hold.
Number of households
sleeping in-
Per cent of households
sleeping in-
All
rooms.
All ex-
cept 1
room.
All ex-
cept 2
rooms.
All
rooms.
All ex-
cept 1
room.
All ex-
cept 2
rooms.
Native-born of native father:
White
1.139
148
25
18
12
17
38
226
313
78
120
501
30
139
506
617
43
20
144
461
142
85
146
948
226
749
731
653
1,530
791
12
911
42
26
2,106
232
77
75
531
135
69
1,319
174
39
485
165
50
94
5.37
2.78
5.08
5.11
4.00
5.88
5.76
5.70
5.56
4.61
4.83
4.35
3.80
2.41
4.99
4.01
4.70
5.60
5.84
5.17
3.60
4.27
4.45
5.11
4.13
3.94
5.37
3.89
3.84
(0)
4.08
2.25
3.75
2.86
6.04
3.82
4.84
4.84
3.35
3.61
5.02
4.88
3.62
4.06
5.15
5.34
4.19
6.28
5.46
2.24
1.61
1.88
2.67
2.42
2.12
2.53
2.23
2.54
1.77
'2.53
2.03
1.67
1.90
2.81
2.40
2.16
2.50
2.43
2.39
1.68
2.06
2.15
2.41
2.88
2.06
2.75
2.13
2.16
(«)
2.40
1.92
2.20
1.43
2.58
2.19
2.80
3.35
2.08
2.35
2.48
3.33
2.02
2.19
2.39
2.43
2.51
4.58
2.49
6
10
71
107
1
1
1
258
27
7
10
6
1
7
28
86
34
51
214
9
613
229
208
13
1
15
154
39
30
47
322
63
6334
6272
272
425
0.5
6.8
.0
(«)
(°)
io).o
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.4
.0
663.3
.0
3.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.5
.0
2.7
1.1
16.4
64.7
6.1
1.5
6.9
(0)
4.9
(0)
6.5
2.4
.0
7.4
.0
9.1
6.7
12.1
.7
5.8
5.7
10.3
.0
.0
3.6
.0
.0
6.2
72.3
4.0
I
3.1
4.8
3.8
20.0
18.2
33.3
624.5
22.1
46.8
9.3
.0
2.1
10.0
41.5
23.5
24.7
11.5
50.9
628.8
610.4
41.7
45.7
(a)
44.6
(0)
50.2
52.4
.0
43.4
30.6
54.5
64.0
61.6
10.4
56.5
47.8
31.6
2.6
2.9
45.5
34.0
6.4
22.7
1£.2
28.0
ft
(«)
18.4
12.4
27.5
43.6
42.5
42.7
30.0
69.4
45.3
33.7
30.2
5.0
10.4
33.4
27.5
35.3
32.2
34.0
27.9
644.6
637.2
41.7
27.8
(«)
32.1
(°)
30.0
45.2
11.5
31.6
44.4
26.0
25.3
18.3
£5.6
24.6
31.7
37.9
28.2
28.7
40.0
62.0
22.3
Negro
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian.
Canadian French
Dutch
English
German
7
15
3
24
91
10
634
112
289
4
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
--y
"'b'ss'
Bohemian and Moravian.
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian French
Croatian.
24
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
3
46
59
20
36
109
115
6216
676
272
699
2
353
2
457
22
English
"V
Finnish
Flemish
French
4
10
37
635
61
10
106
German . . .
Greek
Hebrew . . .
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
39
9
59
1
254
1
273
19
3
666
103
20
t 19
97
48
17
418
66
11
139
66
31
21
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican .
Norwegian
Polish
156
...„
5
64
1
4
75
18
915
71
42
48
327
14
39
630
55
1
14
75
17
6
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish..
Syrian
6
Turkish...
Welsh.
Grand total
17,141
4.34
2.29
2.33
2.24
2.30
c787
""ie"
c771
c5,511
28
206
c5,305
c5,447
.
179
464
c4,983
c4.6
T — •.—
.0
.8
C5.1
c32.2
3.9
10.2
C35.1
C31.8
24.6
23.0
C32.9
Total native-born of foreign
father
111
2,014
15,127
5.48
5.22
4.22
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
« Not computed, owing to small number involved.
6 Not including 1 household not reporting number of sleeping rooms.
c Not including 3 households not reporting number of sleeping rooms.
A small proportion of the households the heads of which were
foreign-born, as can be seen from the preceding table, use all rooms
for sleeping purposes, this tendency being especially noticeable in the
438
The Immigration Commission.
case of the Bulgarian households, 63.3 per cent of which use all rooms
for sleeping purposes. Of the Ruthenian households 12.1 per cent,
of the Slovenian 10.3 per cent, and of the Greek 16.4 per cent,
sleep in all rooms. Of the total number of households the heads of
which were foreign-born, 35.1 per cent use all except one room for
sleeping quarters, this practice being much more prevalent among
the Households of southern and eastern Europeans tnan among those
of the races from Great Britain and northern Europe. Of the total
native-born, less than 1 per cent of the households use all rooms for
sleeping purposes, and only 10.2 per cent sleep in all except one room.
Practically the same situation exists among the households the heads
of which were immigrants from Great Britain and northern Europe
as that shown for the households the heads of which were of native
birth.
LITERACY.
The table which is next presented, and which is based on informa-
tion received for 500,329 employees, shows, by general nativity and
race and by sex, the proportion who were able to read and the pro-
portion who were able both to read and to write.
TABLE 77. — Literacy of employees, by sex and general nativity and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES. ^
MALE.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number who—-
Per cent who —
Read.
Read and
write.
Read.
Read and
write.
Native-born of native father:
White
81, 196
21.658
8
79, 774
16,553
8
79,490
16, 137
8
98.2
76.4
(a)
(a)
100.0
98.3
96.4
99.3
n,4
ft
97.0
100.0
99.4
100.0
99.2
99.5
8
99.5
95.3
84.6
99.8
100.0
94.9
(«)
98.5
99.7
(0)
98.6
100.0
100.0
(a)
99.0
97.9
74.5
(a)
Negro
Indian
Native-born of foreign father, by country of
birth of father:
Arabia
31
2,637
112
145
4
4,809
9
2
198
204
7,393
90
785
17, 676
13
3
13, 923
686
26
595
232
99
6
1,276
2,362
1
71
1,193
377
6
1.447
1
31
2,591
108
144
4
4,647
8
2
192
204
7,351
90
779
17,584
12
3
13,855
654
22
594
232
94
6
1,257
2,355
1
70
1,193
377
6
1.433
1
31
2,583
108
144
4
4,597
8
2
190
204
7,341
90
777
17,566
11
3
13,829
650
22
593
232
93
6
1,251
2,354
1
70
1,192
376
6
1.424
(a)
100.0
98.0
96.4
99.3
(a)
94.4
ft
96.0
100.3
99.0
100.0
99.0
99.4
(a)
(a)
99.3
94.8
84.6
99.7
100.0
93.9
(0)
98.0
99.7
(•)
98.6
99.9
99.7
(a)
98.4
Australia
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
Cape Verde Islands
China
Cuba
Denmark
England
Finland...
France
Germany
Greece . ..
India
Ireland
Italy
Mexico
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal .
Roumania
Russia
Scotland
Servia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey.. .
Wales...
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
439
TABLE 77. — Literacy of employees, by sex and general nativity and race — Continued.
MALE— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number who —
Per cent who —
Read.
Read and
write.
Read.
Read and
write.
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father — Continued.
West Indies (other than Cuba)
14
8
3
14
7
3
14
7
3
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Africa (country not specified)
South America (country not specified) .
Total
56, 497
55,924
55,783
99.0
98.7
Total native-born
159,359
152, 259
151,418
95.5
95.0
Foreign-born, by race:
Abyssinian
1
33
3
667
3,908
33
944
9,300
1,737
9,715
3,011
43
595
1,472
7
13,200
2
3,603
139
1,856
18,976
5,502
3,764
1,392
199
1
11,283
13, 232
16,020
141
164
6
9,210
592
11,562
206
248
71
684
23
40, 410
3,536
1,877
6,497
807
3,174
92
1,631
24,604
4,735
1,931
5,353
987
340
1, 767
16
1
17
1,977
1,225
5
335
1
24
3
614
3,782
24
738
7,824
1,719
6,866
2,979
32
590
1,441
5
13,051
2
3,569
128
1,751
18,593
4,635
3,510
1,292
163
10,828
11,248
11,099
127
162
6
7,229
411
10,509
171
183
67
682
20
32,354
1,690
1,564
4,850
532
3,161
91
1,166
20,786
4,136
1,900
5,343
741
192
1,732
16
1
15
1,681
1,119
5
334
1
22
3
603
3,757
24
726
7,477
1,714
6,660
2,979
32
589
1,430
4
13,015
2
3,505
128
1,734
18,482
4,589
3,410
1,272
156
1
10,684
11,088
10,833
125
162
6
6,657
397
10, 396
164
180
64
682
20
30,856
1,629
1,543
4,624
513
3,151
90
1,134
20, 281
4,058
1,893
5,324
728
184
1,718
16
1
15
1,653
1,103
5
334
(a)
72.7
(0)
92.1
96.8
72.7
78.2
84.1
99.0
70.7
98.9
74.4
99.2
97.9
(a)
98.9
(a)
99.1
92.1
94.3
98.0
84.2
93.3
92.8
81.9
(0)
96.0
85.0
69.3
90.1
98.8
(a)
78.5
69.4
90.9
83.0
73.8
94.4
99.7
87.0
80.1
47.8
83.3
74.6
65.9
99.6
98.9
71.5
84.5
87.3
98.4
99.8
75.1
56.5
98.0
(a)
w
(a)
85.0
91.3
(0)
99.7
(a)
66.7
(a)
90.4
96.1
72.7
76.9
80.4
98.7
68.6
98.9
74.4
99.0
97.1
(«)
98.6
(•)
97.3
92.1
93.4
97.4
83.4
90.6
91.4
78.4
(a)
94.7
83.8
67.6
88.7
98.8
(0)
72.3
67.1
89.9
79.6
72.6
90.1
99.7
87.0
76.4
46.1
82.2
71.2
63.6
99.3
97.8
69.5
82.4
85.7
98.0
99.5
73.8
54.1
97.2
(0)
(a)
(a)
83.6
90.0
(a)
99.7
Albanian . .
Arabian
Armenian . .
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian :
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Dalmatian
Danish
Dutch . .
Egyptian
English
Filipino
Finnish
Flemish
French
German . . .
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian
Hindu
Irish
Italian, North
Italian South
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin
Negro
Norwegian
Persian
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian .
Scotch .•
Scotch-Irish. . .
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian.
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (other than Cuban)
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not specified)
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not specified) . . .
Swiss (race not specified)
Total foreign-born
244,862
209, 488
204, 626
85.6
83.6
Grand total...
404,221
361,747
356,044
89.5
88.1
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
'440
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 77. — Literacy of employees, by sex and general nativity and race— Continued.
FEMALE.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number who—
Per cent who—
Read.
Read and
write.
Read.
Read and
write.
Native-born of native father:
White.
19,368
2,928
54
1,849
154
41
4,465
10
6
55
2,915
7
219
6,247
9
2
8,908
609
1
1
287
1
49
99
3
1,288
649
1
3
128
184
4
363
1
3
19,130
2,200
54
1,839
146
41
4,299
10
4
55
2,911
7
218
6,222
9
2
8,879
585
1
19,057
2,141
54
1,837
145
41
4,271
10
4
55
2,909
218
6,217
9
2
8,859
585
1
98.8
75.1
100.0
99.5
94.8
100.0
96.3
(a)
(a)
100.0
99.9
(a)
99.5
99.6
(a)
(a)
99.7
96.1
(a)
(a)
100.0
(a)
100.0
93.9
(a)
99.1
99.4
(a)
(a)
100.0
100.0
(a)
100.0
(a)
(a)
98.4
73.1
100.0
99.4
94.2
100.0
95.7
(a)
(0)
100.0
99.8
(•)
99.5
99.5
(a)
(a)
99.4
96.1
(a)
(a)
100.0
(a)
100.0
93.9
(a)
98.8
99.2
(a)
(a)
100.0
100.0
(a)
100.0
(a)
(0)
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by country of
birth of father:
Australia
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Belgium
Canada
Cape Verde Islands
Cuoa
Denmark. .
England
Finland ,...
France . .
Germany
Greece . . .
India .
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Mexico
Netherlands .
287
1
49
93
3
1,276
645
1
3
128
184
4
363
1
3
287
1
49
93
3
1,273
644
3
128
184
4
363
1
3
New Zealand
Norway
Portugal
Roumania
Russia
Scotland
Servia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Wales
Africa (country not specified)
South America (country not specified).
Total
28,615
28,323
28,261
99.0
98.8
Total native-born
50,911
49,653
4*9,459
97.5
97.1
Foreign-born, by race:
Arabian
2
16
616
4
8,388
775
216
524
61
259
3,799
306
36
409
1,892
583
1,409
417
4,059
1,891
3,810
1
1,171
1
625
2
4
49
1
7,748
2,446
143
893
8
98.1
(«)
92.5
98.7
81.0
96.8
96.7
96.1
98.7'
99.7
91.7
95.4
97.9
44.8
92.8
91.4
95.4
71.5
59.8
(«)
68.0
(a)
93.3
(«)
(a)
100.0
(a)
79.1
47.1
72.7
73.0
(a)
(a)
i 98.1
(a)
90.7
98.2
80.6
96.6
96.7
95.8
98.1
99.3
88.9
94.9
97.3
42.7
91.9
90.4
94.1
70.8
58.9
WM.T
W
92.0
(•)
(a)
100.0
(°)
70.8
44.8
71.3
65.6
Armenian
15
604
2
7,763
765
175
507
59
249
3,749
305
33
390
1,853
261
1,307
381
3,873
1,352
2,278
15
604
2
7,610
761
174
506
59
248
3,725
304
32
388
1,841
249
1,295
377
3,818
1,339
2,245
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English .
Finnish
Flemish
French
German . . .
Greek.
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other...
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Italian (not specified)
Lithuanian
796
1
583
2
4
49
1
6,130
1,152
104
652
640
1
575
2
4
49
1
5,488
1,097
102
586
Macedonian
Magyar i :
Mexican
Negro . .
Norwegian
Persian . . .
Polish.
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian,,,
0 Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 441
TABLE 77. — -Literacy of employees, by sex and general nativity and race — Continued.
FEMALE— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number who—
Per cent who —
Read.
Read and
write.
Read.
Read and
write.
Foreign-born, by race— Continued.
Ruthenian
81
723
5
20
452
187
134
157
449
5
89
1
1
1
153
98
4
81
52
718
5
11
364
173
125
156
172
4
89
1
1
1
128
88
4
81
43
717
5
11
354
168
124
. 156
162
4
88
1
1
1
114
87
3
81
64.2
99.3
(a)
55.0
80.5
92.5
93.3
99.4
38.3
(a)
100.0
(a)
(a)
(a)
83.7
89.8
(a)
100.0
5b.l
99.2
(a)
55.0
78.3
89.8
92.5
99.4
36.1
W9S.9
@
(a)
74.5
88.8
(a)
100.0
Scotch
Scotch-Irish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (other tha,n Cuban)
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not specified)
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not specified) . . .
Swiss (race not specified)
Total
45, 197
37, 568
36,257
83.1
80.2
Grand total
96, 108
87, 221
85, 716
90.8
89.2
TOTAL.
Native-born of native father:
White
100, 564
98, 904
98,547
98.3
98.0
Negro . .
24,586
18,753
18, 278
76.3
74 3
Indian
8
8
8
(a)
(a)
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
Arabia
1
1
1
(a)
(a)
Australia
85
85
85
100.0
100.0
Austria-Hungary . . .
4,486
4,430
4,420
98.8
98 5
Azores
266
254
253
95.5
95.1
Belgium
186
185
185
99.5
99 5
Bulgaria
4
4
4
(a)
(a )
Canada
9,334
8,946
8,868
95.8
95.0
Cape Verde Islands . .
19
18
18
(a)
(a)
China
2
2
2
(a)
(a)
Cuba ..
204
196
194
96.1
951
Denmark
259
259
259
100 0
100 0
England
10,308
10,262
10,250
99.6
99 4
Finland
97
97
97
100 0
100 0
France
1,004
997
995
99.3
99 1
Germany
23,923
23,806
23,783
99.5
99 4
Greece
22
21
20
95 5
90 9
India
5
5
5
(a)
(°)
Ireland
22, 831
22, 734
22,688
99 6
99 4
Italy
1,295
1,239
1,235
95.7
95 4
Japan
1
1
1
(a)
(a)
Mexico
27
22
22
81.5
81.5
Netherlands ...
882
881
880
99.9
99 8
New Zealand
1
1
1
(a)
(a)
Norway
281
281
281
100.0
100 0
Portugal
198
187
186
94.4
93 9
Roumania
9
9
9
(a)
(a)
Russia.. . .
2,564
2,533
2,524
98.8
984
Scotland
3,011
3,000
2 998
99 6
99 6
Servia
2
2
2
(a)
(a)
Spain
74
73
73
986
98 6
Sweden
1,321
1,321
1,320
100.0
* 99.9
Switzerland
561
561
560
100.0
99 8
Turkey
10
10
10
(a)
(a)
Wales
1,810
1,796
1,787
99.2
987
West Indies (other than Cuba)
14
14
14
(a)
(a)
Africa (country not specified)
9
8
8
«
(a)
South America (country not specified) .
6
6
6
(a)
(a)
Total
85, 112
84,247
84,044
99.0
98 7
Total native-born
210, 270
201,912
200 877
96 0
95 5
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
72289°— VOL 1—11 29
442
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 77. — Literacy of employees, by sex and general nativity and race — Continued.
TOTAL— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number who—
Per cent who —
Read.
Read and
write.
Read.
Read and
write.
Foreign-born, by race:
Abyssinian
1
33
5
683
4,524
33
948
17, 688
2,512
9,931
3,535
43
656
1,731
7
16,999
2
3,909
175
2,265
20,868
6,085
5,173
1,809
199
1
15,342
15, 123
19,830
142
164
6
10,381
593
12, 187
208
248
75
733
24
48, 158
5,982
2,020
7,390
888
3,897
97
1,651
25,056
4,922
2,065
5,510
1,436
345
1,856
17
2
18
2,130
1,323
9
416
1
24
3
629
4,386
24
740
15,587
2.484
7,041
3,486
32
649
1,690
5
16,800
2
3,874
161
2,141
20,446
4,896
4,817
1,673
163
1
14,701
12, 600
13, 377
127
162
6
8,025
412
11,092
173
183
71
731
21
38,484
2,842
1,668
5,502
584
3,879
96
1,177
21,150
4,309
2,025
5,499
913
196
1,821
17
2
16
1,809
1,207
9
415
1
22
3
618
4,361
24
728
15,087
2,475
6,834
3,485
32
648
1,678
4
16,740
2
3,809
160
2, 122
20,323
4,838
4,705
1,649
156
1
14, 502
12,427
13,078
125
162
6
7,297
398
10,971
166
180
68
731
21
36, 344
2,726
1,645
5,210
556
3,868
95
1.145
20.635
4,226
2,017
5,480
890
188
1,806
17
2
16
1,767
1,190
8
415
(a)
72.7
(a)
* 92.1
96.9
72.7
78.1
88.1
98.9
70.9
98.6
74.4
98.9
97.6
(a)
98.8
(a)
99.1
92.0
94.5
98.0
80.5
93.1
92.5
81.9
(a)
95.8
83.3
67.5
89.4
98.8
(a)
77.3
69.5
91.0
83.2
73.8
94.7
99.7
87.5
79.9
47.5
82.6
74.5
65.8
99.5
99.0
71.3
84.4
87.5
98.1
99.8
63. 6
56.8
(a)
(a)
88.9
84.9
1 91.2
(a)
99.8
(a)
66.7
(0)
90.5
96.4
72.7
76.8
85.3
98.5
68.8
98.6
74.4
98.8
96.9
(a)
98.5
(a)
97.4
91.4
93.7
97.4
79.5
91.0
91.2
78.4
(a)
94.5
82.2
66.0
88.0
98.8
(a)
70.3
67.1
90.0
79.8
72.6
90.7
99.7
87.5
75.5
45.6
81.4
70.5
62.6
99.3
97.9
69,4
82.4.
85.9
97.7
99.5
62.0
54.5
97.3
(a)
(a)
88.9
83.0
89.9
(»)
99.8
Albanian
Arabian
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian
Bulgarian
Canadian French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Dalmatian
Danish
Dutch
Egyptian
English . .
Filipino
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzego vinian
Hindu
Irish
Italian, North
Italian South
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin . ...
Negro
Norwegian
Persian . . ... .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian ...
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Scotch-Irish
Servian ....
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish ....
Welsh
West Indian (other than Cuban)
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not specified) .
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not specified). . .
Swiss (race not specified) .
"Total foreign-born
290,059
500,329
247,056
240,883
85.2
83.0
Grand total
448,968
441,760
89.7
88.3
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the totals of the preceding table, it is seen that
only 89.7 per cent of the total number of employees of foreign birth
were able to read, as contrasted with 98.3 per cent of the native-born
wage-earners of native father, and 99 per cent of those of native
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
443
birth but of foreign father. Upon analyzing further the showing of
the employees of foreign birth, it is seen that a much higher degree
of illiteracy prevails among the immigrants of recent years from
southern and eastern Europe than among those of old immigration
from Great Britain and northern Europe. This fact is at once made
apparent by the following comparison of the literacy of both periods
or immigration:
TABLE 78. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to ability of the foreign-
born to read, by race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
Old immigration.
Per cent
able to
read.
New immigration.
Per cent
able to
read.
Canadian, French
88.1
Bulgarian
78 1
Canadian, Other.
98 9
Croatian
70 9
Dutch...
97.6
Greek
80.5
English
98.8
Hebrew, Russian
93 1
G erman
98 0
Hebrew Other
92 5
Irish ,
95.8
Italian, North .
83 3
Scotch .
99 5
Italian. South
67 5
Swedish
99 8
Lithuanian
77 3
Welsh
98.1
Magyar
91 0
Polish
79 9
Portuguese
47 5
Roumanian
82 6
Russian
74 5
Ruthenian
65 8
Servian
71 3
Slovak
84 4
Slovenian
87 5
Spanish
98 1
Syrian
63 6
The native negroes exhibit a greater degree of illiteracy than the
foreign-born industrial workers. About the same proportions of
males and females of native birth, whether of native or foreign father,
are literate, while slightly higher percentages of males than of females
of foreign birth are able to read and to read and write.
The following table shows, by sex and general nativity and race
of individual, the per cent of persons 10 years of age or over in the
households studied who were able to read and the per cent who were
able both to read and to write:
TABLE 79.— Per cent of persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent who read
and write, by sex and general nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race
of individual.
Number reporting com-
plete data.
Per cent who read.
Per cent who read and
write.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
2,019
213
355
308
51
148
255
52
34
34
874
186
1.012
2,126
191
366
340
54
172
287
50
28
54
862
172
1.046
4,145
404
721
648
105
320
542
102
62
88
1,736
358
2.058
99.5
69.5
99.7
99.4
100.0
100.0
99.6
100.0
100.0
97.1
99.5
100.0
99.9
99.2
63.4
99.7
96.8
94.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
96.3
99.7
98.8
99.5
99.3
66.6
99.7
98.0
97.1
100.0
99.8
100.0
100.0
96.6
99.6
99.4
99.7
99.3
66.2
99.7
99.0
98.0
100.0
99.6
100.0
100.0
97.1
99.5
100.0
99.8
99.1
58.6
99.7
96.5
90.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
96.3
99.7
98.8
99.4
99.2
62.6
99.7
97.7
94.3
100.0
99.8
100.0
100.0
96.6
99.6
99.4
QQ fi
Negro
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian.
Canadian, French
Croatian
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish .
French
German
Hebrew.
Irish...
444
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 79. — Per cent of persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent who read
and write, by sex and general nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and race
of individual.
Number reporting com-
plete data.
Per cent who read.
Per cent who read and
write.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father — Contd.
Italian, North
Italian, South '
139
162
135
101
30
632
58
148
82
370
52
338
86
240
611
57
747
759
4
1,092
55
20
162
611
157
108
208
1,218
1,008
1,127
784
1,038
3,265
76
1,635
91
1,808
64
29
3, 876
408
159
172
1,060
195
208
1,962
229
71
569
373
443
113
127
198
153
99
34
641
56
163
95
. 351
52
367
83
174
536
29
9
779
52
669
73
25
135
509
144
100
175
1,007
221
1,079
790
747
1,922
952
266
360
288
200
64
1,273
114
311
177
721
104
705
- 169
414
1,147
86
756
1,538
56
1,761
128
45
297
1,120
301
208
383
2,225
1.229
2,206
1,574
1,785
5,187
77
2,587
91
2,977
102
58
6,522
833
241
262
1,881
380
278
3, 440
423
108
1,051
613
443
221
99.3
92.6
99.3
97.0
100.0
98.6
100.0
99.3
100.0
98.4
100.0
100.0
97.7
96.3
98.5
84.2
74.0
85.2
(a)
62.0
98.2
100.0
98.1
97.1
98.1
94.4
91.3
97.4
79.8
94.1
95.0
87.3
61.9
100.0
70.2
69.2
90.2
67.2
100.0
79.0
61.8
80.5
71.5
65.8
99.5
56.3
83.9
92.1
100.0
99.6
85.8
4.5
99.1
98.4
93.4
98.7
98.0
100.0
98.3
98.2
95.1
100.0
98.0
100.0
99.7
100.0
81.6
96.1
62.1
66.7
87.8
98.1
56.2
95.9
100.0
94.8
95.3
97.9
88.0
86.9
97.5
41.2
79.6
92.2
79.8
45.6
(a)
55.8
98.9
93.1
99.0
97.5
100.0
98.4
99.1
95.1
100.0
98.2
100.0
99.9
98.8
90.1
97.4
76.7
73.9
86.5
98.2
59.8
96.9
100.0
96.6
96.3
98.0
91.3
89.3
97.4
72.8
87.0
93.6
84.1
55.9
100.0
64.9
69.2
88.9
51.0
100.0
77.1
59. 7
75.1
61.5
60.8
99.5
52.9
81.4
93.1
97.2
99.6
71.5
4 5
99.3
92.0
99.3
97.0
100.0
98.1
100.0
99.3
100.0
98.4
100.0
100.0
97.7
95.8
97.5
84.2
73.4
83.0
£?4
98.2
100.0
97.5
97.1
96.2
92.6
89.9
96.7
79.4
92.8
93.5
86.7
60.4
100.0
61.2
69.2
89.5
65.6
100.0
74.4
60.8
79.9
69.8
62.5
99.5
55.3
82.3
91.3
100.0
99.6
84.2
4 5
97.0
92.4
98.0
98.0
100.0
98.3
98.2
95.1
100.0
98. 0
1 100. 0
99.7
100.0
81.0
94.8
62.1
55.6
85.4
98.1
52.8
95.9
100.0
93.3
95.1
95.1
87.0
85.7
95.6
41.2
77.6
91.5
79.0
44.7
(a)
41.8
98.5
92.5
98.6
97.5
100.0
9S.2
99.1
97.1
100.0
98.2
100.0
99.9
98.8'
89.6
96.3
76.7
73.1
84.2
98.2
58.1
96.9
100.0
95.6
96.2
95.7
89.0
88.1
96.9
72.0
85.2
92.5
83.4
54.5
100.5
54.6
69.2
88.2
50.0
98.3
70.6
58.3
74.3
59.2
57.5
99.2
52.2
78.3
91.5
97.2
99.5
69.2
4.5
95.0
Lithuanian
Magvar
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese . .
Ruthenian *
Scotch...
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish...
Welsh
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian.
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English.
Finnish
Flemish
French . .
German
Greek
Hebrew . .
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South.
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
1,169
38
29
2, 646
'425
82
90
821
185
70
1,478
194
37
482
240
87.0
23.7
100.0
74.3
57.6
64.6
42.2
54.4
99.5
42.9
78.1
94.3
91.9
99.6
49.2
86.1
23.7
96.6
65.0
56.0
63.4
38.9
50.9
98.9
42.9
73.0
91.8
91.9
99.4
45.8
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian .
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian .
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh.
108
92.6
95.9
98.2
91.7
Grand total
34,751
26, 480
61,231
83.7
82.0
83.0
98.9
98.2
77.5
82.0
79.5
80.9
Total native-born of foreign
fether
5,703
7,935
26,816
5,934
8,254
18, 226
11,637
16,189
45, 042
99.1
98.4
79.3
98.7
98.0
74.8
99.0
98.2
77.2
98.5
97.7
71.2
98.7
98.0
74.8
Total native-born .
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the foregoing table, it is at once evident that a
considerably higher degree of literacy prevails among the native-born
wage-earners than among those of foreign birth. Of the total
number of persons both male and female who were born in this coun-
try, 98.2 per cent were able to read and 98 per cent able to read
and write, as contrasted with only 77.5 per cent of persons of for-
eign birth with ability to read and 74.8 per cent able both to read
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
445
and to write. About the same proportions of males and females of
native birth, but a somewhat smaller proportion of foreign-born women
than of men, were able to read and to read and write. The native-
born negro sh'ows a higher degree of illiteracy than the wage-earners
of foreign birth, while the industrial workers native-born of native
father white show only a very slight advancement in literacy over
those of native birth but of foreign father. Among the repre-
sentatives of races of foreign birth, only 62 per cent of the Croa-
tian males and 56.2 per cent of the females, 79.8 per cent of Greek
males and 41.2 per cent of the females, 61.9 per cent of the South
Italian males and 45.6 per cent of the females, 61.8 per- cent of the
Portuguese males and 57.6 per cent of the females, 65.8 per cent of
the Ruthenian males and 54.4 per cent of the females, 56.3 per cent
of the Servian males and 42.9 per cent of the females, and only 4.5
per cent of the Turkish males, were able to read.
The following table shows, by years in the United States and race
of individual, the proportion of foreign-born persons in the house-
holds studied who were able to read and the proportion able both to
read and to write :
TABLE 80. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and per
cent who read and write, by years in the United States and race of individual .
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who read, by years
in United States.
Per cent who read and write,
by years in United States. •
Under 5.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Under 5.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Armenian
414
1,147
86
756
1,538
56
1,761
128
45
297
1,120
301
208
383
2,225
1,229
2,206
1,574
1,785
5,187
77
2,587
91
2,977
102
58
6,522
833
241
262
1,881
380
278
3,440
423
108
1,051
613
443
221
90.2
98.0
77.4
73.5
94.7
(a)
56.7
93.5
(a)
100.0
98.0
100.0
95.4
88.6
95.7
71.6
86.5
97.0
80.9
50.7
100.0
60.4
69.7
87.5
44.4
100.0
74.7
58.7
76.0
57.3
57.8
100.0
53.6
82.7
88.7
96.3
98.5
69.5
4.4
96.0
84.4
99.4
73.1
87.0
90.8
100.0
62.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
94.5
97.5
88.0
86.0
96.8
77.2
88.6
99.2
84.2
61.6
100.0
63.7
(a)
89.9
59.1
(0)
77.4
59.0
70.7
61.4
64.2
100.0
50.0
84.1
93.3
100.0
100.0
71.2
7.1
100.0
93.8
96.7
79.3
(a)
83.5
98.0
62.4
98.2
100.0
96.3
96.0
97.9
89.8
92.4
98.0
78.4
86.2
92.8
87.7
59.7
(0)
71.2
90.2
97.5
77.4
72.7
92.4
55.8
93.5
(a)
100.0
97.6
97.3
93.8
87.9
95.5
71.2
84.6
97.0
80.4
49.8
100.0
47.9
69.7
83.3
98.9
73.1
87.0
90.8
100.0
60.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
94.5
97.5
84.0
85.0
95.3
77.2
86.4
99.2
83.1
60.7
100.0
54.1
(a)
93.1
95.3
79.3
(0)
80.5
98.0
58.9
98.2
100.0
95.2
96.0
93.8
89.0
90.3
96.6
78.4
85.1
91.6
87.2
57.0
(a)
61.0
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban. .
Danish
Dutch
English...
Finnish
Flemish..
French
German
Greek.
Hebrew . . .
Irish....
Italian, North
Italian, South..
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar.
92.0
49.3
100.0
80.2
60.8
86.9
44.4
100.0
68.8
58.2
75.5
57.3
56.0
100.0
52.7
80.0
88.7
96.3
98.5
67.1
4.4
96.0
88.8
59.1
(0)
70.5
57.6
68.3
57.1
61.7
100.0
50.0
82.4
91.3
100.0
100.0
68.9
7.1
100.0
91.1
47.9
97.9
73.2
59.0
Mexican
Norwegian...
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian
Russian
76.2
61.5
99.2
$.4
95.5
96.3
99.6
77.8
69.0
55.6
98.8
(a)
73.9
93.2
96.3
99.5
75.9
Ruthenian
Scotch. .
Servian
Slovak.... i
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish .
Syrian
Turkish . . .
Welsh
95.6
94.5
Total..
45,042
71.0
77.3
84.5
68.6
74.4
81.5
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
446
The Immigration Commission.
A comparison of the totals in each period of residence shows a
considerable degree of advancement in ability to read and to read
and write corresponding to length of residence in the United States.
Of those who had been in this country under five years, 71 per cent
could read and 68. 6 per cent could read and write, as compared with
77.3 per cent with ability to read and 74.4 per cent with ability to read
and write of those with a residence of nve to nine years, and 84.5
per cent who could read and 81.5 per cent who could both read and
write of those who had been in the United States ten years or longer.
The table which immediately follows affords a comparison of the
present degree of literacy among immigrants according to their age
at the time of arrival in this county. It shows, by age at time of
coming to the United States and race of individual, the per cent of
foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over able to read and the
per cent able both to read and to write :
TABLE 81. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and per
cent who read and write, by age at time of coming to the United States and race of
individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-
born.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who read, by
age at time of com-
ing to United States.
Per cent who read and
write, by age at time
of coming to United
States.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Armenian
414
1,147
86
756
1,538
56
1,761
128
45
297
1,120
301
208
383
2,225
1,229
2,206
1,574
1,785
5,187
77
2,587
98.6
98.3
92.3
(a)
93.2
100.0
83.3
94.1
100.0
98.3
98.4
98.1
89.8
98.8
98.9
87.7
95.5
97.5
95.1
77.7
88.2
97.1
74.0
73.9
82.1
96.9
58.1
97.9
100.0
95. 5
95.4
98.1
91.8
86.7
97.0
72.1
84.4
92.4
82.2
51.7
100.0
62.9
69 2
98.6
97.9
92.3
(a)
92.1
100.0
80.0
94.1
100.0
97.5
98.4
98.1
89.8
97.6
97.5
87.7
95.3
97.0
94.7
76.7
87.6
95.7
74.0
73.1
78.9
96.9
56.5
97.9
100.0
94.3
95.3
95.2
89.9
85.3
95.8
71.8
82.2
91.2
81.5
50.4
100.0
51.2
69.2
87.6
51.9
97.9
68.0
48.9
73.6
56.4
55.2
99.6
51.5
76.8
91.7
96.3
99.7
67.5
4.5
92.0
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian. .
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other...
Croatian.
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish .
French
German
Greek.
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
85.7
83.5
Macedonian
91
2,977
102
58
6,522
833
241
262
1,881
380
278
3,440
423
108
1,051
613
443
221
Magyar
93.4
48.0
100.0
92.8
86.3
100.0
94.7
80.5
99.2
R3.3
89.6
89.5
100.0
98.6
80.9
(a)
100.0
88.4
51.9
100.0
75.1
50.2
74.5
58.8
58.8
99.6
52.2
80.2
93.5
96.3
99.8
69.3
4.5
93.5
92.8
44.0
100.0
90.9
84.9
100.0
94.7
79.3
98.4
83.3
88.5
89.5
100.0
98.6
76.5
(0)
100.0
Mexican .
Norwegian. . .
Polish
Portuguese .
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian ... .......
Slovak
Slovenian v
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish . . .
Welsh.
T*tal. .
45,042
91.7
74.9
90.7
71.8
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
447
A study of the foregoing table, which reveals returns from 45,042
foreign-born persons who were 10 years of age or over, shows a
higher degree of literacy at the present time among those who were
under 14 years of age when they arrived in the United States than
among those who were 14 years of age or older. Of those who were
less than 14 years old when they came to this country, 91.7 per cent
can now read and 90.7 per cent can now both read and write. On
the other hand, of those who were 14 or over 14 years of age, only
74.9 per cent can read and 71.8 per cent both read and write at
the present time. The Cuban, Flemish, Mexican, Scotch, Slovenian,
and Swedish races show a greater proportion among those 14 years
of age or over than of those under 14 at time of arrival who can read
or read and write, but in the case of these races the difference between
the two age groups is very small. The Danes alone are all, without
regard to age, able to read and to write.
CONJUGAL CONDITION.
The following table shows, by sex and general nativity and race,
the per cent of employees studied, 20 years of age or over, who were
in each conjugal condition. The table is based on information
secured for 419,347 wage-earners and includes only races with 80
or more persons reporting.
TABLE 82. — Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition, by
sex and general nativity and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.
MALE.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who are-
Single.
Married.
Widowed.
Native-born of native father:
White
68,374
19,115
1,185
44
3,234
129
140
5,678
646
14,170
11,871
242
421
176
655
1,826
802
282
1,187
637
3,657
890
8,151
1,656
9,051
2,751
576
1,386
12,578
3.527
29.3
33.6
59.4
45.5
38.2
51.2
56.4
35.9
31.7
37.5
42.8
67.4
42.0
50.6
61.1
39.4
60.7
39.4
31.9
40.5
22.8
30.3
23.2
22.8
42.4
29.8
22.0
23.3
20.8
43.1
67.3
60.7
39.8
54.5
58.9
48.1
41.4
61.2
64.6
60.1
52.8
31.8
54.4
48.9
38.6
57.8
38.0
55.0
66.0
57.5
75.2
67.9
72.0
72.5
56.4
65.6
72.0
72.7
74.2
.«y>. fi
3.4
5.7
.8
.0
2.9
.8
2.1
2.9
3.7
2.4
4.4
.8
3.6
.6
.3
2.8
1.2
5.7
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.8
4.8
4.6
1.2
4.5
5.9
4.0
4.9
1.4
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by country of birth of
father:
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Canada
Cuba
Denmark
England
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Eussia
Scotland
Sweden.
Switzerland . . .
Wales
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian... . ...
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
448
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 82. — Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition, by
sex and general nativity and race — Continued.
MALE— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who are —
Single.
Married.
Foreign-born, by ract1 — Continued.
Flemish 131
French 1 , 721
German 18, 417
Greek 4, 555
Hebrew, Russian 3, 333
Hebrew, Other 1,271
Herzegovinian 174
Irish 11,193
Italian, North 12,027
Italian, South 13, 915
Italian (not specified) 128
Japanese 163
Lithuanian 8, 959
Macedonian 512
Magyar 10,827
Mexican 193
Montenegrin 234
Norwegian 664
Polish 38, 092
Portuguese 2,965
Roumanian 1, 689
Russian 6, 103
Ruthenian 703
Scotch 3, 069
Scotch-Irish 105
Servian 1. 532
Slovak 22,952
Slovenian 4, 453
Spanish 1, 670
Swedish 5, 250
Syrian 824
Turkish 287
Welsh 1,691
Grand total 358, 682
Total native-born of foreign father 42, 954
Total native-born 130, 451
Total foreign-born 228, 231
24.4
22.8
16.9
62.4
31.3
27.7
77.6
26.5
41.4
38.9
45.3
73.0
55.2
39.3
27.9
52.3
62.0
31.3
34.4
31.9
45.2
39.2
34.4
22.7
25.7
47.2
23.3
40.3
46.4
29.4
54.5
52.3
18.2
32.7
40.5
33.6
32.2
71.8
73.7
78.9
30. 9
68.1
70.6
22.4
65.5
57.3
59.9
53.9
25.2
43.9
60.5
70.8
42.5
36.3
64.6
64.6
66.4
53.7
60.0
64.9
71.7
72.4
51.4
75.8
58.8
48.6
66.6
43.7
46.7
75.9
64.5
56.5
62.8
65.5
FEMALE.
Native-born of native father:
White
Negro
Native-born of
father:
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Canada
Cuba
Denmark
England
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Russia
Scotland
Sweden
Switzerland
Wales
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
foreign father, by country of birth of
10, 590
2,329
449
59
2,242
2
29
1,570
119
2,949
6,446
105
107
23
195
374
50
79
104
13
368
4
6,327
656
60.2
84.9
64.4
61.7
)
79.3
66.0
63.9
77.9
78.4
67.6
82.2
60.9
86.7
70.9
80.0
73.4
86.5
7.7
56.3
(a)
50.6
51.5
28.0
44.6
10.5
30.5
33.7
0
17.2
26.5
24.4
14.5
14.9
27.6
13.1
17.4
11.3
21.1
18.0
15.2
7.7
w
84.6
32.9
42.6
34.1
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
449
TABLE 82. — Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition, by
sex and general nativity and race — Continued.
F EM AL E— Continued .
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who are-
Single.
Married.
Widowed.
Foreign-born, by race — Continued.
Croatian
134
376
56
149
3,171
263
36
343
1,480
346
614
181
3,780
1,211
2,595
2
876
418
1
46
5,038
1,757
106
518
24
640
5
17
234
119
95
139
326
4
53
35.1
29.3
37.5
56.4
43.1
54.8
2.8
20.1
41.1
56.9
84.9
79.0
58.8
35.9
31.0
(a)
73.7
26.8
(a)
60.9
53.8
43.4
27.4
67.6
54.2
59.2
60.0
5.9
39.3
40.3
40.0
60.4
38.3
(a)
79.2
61.9
4,7.9
39.3
40.3
47.6
41.8
97.2
74.1
46.0
39.9
9.9
7.2
27.4
59.5
63.2
(a)
23.3
68.2
(a)
21.7
41.8
51.7
68.9
27.0
33.3
29.2
40.0
94.1
52.6
55.5
48.4
22.3
49.7
(a)
7.5
3.0
22.9
23.2
3.4
9.4
3.4
.0
5.8
12.8
3.2
5.2
13.8
13.8
4.5
5.9
:°)
3.0
5.0
(a)
17.4
4.5
4.8
3.8
5.4
12.5
11.6
.0
.0
8.1
4.2
11.6
17.3
12.0
(a)
13.2
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German. .
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish ,..
Italian, North
Italian, South
Italian (not specified)
Lithuanian
Magyar
Mexican
Norwegian . . .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian .
Russian
Ruthenian .
Scotch
Scotch-Irish
Servian
Slovak..
Slovenian .
Spanish
Swedish...
Syrian «
Turkish. . .
Welsh
Grand total
60, 665
56.7
34.6
8.8
Total native-born of foreign father
14,962
27,881
32, 784
74.3
65.6
49.1
19.1
24.6
43.0
6.6
9.8
7.9
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
TOTAL.
Native-born of native father:
White... .
78 964
33 5
62 0
4 5
Negro
21,444
33 7
58 9
7 4
Native-born of foreign father, by country of birth of
father:
Austria-Hungary
1 634
66 4
31 8
1 8
Azores
103
56 3
40 8
0 Q
Canada
5 476
47 g
48 6
3.6
Cuba
131
51 1
48. 1
Denmark.
169
60 4
37 3
0 A
England
7 248
49 4
53 7
3. 9
France . .
765
36 7
58 3
C A
Germany
17 119
44 5
CO 0
0 0
Ireland
18 317
55 3
39 5
5 2
Italy .
347
67 4
30 5
9 0
Netherlands
528
50 2
46 0
3 8
Norway
199
51 8
45 2
o n
Russia
850
66 9
32 4
Scotland
2 200
44 8
51 5
3. 7
Sweden .
852
61 9
36 9
1 Q
Switzerland . . .
361
46 8
46 3
6 9
Wales
1 291
36 3
61 3
0 0
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
650
39 8
eo o
Bohemian and Moravian
4 025
25 8
71 3
0 0
Bulgarian. . .
894
30. 3
67.8
1 Q
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
450
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 82. — Per cent of employees 20 years of age or over in each conjugal condition, by
sex and general nativity and race — Continued.
TOTAL— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Foreign-born, by race— Continued.
Canadian, French 14,478
Canadian, Other 2, 312
Croatian 9 , 185
Cuban 3, 127
Danish 632
Dutch 1,535
English 15, 749
Finnish 3, 790
Flemish 167
French 2, 064
German 19,897
Greek 4, 901
Hebrew, Russian 3, 947
Hebrew, Other 1,452
Herzegovinian 174
Irish 14, 973
Italian, North 13, 238
Italian, South 16,510
Italian (not specified) 130
Japanese ' 163
Lithuanian 9, 835
Macedonian 512
Magyar 11, 245
Mexican 194
Montenegrin 234
Norwegian 710
Polish 43,130
Portuguese 4, 722
Roumanian 1, 795
Russian 6, 621
Ruthenian 727
Scotch 3, 709
Scotch-Irish 110
Servian 1, 549
Slovak 23, 186
Slovenian 4, 572
Spanish 1, 765
Swedish 5, 389
Syrian 1, 150
Turkish 291
Welsh 1,744
Grand total 419, 347
Total native-born of foreign father 57, 916
Total native-born 158, 332
Total foreign-born 261, 015
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who are-
Single.
35.2
31.0
42.3
29.7
23.4
26.5
25.3
4a9
19.8
22.4
18.7
62.0
39.7
34.1
77.6
34.7
40.9
37.7
44.6
7ao
56.8
39.3
27.9
52.1
62.0
33.2
36.7
36.2
44.1
41.4
35.1
29.0
27.3
46.7
2a4
40.3
46.1
30.2
49.9
51.9
20.0
36.2
49.3
39.3
34.3
Married.
59.1
61.6
56.5
63.5
69.1
69.5
68.9
54.6
77.2
718
76.4
37.1
59.0
62.7
22.4
55.8
57.5
60.4
54.6
25.2
42.1
60.5
70.7
42.8
36.3
61.8
62.0
60.9
54.6
57.4
63.8
64.4
70.9
51.8
75.6
58.7
48.6
65.4
45.4
47.1
718
60.2
46.8
56.0
62.7
Widowed.
5.7
7.4
1.2
6.7
7.4
4.0
5.8
1.5
3.0
3.8
4.8
.9
1.3
3.2
.0
9.5
'1.6
1.9
.8
1.8
1.0
.2
1.4
5.2
1.7
4.9
1.4
2.9
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.0
1.0
5.3
4.4
4.7
1.0
6.2
3.7
3.9
4.7
3.0
The table next presented sets forth the conjugal condition of the
419,347 employees for whom information was secured, by sex, age
groups, and general nativity and race. Only races which have 200
or more persons reporting are included in the table, but the totals
are the same as for the table preceding.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 451
i
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The Immigration Commission.
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 453
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Total native-bor
Total foreign-bo
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Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
455
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111
456
The Immigration Commission.
Che following table shows, by sex and age groups, and by general
ivity and race of individual, the per cent of persons in the house-
The
nativity and race ot individual, the per
holds studied who were single, married, or widowed :
TABLE 84. — Per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by sex and age groups, (r.d
by general nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
MALE.
General nativity and
race of individual.
20 to 29 years of age.
30 to 44 years of age.
45 years of age or
over.
20 years of age or
over.
t»c
II
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t- «
K
SB
3 0
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are —
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II
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Jl
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are —
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1
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%
0
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H
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1
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Native-born of native
father:
White...
512
50
60
74
32
50
198
232
113
70
71
154
431
185
519
1.5
23
124
53
24
44
231
532
370
124
343
1,264
703
57
650
18
1,587
134
67
75
432
51
116
651
89
89
166
283
16
48.0
28.0
71.7
86.5
75.0
84.0
76.3
83.6
58.4
98.6
62.0
37.0
38.1
48.6
35.6
20.0
39.1
51.6
9.4
50.0
45.5
53.2
78.4
34.1
53.2
45.2
52.3
(-3.3
68.4
44.0
55.6
47.3
29.1
40.3
40.0
41.7
66.7
54.3
27.0
18.0
50.6
56.0
79.9
75.0
51.8
72.0
26.7
12.2
25.0
16.0
22.7
15.9
41.6
1.4
38.0
63.0
61.3
50.8
63.6
80.0
60.9
48.4
90.6
50.0
54.5
46.3
21.4
65.7
46.8
54.5
47.3
36. 6
31.6
55.8
44.4
52.6
70.9
59.7
58.7
58.3
33.3
44.8
73.0
82.0
49.4
42.8
20.1
25.0
0.2
.0
1.7
1.4
.0
.0
1.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
.5
.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.2
.3
.0
.3
.4
.1
.0
!o
.1
.0
.0
1.3
.0
.0
. s
!o
.0
.0
1.2
.0
.0
579
85
16
22
9
25
140
221
40
5
83
261
236
238
401
22
73
244
75
47
68
461
254
414
31f
434
1,145
687
27
771
29
1,539
141
67
76
414
5C
63
887
102
251
95
115
31
7.3
9.4
18.8
18.2
(a)
8.0
10.0
26.2
12.5
(a)
25.3
3.1
2.1
10.5
4.2
4.5
1.4
11.1
.0
6.4
5.9
6.9
21.7
6.3
14.2
5.8
8.9
18.9
3.7
8.0
20.7
9.0
2.8
6.0
14.5
8.2
10.7
7.9
2.8
2.0
8.4
11.6
13.0
6.5
91.9
88.2
75.0
77.3
(a)
88.0
90.0
71.0
87.5
(a)
72.3
95.0
85.3
84.9
94.8
95.5
95.9
86.1
100.0
91.5
94.1
91.8
77.6
93.0
84.5
93.1
90.6
80.3
96.3
90.8
79.3
90.5
96.5
89. C
85.5
91.1
89.3
90.5
96.8
98.0
90.4
84.2
85.2
93.5
0.9
2.4
6.3
4.5
(a)
4.0
.0
2.7
.0
(a)
2.4
1.9
2.5
4.6
1.0
.0
2.7
2. 9
.0
2.1
.0
1.3
.8
.7
1.3
1.2
.5
.7
i!i
.0
.5
. 7
4.5
.0
. 7
.0
1.6
.3
.0
1.2
4.2
1.7
.0
339
26
1.2
7.7
94.1
84.6
4.7
7.7
1,430
161
7f
99
43
91
398
SCO
154
75
197
571
697
644
1,000
46
156
549
147
102
178
1,135
840
901
774
921
2,742
1,497
86
1,602
58
3,497
330
144
160
934
172
188
1,774
213
549
289
405
105
20.4
14.9
GO. 5
68.7
58.1
49.5
41.7
45.5
46.1
98.7
35.0
11.6
24.4
18.6
20.4
8.7
6.4
17.1
3.4
14.7
13.5
14.4
56.2
16.9
15.2
20.3
28.0
38.6
46.5
21.9
29.3
25.7
13.0
21.5
25.6
23.3
23.8
36.2
11.7
8.5
12.0
36.3
59.5
13.3
78.0
82.6
36.8
29.3
41.9
48.4
57.5
52.1
53.9
1.3
61.9
%l
76.6
78.6
89.1
91.0
79.2
95.9
83.3
84.8
82.7
43.3
82.0
78.7
78.4
70.9
GO. 8
53.5
77.0
69.0
73.5
86.1
76.4
73.8
75.8
75.0
62.2
87.4
91.5
85.6
61.6
40.0
83.8
72.9
1.5
2.5
2.C
2.0
.0
2.2
.8
2.3
.0
.0
3.0
1.8
1.4
4.8
1.0
2.2
2.6
3.6
.7
2.0
1.7
2.9
.5
1.1
6.1
1.3
1.1
.6
.0
1.1
1.7
.7
.9
2.1
.6
.9
1.2
1.6
.9
.0
2.4
2.1
.5
2.9
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and
Canadian, French.
Dutch
3
16
60
107
1
(a)
ft
t). 6
1.7
2.8
(a)
(a)
(a)
87.5
96.7
91.6
(a)
(a)
(a)
6.3
1.7
5.6
(a)
English
German. . .
Irish.. ..
Polish
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
43
156
30
221
80
9
60
181
19
31
60
443
54
117
334
144
333
107
181
11
371
55
10
9
88
65
9
236
22
209
28
58
9.3
.6
3.3
2.3
2.5
Wo
1.7
.0
.0
.0
1.8
.0
.0
2.1
4.9
1.5
2.8
(a)
1.7
9.1
3.0
.0
.0
(a)
4.5
1.5
(a)
3.0
.0
.0
3.6
(a)
81.4
96.2
93.3
89.1
95.0
&
91.2
94.7
96.8
95.5
92.3
98.1
94.9
85.0
91.0
93.1
94.4
(?)
93.9
81.8
92.5
96.4
100.0
(a)
89.8
95.4
(a)
91.5
100.0
95.2
96.4
(0)
94.8
9.3
3.2
3.3
8.6
2.5
&
7.2
5.3
3.2
4.5
5.9
1.9
5.1
12.9
4.2
5.4
2.8
a
9.1
4.6
3.6
.0
(«)
5.7
3.1
(a)
5.5
.0
4.8
.0
(a)
5.2
Bohemian and
Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French.
Croatian..
Cuban
Dutch
English. .
Finnish
Flemish
French .
German
Greek
Hebrew.
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch .
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian...
Turkish.
Welsh.
Grand total
Total native-born of
foreign father
11,340
989
1,551
9,789
51.2
81.2
158. 5
48.5
48.5
18.3
31.1
51.3
.3
.5
.3
11,374
9.2
18.9
12.4
8.8
89.8
79.2
86.2
90.2
1.1
1.8
1.4
1.1
4,387
2.0
3.1
2.1
1.9
92.3
5.7
27, 101
25.6
1.5
1.3
1.5
1.5
491
1 , 155
10,219
194
559
3,828
92.8
93.2
92.2
4.1
4.7
5.9
1,674
3.265
23, 83C
53.944.8
37.361.2
24.0,74.5
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 457
TABLE 84. — Per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by sex and age groups, and
by general nativity and race of individual — Continued.
FEMALE.
General nativity and
race of individual.
20 to 29 years of age.
30 to 44 years of age.
45 years of age or
over.
20 years of age or
over.
tc
fd
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i8
Per cent who
are—
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Per cent who
are—
r'.
'-si
&8
zs
ft
£°
Per cent who
are —
$ .
f|
PH^
££
it
g°
Per cent who
are —
su
"fcX)
a
DD
1
3
I
1
$
qj
"si
g
W
'd
c3
i
T3
1
1
?
£
bp
_g
CD
1
3
T3
1
T3
?
20.1
27.8
JS
"fcC
Jj
'w
C3
3
•A
*
1
r~
Native-born of native
father:
White
Negro
617
61
71
89
40
60
213
286
129
90
57
148
1
199
350
21
24
101
57
49
211
34.8
8.2
36.6
58.4
50.0
5S..3
50.7
76.6
26.4
82.2
26.3
8.1
(a)
45.2
1.4
14.3
33.3
32.7
5.3
16.0
12.2
?1 3
64.2
88.5
62.0
38.2
50.0
41.7
47.4
22.7
73.6
14.4
66.7
91.2
(a)
53.3
98.0
85.7
66.7
67.3
94.7
84.0
85.7
76.8
64.8
86.1
53.5
93.5
92.4
88.1
94.3
(a)
89.4
75.3
97.9
86.0
84.1
50.9
95.5
95.9
100.0
76.4
87.4
62.5
1.0
3.3
1.4
3.4
.0
.0
1.9
. 7
.0
3.3
7.0
(«)
1.5
.6
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.0
1.9
1.0
.3
.8
.0
.6
.6
.4
(°>2
2.1
.0
1.8
.8
1.8
.0
.3
.0
1.1
.0
6.3
547
61
27
38
18
38
135
248
21
22
4(
221
7
229
203
26
69
209
58
40
52
410
27
348
352
277
582
280
362
16
789
119
22
20
237
51
19
562
69
221
54
32
7.9
.0
7.4
10.5
.0
5.3
11.1
20.2
.0
13.6
4.3
.9
(a)
9.0
1.0
3.8
1.4
7.2
.0
2.5
1.9
1.0
3.7
.0
9.4
.7
.9
3.2
1.7
.0
1.6
5.0
.0
.0
2.1
11.8
.0
.5
.0
2.3
3.7
3.1
88.1
98.4
92.6
86.8
100.0
94.7
87.4
75.4
100.0
81.8
91.3
97.7
(a)
87.8
96.6
88.5
97.1
90.4
100.0
97.5
96.2
97.8
88.9
98.3
87.2
97.1
96.9
95.4
94.2
100.0
96.8
91.6
90.9
100.0
89.5
88.2
94.7
.96. 4
98.6
95.9
77.8
84.4
4.0
1.6
.0
2.6
.0
.0
1.5
4.4
.0
4.5
4.3
1.4
(a)
3.2
2.5
7.7
1.4
2.4
.0
.0
1.9
1.2
7.4
1.7
3.4
2.2
2.2
1.4
4.1
.0
1.5
3.4
9.1
.0
8.4
.0
5.3
3.0
1.4
1.8
18.5
12.5
313
18
1.9
.0
78.0
72.2
1,477
140
98
135
59
120
409
f32
150
114
128
494
8
623
581
55
132
473
132
87
157
937
144
812
774
643
1,519
838
937
31
2,275
317
71
82
658
165
66
1,309
175
474
179
100
17.9
3.(
28.6
41.5
33.9
30.8
30.3
44.1
22.7
67.5
13.3
3.0
&
1.2
7.3
6.8
10.4
2.3
5.7
4.5
5.2
26.4
6.4
13.8
3.3
«
31
6.5
12.3
1.4
8.5
9.6
20.6
3.0
2.1
.0
5.5
7.8
7.0
76.0
90.7
70.4
55.6
66. 1
69.2
67.5
50.6
77.3
28.9
72.7
90.1
(a)
72.1
97.1
87.3
90.9
82.0
96.2
90.8
87.9
87.6
68.8
90.6
72.4
93.5
91.2
90.5
92 6
90.3
91.8
82.0
95.8
89.0
85.6
74.5
95.5
95.0
98.9
90.3
76.5
84.0
6.2
5.7
1.0
3.0
.0
.0
2.2
5.2
.0
3.5
14.1
6.9
(a)
9.8
1.7
5.5
2.3
7.6
1.5
3.4
7.6
7.2
4.9
3.0
13.8
3.3
5.1
1.7
3.9
9.7
1.8
5.7
2.8
2.4
4.9
4.8
1.5
2.8
1.1
4.2
15.6
9.0
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
Canadian, French.
Dutch
8
1
22
61
98
25
125
(°)
Wo
1.6
10.2
'(«")'
.0
.8
(a)
(a)
100.0
93.4
69.4
"(a)'
52.0
75.2
(a)
(a)
.0
4.9
20.4
'(a)
48.0
24.0
English
G erman
Irish
Polish
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and
Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French.
Croatian
202
28
8
39
163
17
22
56
316
12
84
295
74
215
54
81
8
204
52
2
5
38
57
3
112
12
1C4
30
52
1.5
.0
Wo
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
8.3
.0
5.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
.0
.0
(a)
(a)
.0
1.8
(a)
.9
.0
.6
.0
1.9
73.3
89.3
(a)
94.9
80.4
88.2
86.4
82.1
81.6
58.3
79.8
62.7
i79.7
72.1
87.0
75.3
(a)
87.3
78.8
(0)
(a)
76.3
86.0
(a)
83.0
91.7
90.2
40.0
90.4
25.2
10.7
fl
19.0
11.8
13.6
17.9
18.4
33.3
20.2
31.9
20.3
27.9
13.0
24.7
(°)
12.7
21.2
(a)
(0)
23.7
12.3
(a)
16.1
8.3
9.1
60.0
7.7
Cuban
Dutch
English .
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
105
380
197
292
722
504
494
7
1,282
146
47
57
383
57
44
C35
94
89
95
16
34.3
13.7
45.7
6.5
7.1
11.3
5.3
(a)
10.5
22.6
2.1
12.3
15.1
47.4
4.5
3.8
.0
22.5
12.6
31.3
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar ....
Mexican . . .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh
Grand total
Total native-born of
foreign father
. 8, 755
19.7
79.5
.7
7,267
3.7
93.4
2.8
3,134
1.4
78.3
20»3
11.3
17.0
21.0
19, 156
10.7
84.0
4.7
2.7
4.2
4.8
1,214
1,895
6,860
53.9
46.1
12.4
44.9
52.7
87.0
1.2
1.2
.6
589
1,197
6,070
13.1
10.0
2.5
84.2
86.7
94.7
2.7
3.3
2.8
204
535
2,599
5.9
3.4
1.0
82.8
79.6
78.0
2,007
3, 627
15,529
37.0
27.9
6.6
CO. 3
67.9
88.5
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
72289°— VOL 1—11 30
458
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 84. — Per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by sex and age groups, and
by general nativity and race of individual — Continued.
TOTAL.
General nativity and
race of individual.
20 to 29 years of age.
Native-born of native
father:
White
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
Canadian, French.
Dutch
English
German
Irish
Polish
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and
Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French.
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North.
Italian, South.
Lithuanian
Macedonian. . .
Magyar
Mexican
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch ,
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish. . .
Welsh •.
Grand total
of
Total native-born
foreign father
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
Per cent who
are—
1, 129 40. 8
11117.1
131 52. 7
16371.2
7261.1
11070.0
41163.0
518 79. 7
24241.3
128 46. 1
30222.8
43238.0
384!46.9
58.5
81.1
45.8
26.4
38.9
30.0
35.5
19.7
58.7
8.8
50.8
76.8
61.3
52.1
77.4
3616.7 83.3
4736.2 63.8
22543.1 56.9
110 7.3 92.7
4932.7i 67.3
9328.0 71.0
44238.0 60.9
63771.1 28.6
75023.7 76.0
25149.4 50.2
63527.41 72.4
1,98635.9, 63.7
1,207[41.6 58.1
5768.4^ 31.6
1,14427.3! 72.5
2540.0 60.0
2,86930.8 69.0
280'26.7 73.2
11424.6' 75.4
13228.0 70.5
81529.2 70.4
10856.5 42.6
16040.6 58.8
1,28615.6 84.3
183 8.7 91.3
178|36.5! 62.9
261!40.2 59.0
2S3!79.9| 20.1
3253.ll 43.8
2,203!66.1 33.0
3,446(56.2' 42.9
16,649:33.6 66.0
1.8
1.5
2.5
.0
.0
1.5
.6
.0
1.9
3.1
.3
.7
1.0
.7
,0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.1
1.1
.3
.3
.4
.2
.5
.3
.0
.3
.0
.1
1.1
.0
1.5
.4
.9
.6
.2
.0
.6
.8
.0
3.1
30 to 44 years of age.
SI
1,126
146
Per cent who
are—
4311.
60113.3
90.1
92.5
3.0
1.3
.0100.0
92.1
88.7
63 6.3
275|10.5
46923.0 ,„.„
61! 8.2 91.8
2729.6: 66.7
I
12917.8 79.1
482' 2.1 96.3
243 2.1 95.5
460; 9.8 86.3
604' 3.l| 95.4
4.2 91.7
142; 1.4 96.5
88.1
133| . 0 100. 0
S7i 4.6
120
871
4.2
4.1
28119.9
762| 3.4
668 11. 7
711
1,727
94.3
95.0
94.6
78.6
95.4
85.9
94.7
92.7
96714.4 84.7
27! 3.7j 96.3
,133: 6.0 91.9
4513.3' 86.7
328! 6.5 92.7
260! 3.8 94.2
89 4.5 89.9
9611.5 88.5
651 i 6.0! 90.5
10711.2 88.8
82! 6.1
171! 1.2
472 5.5
149 8.7
11513.0
63 4.8
1,08015.7 81.9
2,35211.2 86.5
91.5
96.7
98.2
93.0
81.9
85.2
91.2
416,:
6. 5 91. !
1.7
2.5
3.9
1.5
4.2
2.1
2.6
.0
1.1
.8
1.3
1.4
1.2
2.4
1.5
1.1
.9
.0
2.1
.0
.8
1.9
5.6
.0
3.5
.0
2.4
1.4
.6
1.5
9.4
1.7
6.3
45 years of age or
over.
If
652
Per cent who
are —
1.5 86.312.1
4.5 79.515.9
11 .0100.0
3 (a) (a)
38 2.6 94.7
12l| 1.7 95.0
6.3' 81.
(a)
1
2
68
281
30
423
108
17
99
344
36
53
122
759
66
201
629
218
5.9
7 86.812.5
3.3 93.3
1.9 81.616.5
1.9 93.5
.0' 88.2
.0 96.0
.0
(a)
2.6
3.3
012.7
(a)
(a)
70. 6 23. 5
3.3
4.6
11.8
4.0
20 years of age or
over.
If
11
301
Per cent who
are—
2, 907 19. 1 77. 0
9.686.4
174 42. 5 55,
23453.044.
102144.155.
21138.960,
80735.9'62,
1,19244.8151
30434.5'65.
32526.566.2
065 7.688.3
705 24. 1J74. 5
1,26718.4:74.3
1,58113.3185.4
1011 7.988.1
288 6.6,91.0
1.2! 86.012.8! 1,02214.080.5
7.5
.0^91.7
. 0- 92. 5
.0 89.310.7
1.1 87.9S11.1
1.5 90.9 7.6
.0 88.611.4! 1
3.7 74.6!21.8 1
161! 1.9
20)
262 1.1
19
3.2 87.2 9.6|
.9j 84.914.2
91.9| 6.2;
7,521
1,094
6,427
(a) j (a)
88. 210.7i 2
73.721.ll
90.6! 7.5| 5
87.9:12.1!
.0100.0 .0|
" 92.9 7.1
1.9
3.2
2.3
1.7
85.711.1
91.0 7.4
91.7 8.3
97.1 2.9
93. 0 6.7
67.231.0
a) | (a)
6.4
(a) |
92.7;
87.7
7.8
610.7
86.511.846,25719.477.8! 2.8
3,68144.753.2 2.1
64.71 2.9
86. 5 12. 0 39, 365117. 1 80. 0 2. 8
1.0
1.7
2.6
.0
.9
1.5
.7
2.4
4.1
1.4
7.3
1.3
4.0
2.4
5.5
1.1
2.6
279 2.996.1
189 10. 6 86.
335 9.386.3i 4.5
07210.284.9; 4.8
984 51. 8 47.1! 1.1
71311.986.1 2.0
54814.575.5 9.9
564 13. 3 84. 6' 2.1
26119.378.2! 2.5
335|27.671.4! 1.0
86 46. 5 53. 5| .0
539 15. 182.71 2.2
89!19.176.4 4.5
772 18.1 80. 7, 1.1
647 12. 7 84. 1! 3.2
215'l4.982.8 2.3
242 19. 8 78. 9| 1.2
592 17. 7 79. 8! 2.5
337 22. 3 74. 8j 3.0
25427.670.9; 1.6
083 7.790.61 1.7
388; 4.694.8' .5
023! 9.087.8 3.2
468 25. 4 67. 3 7.3
40559.540.0 .5
20510.283.9 5.9
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the totals in the preceding table it is seen that
a larger proportion of foreign-born than of native-born persons within
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
459
the age period 20 to 29 years were married. The difference between
the two nativity groups decreases in the next age classification, 30
to 44 years, and among those 45 years of age or over about the same
proportions of native-born and foreign-born persons were married.
Of the total number 20 years of age or over, only 17.1 per cent
of the persons of foreign birth were unmarried, as contrasted with
32.4 per cent of those of native birth. The same general tendencies
are exhibited by .the totals for males and females as are shown by
the grand totals. As a general rule, among the races of recent immi-
gration from southern and eastern Europe a larger proportion of
unmarried males are found than among the races from Great Britain
and northern Europe, while in the case of the females this situation
is reversed, there being a larger percentage of unmarried women
among races of past immigration than among those of recent years.
This situation is probably due to the fact that most of the
women in the households the heads of which were recent immigrants
either were married before their husbands came to the United States or
were sent for by present husbands who married them immediately
upon their arrival in this country.
The following table shows the percentage of foreign-born husbands
who report wife in the United States and the percentage who report
wife abroad, by race of husband:
TABLE 85. — Per cent of foreign-born husbands who report wife in the United States and
per cent who report wife abroad, by race of husband.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more husbands reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-
born.]
Race of husband.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent reporting wife —
In United
States.
Abroad.
Armenian
362
2,644
580
5,707
1,172
4,922
1,802
411
977
9,020
1,937
84
1,230
14,203
1,624
2,139
849
7,127
6,680
7,985
66
3,840
285
7,448
73
84
423
24, 013
1,902
848
3,555
448
2,131
67
772
49.2
91.9
10.0
98.5
98.9
40.7
96.6
96.8
. 96.2
96.6
82.4
88.1
94.7
95.7
25.3
87.5
90.7
98.8
68.4
63.1
66.7
76.7
3.5
56.7
86.3
23.8
91.0
77.0
84.1
26.1
54.5
55.6
96.8
97.0
35.5
50.8
8.1
90.0
1.5
1.1
59.3
3.4
3.2
3.8
3.4
17.6
11.9
5.3
4.3
74.7
12.5
9.3
1.2
31.6
36.9
33.3
23.3
96.5
43.3
13.7
76.2
9.0
23.0
15.9
73.9
45.5
44.4
3.2
3.0
64.5
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian. .
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French . . .
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other...
Irish....
Italian, North
Italian, South...
Italian (not specified)
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin
Norwegian...
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian ,
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Scotch-Irish
Servian
460
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 85. — Per cent of foreign-born husbands who report wife in the United States and
per cent who report wife abroad, by race of husband — Continued.
Race of husband.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent reporting wife—
In United
States.
Abroad.
Slovak
17, 099
2,572
809
3,430
357
128
1,248
1,095
755
250
65.8
66.3
96.4
97.1
65.0
16.4
98.6
73.0
92.2
98.8
34.2
33.7
3.6
2.9
35.0
83.6
1.4
27.0
7.8
1.2
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh..
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified) .
Swiss (race not specified)
Total..
145, 354
77.3
22.7
The preceding table illustrates in a striking way the transitory
character of the recent immigrant labor supply. Upon referring to
the totals it is seen that 22.7 per cent, or almost one-fourth, of the
wage-earners of foreign birth who were married were unaccompanied
by their wives. The real significance of the situation, however, does
not manifest itself until the statistics relative to the recent and older
immigrants are compared. The comparative showing made by the
principal races of the old immigration and of the new is set forth below :
TABLE 86. — Old and new immigration compared with respect to foreign-born husbands
reporting uife abroad, by race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
Old immigration.
Percent
reporting
wife
abroad.
New immigration.
Per cent
reporting
wife
abroad.
Canadian, French
1.5
Bulgarian
90 0
Dutch
3.8
Croatian
59 3
English '.
3.4
Greek
74 7
German
4.3
Hebrew Russian
12 5
Irish
1 2
31 6
Scotck
3.2
Italian, South
36 9
Swedish
2 9
Lithuanian
23 3
Welsh
1 4
40 o
Polish
23 0
Portuguese
15 9
Roumanian
73 9
Russian. . . .
45 5
Servian
64 5
Slovak
34 2
Slovenian .
33 7
A glance at the foregoing comparison shows 4hat no race of old
immigration from Great Britain or northern Europe has as many as
5 per cent of its married wage-earners unaccompanied by their wives,
while of the recent immigrants from southern and eastern Europe
only four races show as much as 75 per cent of the married males
with their wives in the United States. As a matter of fact, in the case
of the principal races the proportions of married male wage-earners
who have their wives with them are very much lower. The most
unfavorable showing is made by the Bulgarians, with only 10 per
cent of the married males with "their wives in this country. More-
over, only 25.3 per cent of the Greeks, 26.1 per cent of the Kouma-
nians, 35.5 per cent of the Servians, 40.7 per cent of the Croatians, and
slightly more than one-half of the Russians and Magyars, have their
wives with them in the United States.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
461
VISITS ABROAD.
The table below shows, by race, sex, and years in the United States,
the visits abroad made by foreign-born wage-earners. The table is
based on information secured for 240,368 employees:
TABLE 87. — Visits abroad made by foreign-born employees, by sex, years in the United
States, and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only races with 200 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
MALE.
Race.
Number in United States—
Per cent reporting 1 or more
visits, by years in United
States.
Under
5 years.
5 to 9
years.
10 years
or over.
Total.
Under
5 years.
5 to 9
years.
10 years
or over.
Total.
Armenian..
244
946
733
1,075
137
4,143
. 1, 180
75
197
2,204
1,565
. 472
1,994
4,015
1,243
279
909
4,792
7,032
3,787
320
4,449
200
124
15,629
1 353
132
729
53
1,000
165
2,015
973
85
156
1,273
1,055
370
1,631
706
928
321
844
3,716
4,188
2,533
6
2,511
19
118
9,651
1,051
170
1,274
152
247
324
5,776
1,331
604
793
281
18
67
172
1,534
21
6,288
1,161
771
780
385
804
7,887
772
734
12,307
198
866
540
8,068
2,546
2,346
1,873
548
3,209
807
8,363
1,463
6,929
2,933
545
1,157
11,364
3,392
1,576
15,932
4,919
3,037
1,140
9,821
11,054
13,566
8,193
326
8,306
228
606
33,778
3,237
1,551
5,569
580
2,617
1,204
17,947
3,853
1,842
4,825
908
294
1,513
3.3
3.6
5.9
31.4
43.8
8.7
32.6
4.0
6.6
9.8
8.8
4.2
5.6
6.4
2.4
2.2
4.0
11.0
11.1
3.9
6.6
11.9
.5
4.8
5.6
5.8
9.4
6.1
9.1
12.2
5.4
12.7
9.0
9.6
4.8
4.6
7.2
9.6
9.8
6.6
18.9
53.3
58.2
20.0
67.8
20.0
15.4
32.2
21.4
12.2
12.1
16.9
4.6
3.7
12.4
26.3
26.8
7.4
S.
(a)
18.6
11.2
18.6
22.4
13.7
23.0
32.0
15.1
24.4
15.3
30.0
18.7
10.7
(0)
14.9
10.5
4.3
19.0
57.8
59.3
24.9
67.7
19.7
8.7
32.2
16.1
24.4
10.3
35.9
4.5
10.9
15.5
35.5
28.7
9.6
""26."9"
SI,
10.3
36.5
14.3
12.3
28.3
30.9
25.9
26.8
17.0
41.5
19.9
21.3
(a)
25.3
7.1
4.6
7.1
53.9
57.8
13.8
53.6
17.6
9.2
27.8
14.4
15.5
9.9
9.0
3.7
6.8
14.2
21.8
19.0
6.3
7.4
17.9
1.8
18.0
8.4
17.9
10.9
8.7
16.0
28.1
9.4
20.4
12.5
23.6
17.8
8.8
8.5
24.0
Bohemian and Moravian.
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish..
French
German.. . ..
Greek •
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian .
Macedonian
Magyar
Montenegrin
l,34(i
9
364
8,498
833
21
779
99
1,960
81
4,973
631
419
3,444
127
13
•1,363
Norwegian . . .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
1,360
3,516
329
410
799
7,198
1,891
819
588
500
263
83
Russian
Ruthenian . . .
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
Total
78, 639
48,241
76,272
203, 152
8.7
20.0
23.5
16.9
FEMALE.
Armenian. . .
4
164
2
1,367
103
109
188
4
85
2
1,129
117
11
119
3
19
531
80
75
175
95
3
144
1
4,680
411
7
160
38
77
1,863
36
97
879
15
11
393
5
7,176
631
127
467
41
134
3,170
293
350
1,338
511
(a)
1.8
(a)
30.3
37.9
2.8
12.2
(a)
7.1
So
69.2
(?)
31.1
(a)
(a)
30.1
37.5
24.0
11.4
11.6
. (2,
Hi
61.6
ffi.
21.1
13.0
30.7
33.3
26.8
15.6
(a}
(a)
4.8
(a)
49.4
59.1
3.9
25.1
19.5
11.2
25.5
20.1
15.7
12.8
4.5
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
38
776
177
178
284
401
2.6
9.7
9.6
6.2
4.9
2.7
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek...
«Not computed, owing to small number involved.
462
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 87. — Visits abroad made by foreign-born employees, by sex, years in the United
States, and race — Continued.
FEMALE— Continued.
Race.
Number in United States —
Per cent reporting 1 or more
visits, by years in United
States.
Under
5 years.
5 to 9
years.
10 years
or over.
Total.
Under
5 years.
5 to 9
years.
10 years
or over.
Total.
Hebrew, Riissian
586
If!
792
1,825
768
242
13
4,413
1,010
52
546
61
102
13
173
110
70
12
243
4
9
189
95
444
382
896
159
55
8
1,440
723
21
135
6
53
2
56
25
29
9
126
1
8
110
42
2,599
328
549
67
21
14
822
457
1
76
5
448
1
32
10
16
88
52
885
261
3,457
1,502
3,270
994
318
35
6,675
2,190
74
757
72
603
16
261
145
115
109
421
5
75
1.2
2.4
2.2
4.0
2.3
2.9
4.5
(a)
3.3
7.5
1.9
2.9
13.1
11.8
•(a)
5.2
7.3
1.4
<ti
8
3.2
4.2
20.7
11.0
5.8
1.9
14.5
(a)
12.4
14. 1
4.8
8.1
(a)
39.6
(a)
10.7
20.0
6.9
(a)
10.3
8
0.9
9.5
20.5
23.8
9.7
6.0
23.8
(a)
16.5
33.5
w6
35.0
(a)
25.0
(a)
(a)
20.5
11.5
""i7."2"
1.6
4.2
18.3
10.1
4.5
2.9
7.5
14.3
6.9
15.1
2.7
4.2
12.5
31.5
(a)
8.8
11.0
7.0
22.0
6.9
fa)
14.7
Hebrew, Other...
Irish...
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch...
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian .
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian . .
Turkish
Welsh
58
Total
15,558
7,363
14,295
37,216
6.7
20.3
34.0
19.9
TOTAL.
Armenian
248
136
175
559
3 6
9 6
10.9
7 3
Bohemian and Moravian
1,110
814
1,678
3,602
3.3
6.6
4.5
4.6
Bulgarian.. .
735
55
22
812
5.9
20.0
18.2
7.1
Canadian, French
2 442
2,129
10 968
15 539
30 8
51 6
56 6
51 8
Canadian, Other
240
. 282
1,572
2,094
41.3
62.8
59.9
58.2
Croatian
4,252
2,026
778
7,056
8 6
19.9
24.8
13.6
Cuban
1 368
1 092
940
3 400
29 8
63 8
62 2
49 7
Danish
75
88
423
586
4.0
19.3
19.9
17.7
Dutch ..
235
175
881
1 291
6 0
16 0
9.1
9 5
English
2 980
1 804
9 750
14 534
9 7
31 6
31 9
27 3
Finnish
1,742
1,135
808
3,685
8.9
22.6
16.8
14.8
French
650
445
831
1 926
4 8
14 2
24 7
15.5
German
2 278
1 806
13 186
17 270
5 5
12 0
10 6
10 1
Greek
4,416
801
213
5,430
6.0
16.2
33.8
8.6
Hebrew, Russian
1,829
1,117
976
3 922
2 0
4 4
4 1
3.2
Hebrew, Other
403
416
582
1 401
2 2
3 8
10 8
6 3
Irish
1,323
1,288
10, 667
13,278
3.4
15.3
16.7
15.3
Italian, North..
5,584
4,098
2,874
12 556
10 0
24 9
34 2
20 4
Italian, South
8 857
5 084
2 895
16 836
9 3
23 1
25 1
16 2
Lithuanian
4,555
2,692
1,940
9,187
3 8
7.1
9.5
5.9
Macedonian
320
6
326
6 6
(a)
7.4
Magyar
4,691
2 566
1 367
8 624
11 5
23 6
26 8
17 5
Montenegrin
200
19
9
228
.5
(a)
(a)
1.8
Norwegian . . .
137
126
378
641
4 4
18 3
225
17.8
Polish
20,042
11 091
9 320
40 453
5 1
11 3
10 8
8 1
Portuguese
2,363
1,774
1,290
5,427
6.6
16 8
35.4
16.8
Roumanian
Russian
1,412
4,062
191
1 409
22
855
1,625
6 326
9.1
5 7
20.4
13 1
13.6
11 8
10.5
8 2
Ruthenian
390
158
104
652
9.7
22 8
26.9
15.6
Scotch
512
300
2,408
3 220
12 1
33 3
31 7
28.7
Servian
812
326
82
1 220
5 5
15 3
25 6
9 5
Slovak
7,371
5,832
5,005
18, 208
12.5
24.2
26.8
20.2
Slovenian
2,001
1,356
641
3,998
8 9
15 3
17 2
12.4
Spanish
889
633
435
1 957
9 0
28 9
41 1
22 6
Swedish
600
802
3 532
4 934
5 2
18 8
19 9
17 9
Syrian .
743
407
179
1,329
4 4
10 6
18 4
8.2
Turkish
267
19
13
299
7 5
(a)
(a)
8 7
Welsh
92
75
1 421
1 588
8 7
14 7
25 0
23 6
Total
94, 197
55,604
90, 567
240,368
8 4
20 0
25 1
17.4
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
463
On referring to the totals of the preceding table, it is seen that 17.4
per cent of the foreign-born industrial workers had made one or more
visits abroad. There is a rapid increase in the proportion making
visits abroad corresponding to length of residence in the United
States, 25.1 per cent with a residence of ten years or longer having
visited their home countries, as compared with only 8.4 per cent of
those who had been in the United States under five years. The total
number of female wage-earners exhibit a somewhat higher percent-
age than the^males who had made visits abroad, the greater tendency
of the women to visit their native lands being especially noticeable
among those who had been in this country ten years or longer.
AGE CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS.
The age classification of employees for whom information was re-
ceived is set forth in the table following, which shows for 505,284
wage-earners, by sex and general nativity and race, the proportion
who were in each specified age group.
TABLE 88. — Per cent of employees within each age group, by sex and general nativity
and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes in each section only races with 100 or more reporting. The totals, however, are for all
races.]
MALE.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent within each specified age group.
Under
14.
14 to 19.
20 to 24.
25 to 29.
30 to 34.
35 to 44.
45 to 54.
55 or
over.
Native - born of native
father:
White
Negro
82,337
22,015
2,657
113
149
4,916
200
209
7,483
803
17,920
14,115
709
601
235
101
1,298
2,379
1,211
373
1,462
669
3,917
964
9,373
1,748
9,8£6
3,023
596
0.2
.8
{\
.0
.0
.0
.5
.1
.0
W.o
.1
.0
.0
.0
.2
(a)
!o
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
W.o
.0
16.5
12.1
55.0
61.1
57.0
33.8
35.0
32.1
23.8
19.1
20.6
15.4
65.6
29.8
25.1
64.4
49.1
22.9
33.5
24.4
18.7
4.5
6.1
7.3
12.7
5.1
7.7
8.8
2.9
19.9
19.9
27.6
14.2
20.8
21.1
27.5
32.5
20.8
16.9
21.2
15.2
22.8
19.6
31.1
19.8
30.6
21.4
31.8
16.9
18.2
20.6
14.0
24.6
13.9
11.0
31.8
16.4
9.2
17.0
18.9
9.2
10.6
12.1
14.7
20.5
12.9
14.8
16.8
15.8
13.3
7.3
17.8
19.1
7.9
12.5
16.2
17.6
16.6
17.6
25.1
18.5
29.7
14.4
12 .4
23.4
21.0
14.8
13.2
14.1
3.5
3.5
2.7
10.5
8.5
9.6
11.9
11.6
12.0
13.4
2.7
12.5
8.9
2.0
4.3
11.6
8.3
10.2
13.3
17.9
15.3
15.4
13.9
14.3
14.7
15.0
11.6
17.8
18.7
3.9
9.7
6.0
14.0
8.5
8.6
16.9
17.2
17.6
24.0
.7
13.6
9.8
3.0
2.7
15.9
7.2
20.1
20.0
22.1
26.4
17.2
21.9
27.3
17.5
25.3
25.2
10.2
11.4
.6
.9
1.3
4.3
.0
3.8
8.5
13.2
10.2
14.8
.6
5.5
5.1
3.0
.5
8.9
1.3
9.9
8.4
8.5
14.4
5.1
14.9
19.2
4.4
10.4
23.3
5.2
4.0
.1
.0
.0
1.6
.0
.0
3.2
5.2
2.6
3.8
.1
1.2
.9
.0
.2
3.1
.2
'1.9
3.7
1.2
5.4
.8
8.3
10.7
.4
3.1
13.1
Native - born of foreign
father, by country of
birth of father: *
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Belgium
Canada
Cuba
Denmark, .
England
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy.. .
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Russia
Scotland..
Sweden
Switzerland. . .
Wales
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian . .
Bohemian and Mora-
vian...
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish...
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
464
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 88. — Per cent of employees within each age group, by sex and general nativity
and race — Continued.
MALE— Continued .
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent within each specified age group.
Under
14.
14 to 19.
20 to 24.
25 to 29.
30 to 34.
35 to 44.
45 to 54.
55 or
over.
Foreign-born, by race —
Continued.
Dutch
1,483
13,264
3,641
139
1,872
19,048
5,541
3,807
1,398
199
11,372
13,319
16,232
139
167
9,282
602
11,655
211
252
682
40,712
3,580
1,911
6,551
812
3,186
1,647
24,715
4,787
1,936
5,374
992
344
1,770
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
W.o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
6.3
4.8
2.8
5,8
7.8
3.1
17.1
12.1
8.8
11.6
1.2
9.0
13.9
6.5
2.4
3.0
14.5
6.5
8.1
6.7
2.2
6.1
17.0
11.1
6.4
13.2
3.2
5.9
6.9
6.4
13.7
2.1
16.9
14.5
4.5
10.3
9.7
28.3
12.2
11.6
7.5
36.8
26.6
19.8
50.3
6.0
23.3
25.2
27.3
25.7
24.6
34.6
19.5
23.7
34.1
14.1
23.5
27.3
26.0
24.3
22.3
8.2
36.2
21.1
23.7
20.5
10.2
37.8
36.0
7.5
11.6
12.3
29.0
28.1
15.0
11.5
20.1
21.1
17.1
26.1
10.6
23.0
21.3
21.6
33.5
28.8
19.3
22.5
17.1
21.0
16.1
24.2
18.8
25.5
26.6
26.4
12.8
26.1
22.0
25.3
16.4
13.8
23.5
22.1
9.1
11.9
13.9
17.8
15.8
15.8
12.2
10.7
14.0
14.9
4.0
11.9
17.9
14.6
16.5
17.4
18.3
14.8
19.2
14.2
14.3
13.5
16.4
12.3
15.1
17.7
15.3
13.8
13.5
17.5
18.5
14.5
13.2
8.8
11.0
13.7
26.2
26.8
16.1
27.3
24.5
25.7
11.3
19.0
23.7
6.5
29.9
19.3
16.9
18.0
15.6
19.2
14.0
24.0
19.4
16.7
24.6
20.6
15.3
16.5
19.4
18.0
25.1
14.8
23.8
19.0
21.7
29.6
8.6
13.4
29.4
18.6
19.9
4.7
7.2
16.9
23.4
3.6
6.2
11.3
1.5
23.8
6.2
6.8
10.1
5.4
5.1
3.0
7.1
13.3
6.3
18.9
7.5
7.7
5.2
5.0
4.3
23.2
3.2
7.5
5.9
10.1
21.1
3.7
2.6
21.6
15.1
12.5
1.3
3.6
8.4
16.7
.4
1.2
4.3
.0
16.5
1.3
1.4
.0
.0
.9
.0
1.1
4.3
.8
10.6
1.7
1.7
.5
.6
.6
13.6
.4
1.1
1.1
3.1
10.1
.7
.3
1-J.2
English . .
Finnish
Flemish...
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian
Italian, North..
Italian, South
Italian (not specified) .
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar. .
Mexican
Montenegrin...
Norwegian .
Polish
Portuguese . .
Roumanian.
Russian
Ruthenian..
Scotch
Servian...
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish.
Syrian . .
Turkish...
Welsh..
Grand total
408,291
57,229
161,589
246,702
.1
11.7
19.9
18.6
14.6
16.4
20.1
14.3
11.3
12.7
15.4
20.2
17.1
17.7
21.9
10. 6
9.3
10.1
10.9
4.6
2.7
4.2
4.8
Total native-born of foreign
father....
W2
(a)
24.6
18.7
7.1
20.4
20.0
19.8
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
FEMALE.
Native-born of native
father:
White
19,011
3,060
1,862
ICO
4,501
2,924
223
6,298
9,002
610
290
100
1,302
652
129
188
366
0.5
2.3
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
£
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
45.1
21.6
75.7
63.1
49.9
45.8
44.8
52.7
27.7
82.8
62.4
66.0
84.9
41.6
59.7
58.0
71.6
25.6
23.2
19.2
26.9
25.0
26.5
22.9
27.9
22.8
13.6
25.5
25.0
12.7
29.9
29.5
21.8
20.2
10.9
19.0
3.3
6.9
11.8
11.3
11.2
8.7
16.6
2.8
6.6
3.0
1.5
8.6
8.5
9.0
4.9
5.6
10.5
.8
.6
5.6
6.6
5.4
4.6
11.5
.5
2.1
3.0
.7
7.7
1.6
3.7
.0
7.4
15.0
.9
2.5
6.1
7.0
10.8
4.6
15.3
.3
3.4
2.0
.1
7.5
.0
5.9
2.2
3.6
5.9
.1
.0
1.1
2.2
3.6
1.1
5.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.8
.8
1.6
.8
1.4
2.5
.0
.0
.5
.6
1.3
.2
.7
.0
.0
1.0
.0
.9
.0
.0
.3
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by country of
birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Canada
England
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands .
Portugal
Russia
Scotland
Sweden
Switzerland
Wales...
Less than 0.05 per cent.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
465
TABLE 88. — Per cent of employees within each age group, by sex and general nativity
and race — Continued.
FEMALE— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent within each specified age group.
Under
14.
14 to 19.
20 to 24.
25 to 29.
30 to 34.
35 to 44.
45 to 54.
55 or
over.
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
621
8,405
791
216
534
258
3,791
305
407
1,895
578
1,436
418
4,081
1,904
3,844
1.185
630
7,808
2,467
146
910
719
456
192
. 133
156
448
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
W.o
(a)
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
39.9
24.2
16.3
37.5
29.6
41.5
15.9
13.8
15.7
21.6
40.0
56.7
54.8
6.8
36.3
32.2
25.4
33.3
35.1
28.3
27.4
42.4
10.4
47.6
37.0
28.6
9.6
27.2
32.4
25.8
21.6
29.6
17.4
28.3
19.2
40.3
20.1
23.2
40.8
34.5
30.9
18.5
29.1
28.9
46.8
28.4
41.4
39.5
28.8
40.3
19.3
25.2
29.7
25.6
22.4
36.6
11.8
15.6
19.2
15.7
13.3
16.3
15.9
23.0
19.7
15.7
9.7
5.2
7.4
17.3
13.3
14.8
17.6
18.7
12.1
15.7
18.5
9.8
18.4
11.8
20.3
18.0
18.6
13.6
4.8
11.0
11.0
7.4
10.9
5.4
14.6
11.8
15.2
12.8
4.2
1.5
1.4
13.1
7.7
8.6
5.3
10.5
5.4
7.5
13.7
3.5
10.6
5.9
3.1
9.0
14.1
5.6
7.7
16.0
18.6
8.8
18.9
6.6
23.1
9.8
21.1
1C. 4
3.8
1.7
4.3
26.5
10.1
11.0
4.0
7.5
4.8
7.2
11.0
3.4
24.1
7.0
8.9
11.3
17.3
10.9
2.4
6.1
11.3
.9
7.9
1.6
8.7
6^6
6.8
1.0
.3
1.0
13.5
2.9
3.9
.6
1.3
1.1
1.7
.7
.5
12.1
1.8
.5
6.8
16.7
5.8
1.0
1.3
2.0
.0
2.1
.4
2.6
.7
1.5
3.5
.5
.1
.2
4.3
.5
.6
.3
.2
.1
.2
.0
.0
5.1
.4
.5
.8
1.3
.2
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other .
Croatian
Cuban
Dutch
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Scotch
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish.
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
96,993
.2
W3
(a)
36.8
47.7
45.1
27.4
26.9
23.9
24. 5
29.7
12.9
7.6
10.3
7.9
8.1
12.8
4.0
1.1
.5
.9
1.3
Total native-born of for-
eign father
28,862
51,533
45,460
11.0
11.4
14.6
6.5
6.4
9.0
2.4
3.1
5.0
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
TOTAL.
Native-born of native
father:
White. . . .
101,948
0 2
22 0
21 0
15 8
11 8
15 8
9 0
4 5
Negro
25 075
1 0
13 2
20 3
18 9
13 7
18 3
10 7
3 8
Native-born of foreign
father, by country of
birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
Azores
4,519
273
.1
o
63. 5
62 3
24.1
21 6
6.8
8 4
2.4
1 8
2.7
5 5
.4
4
.1
0
Belgium.
191
.0
62 3
19 9
9 4
2 1
5 2
1 0
o
Canada
9 417
o
41 5
22 9
13 3
8 2
10 2
2 g
j 1
Cuba
206
.0
35.9
27.7
19 9
8 3
8 3
o
o
Denmark .
267
.4
36 0
32 6
12 4
8 6
6 7
3 0
4
England
10 407
(a)
29 9
22 4
13 8
10 4
14 1
6 7
2 5
Finland
100
( ;o
60 0
34 0
4 0
2 0
o
o
o
France
1 026
o
24 7
18 2
15 6
10 2
15 8
11 1
4 4
Germany
24,218
(a)
28 9
23.0
13 9
10 1
14 2
7 8
2 0
Ireland..
23 117
(a)
20 2
18 2
14 6
12 7
9Q g
11 1
2 6
Italy
1 319
1
73 5
18 6
5 2
1 7
5
3
j
Netherlands
891
o
40 4
21 5
14 1
9 1
10 3
3 7
3
Norway
284
Q
29 9
29 2
17 6
8 5
9 5
4 g
7
Portugal
201
.0
65.2
22 4
5 5
2 5
2 5
1 5
5
Russia
2 600
2
67 0
21 6
7 0
2 5
1 4
2
1
Scotland
3 031
(a)
26 9
23 2
14 5
10 8
14 1
7 g
2 6
Sweden
1 340
' %
36 0
31 6
16 7
7 7
6 5
1 3
1
Switzerland
561
o
35 7
18 5
14 1
8 0
15 3
7 1
1 2
Wales...
1.828
.1
29.3
18.6
15.1
10.fi
16.5
fi.Q
3 n
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
466
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 88. — Per cent of employees within each age group, by sex and general nativity
and race — Continued.
T O T A L— Continued .
General nativity and race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent within each specified age group.
Under
14.
14 to 19.
20 to 24.
25 to 29.
30 to 34.
35 to 44.
45 to 54.
55 or
over.
Foreign-born, by race:
Armenian
685
4,538
969
17,778
2,539
10,072
3,557
659
1,741
17,055
3,946
175
2,279
20,943
6,119
5,243
1,816
199
15,453
15,223
20,076
141
167
10,467
603
12,285
213
252
732
48,520
v 6,047
2,057
7,461
893
3,905
1,668
25,171
4,979
2,069
5,530
1,440
349
1,861
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
•:8
Wo
.0
(a)
(a)
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
W.o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.8
10.7
7.3
18.1
8.6
8.3
11.9
3.5
11.5
7.3
3.7
4.6
9.2
4.8
19.3
24.3
19.4
11.6
2.7
12.4
17.4
6.4
2.4
5.6
14.6
7.9
8.5
6.7
2.3
10.7
21.6
12.3
10.8
18.4
4.6
6.1
7.7
7.6
14.6
2.3
20.1
14.6
6.3
20.4
16.5
24.6
19.5
14.3
31.8
16.5
9.9
13.0
11.8
29.3
12.0
13.1
8.9
37.2
28.7
22.4
50.3
9.3
24.0
25.9
27.7
25.7
27.1
34. 5
20.0
23.5
34.1
15.2
26.4
32.3
26.2
26.2
22.2
10.3
36.3
21.2
24.0
20.8
10.5
37.4
35.5
8.5
25.1
17.6
29.5
15.0
14.5
23.3
19.8
15.0
12.3
13.1
28.5
30.3
15.8
11.9
19.1
16.7
14.9
26.1
12.4
21.8
20.0
21.3
33.5
27.5
19.2
22.3
17.4
21.0
16.7
22.2
17.5
25.0
24.6
24.3
13.9
25.8
21.8
25.1
16.5
13.9
20.4
22.3
9.2
18.0
13.8
15.4
12.5
13.3
14.6
14.3
11.8
10.9
14.1
17.4
18.9
15.7
12.2
10.1
10. 6
11.8
4.0
12.2
16.6
13.4
16.3
17.4
16.9
14.8
18.7
14.1
14.3
13.7
14.7
10.3
15.0
15.9
14.2
13.2
13.5
17.3
17.9
14.1
13.2
7.8
10.9
13.3
22.0
23.8
17.2
19.1
24.6
17.3
24.4
24.7
23.3
26.0
15.6
25.1
23.9
24.8
10.6
14.2
19.3
6.5
29.0
18.1
15.8
18.4
15.6
17.5
13.9
23.2
19.2
16.7
23.8
18.1
12.0
16.1
17.5
16.5
24.9
14.7
23.5
18.6
21.1
29.2
9.3
13.8
28.4
8.5
12.8
5.2
10.7
16.7
4.3
10.0
22.8
16.1
17.4
4.4
6.3
15.1
21.9
3.4
4.6
8.9
1.5
21.1
5.8
6.2
9.9
5.4
4.6
3.0
6.8
13.1
6.3
18.3
6.5
5.2
4.9
4.5
3.9
21.2
3.2
7.4
5.7
9.9
21.0
4.4
2.6
20.7
1.2
4.8
.8
5.0
8.0
.4
2.9
12.3
12.9
10.3
1.2
2.9
7.2
15.5
.4
.9
3.4
.0
•13.3
1.2
1.2
.0
.0
.8
.0
1.1
-4.2
.8
10.1
1.5
1.1
.5
.5
.6
12.0
.4
1.1
1.1
2.9
9.9
.6
.3
13.5
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish .
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian . . .
Irish....
Italian, North
Italian, South
Italian (not specified). .
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin .
Norwegian . . .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian ...
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh.
Grand total
Total native-born of for-
eign father
Total native-born
505,284
86,091
213,122
292,162
.1
W2
(a)
16. 5
32.3
25.1
10.3
21.3
21.6
21.1
21.3
17.5
13.0
18.3
9.3
3.9
13.4
15.2
19.2
9.7
11.2
14.4
14.0
15.4
20.5
7.0
8.4
10.0
1.9
3.4
4.3
Total foreign-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Upon reference to the totals for both sexes, it is seen that the
greatest proportion, or 59 per cent, of the white wage-earners of
native birth and of native father were under 30 years of age. Of
those of native birth but of foreign father, 67.3 per cent were within
the same age group, while only 50.8 per cent of the foreign-born
were less than 30 years of age. Upon comparing the totals further,
however, it is seen that less than fi ve-hundredths of 1 per cent of the
foreign-born industrial workers were under 14 years, and only 10.3
per cent between the ages of 14 and 19, as contrasted with 0.2 and 25.1
per cent, respectively, of the total native-born who were within the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 467
same age groups. The situation clearly exhibits the small proportions
of younger persons among the foreign-born as contrasted with the
native-born employees. This is especially noticeable in the case of
individual races from southern and eastern Europe, which exhibit
very much smaller percentages of younger employees than do the
races of older immigration from Great Britain and northern Europe.
The age characteristics of the two nativity groups thus made apparent
arise from the fact that the wage-earners of recent immigration as
a rule are single men of working age, or married men the greater
number of whom are unaccompanied by their families. As a con-
sequence, the supply of recent immigrant labor under 20 years of
age, as compared with that of native birth, is very limited. On the
other hand, a further comparison shows that only a relatively small
proportion of southern and eastern Europeans are more than 45
years of age, while the native-born industrial workers, both of native
and foreign father, as well as those of foreign birth from Great
Britain and northern Europe, exhibit considerable proportions above
this age limit. To recapitulate briefly, the foreign-born employees,
as against the native-born, show a larger proportion of employees
between the ages of 20 and 45 years, while the southern and eastern
European races exhibit even a higher percentage than that for the
total foreign-born within these age limits. A comparison of the per-
centages for each of the sexes and of the individual races shows the
same tendencies already outlined.
OWNERSHIP OF HOMES.
Under favorable conditions the tendencies toward acquiring their
own homes exhibited by families the heads of which were of foreign
birth and employed in the industries of the United States, may
be taken as an indication of progress toward assimilation and of an
intention to permanently settle in this country. It may be true
that the wage-earner ^ is living and working in a large industrial cen-
ter where the acquisition of property is beyond his resources. On
the other hand, it is also true that in many industrial localities,
especially in those connected with the mining industry, the so-called
" company house'7 system prevails, under which the industrial worker
is practically not permitted to buy a home, but must live in a house
owned by the operating company and rented to him. Under these
and similar conditions, therefore, racial inclinations toward the
acquisition of property can not have full play, and statistics as to
home ownership based on returns from heads of families engaged in
different industrial pursuits and in widely separated industrial
localities must be accepted with some qualification. As a conse-
quence, some reservations must be made in the case of the figures
in the table which immediately follows, and an absolutely accurate
treatment can be secured only by reference to the separate industrial
studies. The tabulation, however, showing as it does, by general
nativity and race of head of family, the number and percentage of
families owning their homes, is indicative of racial tendencies within
certain limitations. The families the heads of which were native-
born, whether of native or of foreign father, were studied for purposes
of comparison with those the heads of which were foreign-born.
468
The Immigration Commission.
The table, which is based upon an investigation of 17,628 families
the heads of which were employed in the principal divisions of mining
and manufacturing enterprise, follows:
TABLE 89. — Number and per cent of families owning home, by general nativity and race
of head of family.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
General nativity and race of head of family.
Total num-
ber of
families.
Owning home.
Number.
Per cent.
Native-born of native father:
White..
1,187
142
26
32
13
2
18
45
239
319
1
1
83
259
(>
17
21.8
4.2
C5.4
.0
(a)
(«)
(a)
33.3
31.0
17.9
(a)
(a)
28.9
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
8.6
63.7
.0
(a)
7.5
23.5
4.5
50.0
70.3
15.6
56.3
43.6
26.1
39.7
1.5
6.3
30.2
27.8
14.9
(a)
18.0
13.7
14.3
50.0
18.1
9.5
2.6
1.2
6.7
33.6
4.4
17.6
25.3
7.7
44.5
4.7
51.6
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other...
1
Cuban
Dutch
14
15
74
57
English
German .
Irish
Lithuanian
Norwegian
Polish
24
Scotch
4
1
1
3
128
515
30
12
545
631
44
20
145
474
142
87
153
976
• 137
764
734
655
1,603
1
832
957
42
26
2,233
294
77
83
626
137
68
1,361
182
39
492
171
95
Slovak. .
Swedish
Welsh
Foreign-born:
Armenian
11
328
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava. .
Bulgarian
1
41
148
2
10
102
74
80
38
40
387
2
48
222
182
6239
1
150
131
6
13
404
' 28
2
1
42
46
3
239
46
3
219
8
49
Canadian, French
Croatian. . . .
Cuban
Danish
Dutch ....
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German '
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Magyar.
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish.
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch «.
Servian. . .
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh
Grand total
17,628
63,813
21.6
Total native-born of foreign father
788
2,117
15,511
202
467
63,346
25.6
22.1
21.6
Total native-born «
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
b Not including 1 family not reporting complete data.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
469
Upon comparing the general nativity groups in the preceding
table, it is seen that slightly more than one-fifth, or to be exact
21.8 per cent, of the families the heads of which were white persons
of native birth, and 21.6 per cent of those the heads of which were
of foreign birth, own their homes. The families of the second
generation, or those whose heads were of native birth but of foreign
father, report a slightly larger proportion than the two nativity
groups mentioned above, or 25.6 per cent, owning their homes. A
very unfavorable showing^ by way of further comparison, is made
by native-born negro families, with only 4.2 per cent of home owner-
ship. The figures showing this small degree of home ownership
among the negro families should, however, be modified by the
statement that a large proportion of the families represented were
those of bituminous coal mine .workers in the southern States who
have had little incentive to purchase homes, owing to the system of
company houses prevailing in bituminous mining localities.
Upon analyzing the figures for the families the heads of which
were foreign-born, it is seen that as a rule the races of older immigra-
tion from Great Britain and northern Europe are more extensive
home owners than are the members of races of recent immigration.
The percentage of home ownership among representative races of
the old immigration is as follows :
Per cent.
Danish 50. 0
Dutch 70. 3
English 15. 6
German. 39. 7
Irish.. . 30.2
Per cent.
Norwegian 50. 0
Scotch 33.6
Swedish 44. 5
Welsh.. . 51.6
The principal races of recent immigration from southern and
eastern Europe make the following showing as to the acquisition of
homes :
Per cent.
Canadian, French 7. 5
Croatian 23. 5
Greek 1. 5
Hebrew 6. 3
Italian, North. .' 27. 8
Italian, South 14. 9
Lithuanian 18. 0
Magyar 13. 7
Polish.. . 18.1
Per cent.
Portuguese 19. 5
Roumanian 2. 6
Russian 1. 2
Ruthenian 6. 7
Servian 4. 4
Slovak 17. 6
Slovenian 25. 3
Syrian 4. 7
The geographical location of the Bohemians and Moravians in
Europe would class them among the more recent immigrants, but
the period of time during which they have been coming to the United
States would place them among the older immigrant races. They
show the largest proportion of home-owning families of all races
the heads of which were native-born of foreign father or foreign-
born. On the other hand, the Finnish families, which show a per-
centage of home ownership amounting to 56.3, should be geographic-
ally classed with the older immigrants from Great Britain and north-
ern Europe, but by period of residence in this country the larger pro-
portion should be termed recent immigrants. Of the families of
recent immigration, the North Italians, Slovenians, Croatians, Portu-
guese, Poles, Lithuanians, Slovaks, South Italians, and Magyars have,
in the order named, proportions ranging from 27.8 to 13.7 per cent
470
The Immigration Commission.
owning their homes. An almost negligible proportion of Russians,
Greeks, Roumanians, Servians, and Syrians, varying from 1.2 to 4.7
per cent in the order mentioned, have acquired homes.
STATUS OF CHILDREN IN THE HOUSEHOLDS STUDIED.
The two tables which immediately follow set forth the general
status and industrial condition of the children in the households
studied. The first table submitted shows, by sex and general
nativity and race of individual, the per cent of children 6 and under
16 years of age in the households studied who are at home, at school,
and at work:
TABLE 90. — Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school, and at work,
by general nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more children reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
MALE.
General nativity and race of individual.
Native-born of native father:
White 826
Negro 56
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian X.. 306
Canadian, French 268
Croatian 118
Dutch 122
English 197
Finnish 65
Flemish 30
French 30
German 478
Hebrew 282
Irish 451
Italian, North 202
Italian, South 316
Lithuanian 259
Magyar 184
Polish 757
Portuguese 100
Ruthenian 246
Scotch 72
Slovak 581
Slovenian 85
Swedish 262
Welsh 55
Foreign-born:
Armenian >. 25
Bohemian and Moravian 41
Canadian, French 98
Croatian 78
English 41
French 31
German 79
Hebrew 236
Italian, North 110
Italian, South 362
Lithuanian 77
Magyar 151
Polish 223
Portuguese 51
Ruthenian 48
Scotch 21
Slovak 137
Syrian 31
Grand total 8,435
Total native-born of foreign father 5, 570
Total native-born 6, 452
' Total foreign-born 1,983
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent—
At home.
5.4
25.0
5.2
8.2
24.6
4.1
5.1
16.9
.0
23.3
4.0
3.2
4.9
6.4
14.9
18.1
9.8
17.4
12.0
13.8
2.8
12.6
10.6
3.1
5.5
.0
17.1
5.1
21.8
7.3
16.1
3.8
5.5
10.0
15.5
6.5
17.9
22.0
11.8
10.4
19.0
16.1
12.9
10.2
9.7
13.2
At school.
90.9
66.1
88.9
86.2
71.2
93.4
86.3
80.0
86.7
70.0
87.4
95.4
89.6
89.1
78.8
77.2
82.6
77.4
83.0
78.0
87.5
80.0
87.1
92.7
85.5
100.0
80.5
82.7
75.6
85.4
74.2
82.3
88.6
82.7
71.3
79.2
73.5
72.2
72.5
75.0
61.9
73.7
64.5
82.8
83.9
84.7
77.0
At work.
5.9
5.6
4.2
2.5
8.6
3.1
13.3
6.7
8.6
1.4
5.5
4.5
6.3
4.6
7.6
5.2
5.0
8.1
9.7
7.4
2.4
4.2
9.1
.0
2.4
12.2
2.6
7.3
9.7
13.9
5.9
7.3
13.3
14.3
8.6
5.8
15.7
14.6
19.0
10.2
22.6
6.6
5.9
5.6
9.9
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
471
TABLE 90. — Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school, and at work,
by general nativity and race of individual — Continued.
FEMALE.
General nativity and race of individual.
Native-born of native father:
White 841
Negro 60
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian 315
Canadian, French 266
Croatian 103
Dutch 116
English 188
Finnish 61
Flemish .- 32
French 27
German : 474
Hebrew .- 242
Irish 456
Italian, North 185
Italian, South 339
Lithuanian 264
Magyar 168
Polish 809
Portuguese 88
Ruthenian 245
Scotch 72
Slovak 580
Slovenian 71
Swedish 275
Welsh 56
Foreign-born:
Armenian 34
Bohemian and Moravian 41
Canadian, French 110
Croatian 71
English 46
French 23
German 66
Hebrew 244
Italian, North 96
Italian, South 335
Lithuanian 78
Magyar •. 159
Polish 234
Portuguese 69
Ruthenian 44
Scotch 22
Slovak 1 0 146
Syrian 32
Grand total 8, 444
Total native-born of foreign father 5, 539
Total native-born 0, 440
Total foreign-born 2 004
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent—
At home.
6.9
18.3
8.9
10.9
21.4
1.7
2.1
13.1
15.6
3.7
5.3
5.8
5.3
9.7
17.4
18.9
11.9
20.4
11.4
20.0
2.8
19.3
5.6
6.2
14.3
8.8
9.8
4.5
22.5
6.5
13.0
10.6
7.4
17.7
26.6
20.5
30.8
26.5
7.2
27.3
18.2
21.9
9.4
13.6
12.6
11.9
19.1
At school.
90.5
81.7
84.1
82.0
71.8
97.4
92.0
86.9
78.1
96.3
88.8
91.3
91.4
87.6
78.2
77.3
86.9
76.9
81.8
77.1
93.1
77.1
90.1
91.3
80.4
82.4
82.9
81.8
73.2
78.3
82.6
83.3
87.3
81.3
67.8
74.4
59.1
65.8
76.8
56.8
81.8
74.7
65.6
81.8
83.5
84.4
73.6
At work.
2.6
.0
7.0
7.1
6.8
.9
5.9
.0
6.3
.0
5.9
2.9
3.3
2.7
4.4
3.8
1.2
2.7
6.8
2.9
4.2
3.6
4.2
2.5
5.4
7.3
13.6
4.2
15.2
4.3
6.1
5.3
1.0
5.7
5.1
10.1
7.7
15.9
15.9
.0
3.4
25.0
4.6
3.9
3.7
-7.3
TOTAL.
Native-born of native father:
White
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Dutch
English
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
1,667
116
621
534
221
238
385
126
62
57
952
524
907
387
6.2
21.6
7.1
9.6
23.1
2.9
3.6
15.1
8.1
14.0
4.6
4.4
5.1
8.0
90.7
74.1
86.5
84.1
71.5
95.4
89.1
83.3
82.3
82.5
88.1
93.5
90.5
88.4
3.1
4.3
6.4
6.4
5.4
1.7
7.3
1.6
9.7
3.5
7.2
2.1
4.4
3.6
472
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 90. — Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years oj age at home, at school, and at work,
by general nativity and race of individual — Continued.
T O T A L— Continued .
Number
reporting
Per cent—
complete
data.
At home.
At school.
At work.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father— Con.
I Lallan, South
G55
16.2
78.5
5 3
Lithuanian
523
18.5
77.2
4 2
Magyar . .
352
10 8
84 7
4 5
Polish
1 566
19 0
77 1
3 9
Portuguese
188
11.7
82 4
5 9
Ruthenian
491
16 9
77 6
5 5
Scotch
144
2.8
90.3
6 9
Slovak .
1 101
15 9
78 6
5 5
Slovenian
156
8.3
88. 5
3 2
Swedish
537
4.7
92 0
3 4
Welsh
111
9 9
82 9
7 2
Foreign-born:
Armenian. .
59
5.1
89 8
5 1
Bohemian and Moravian
82
13.4
8L7
4 9
Canadian, French
208
4.8
82.2
13 0
Croatian. . .
149
22 1
74 5
3 4
English
87
6 9
81 6
11 5
French
54
14 8
77 8
7 4
German
145
6 9
82 8
10 3
Hebrew
480
6.5
87.9
5 6
Italian, North
206
13 6
82 0
4 4
Italian, South
697
20.8
9 6
Lithuanian
155
13 5
76 8
9 7
Magyar
310
24 5
66 1
9 4
Polish
457
24.3
68.9
6 8
Portuguese
120
9 2
75 0
15 8
Ruthenian
92
18 5
66 3
15 2
Scotch
43
18 6
72 1
9 3
Slovak.
283
19 1
74 2
6 7
Syrian
63
11.1
65 1
23 8
Grand total
16, 879
12.1
82.3
5.6
Total native-born of foreign father
11,109
11.4
83.7
4.9
Total native-born
12 892
10 8
84 5
4 7
Total foreign-born .
3 987
16 2
75 2
8 6
Upon examining the totals in the preceding table it is seen that a
smaller proportion of children of native birth of both sexes are at
home and at work and a larger percentage are at school than is the
case with the children who are foreign-born. In a general way the
races of older immigration exhibit practically the same tendencies, as
compared with the southern and eastern European races, as do the
total native-born as compared with the foreign-born.
A comparison of the tendencies exhibited by the principal races
may be had from the table following, which shows, by general nativity
and race of father and by birthplace of child, the number and percent-
age of children 6 and under 16 years of age in the households studied,
at home, at school, and at work.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
473
TABLE 91. — Number and per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at
school, and at work, by general nativity and race of father and by birthplace of child.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only races with 40 or more children born in the United States, and also 40 or more chil-
dren bom abroad. The native-born are shown for comparative purposes.]
i
Number
1
"Jumber-
Per cent
of father.
of child.
reporting
complete
data.
At
home.
At
school .
At
work.
At
home.
At
school.
At
work.
Native-born:
White
United States
1,667
103
1.512
52
6.2
90.7
3.1
Negro
United States
116
25
86
5
21.6
74.1
4.3
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian.
United States.
Abroad
621
82
44
11
537
67
40
4
7.1
13.4
86.5
81.7
6.4
4.9
Canadian, French
United States.
Abroad
534
208
51
10
449
171
34
27
9.6
4.8
84.1
82.2
6.4
13.0
Croatian
United States
221
51
158
12
23.1
71.5
5.4
English
Abroad
United States
149
385
33
14
111
343
5
28
22.1
3.6
74.5
89.1
3.4
7.3
Abroad .
87
6
71
10
6 9
81.6
11.5
French...... ..
United States.
57
g
47
2
14.0
82.5
3.5
Abroad ..
54
g
42
4
14.8
77.8
7.4
German
United States
952
44
839
69
4 6
88 1
7.2
Abroad
145
10
120
15
6.9
82.8
10.3
Hebrew
United States.
524
23
490
11
4.4
93.5
2.1
Italian, North
Abroad
United States.
480
387
31
31
422
342
27
14
6.5
8.0
87.9
88.4
5.6
3.6
Abroad. . .
206
28
169
9
13.6
82.0
4.4
Italian, South .
United States
655
106
514
35
16 2
78.5
5.3
Abroad. . .
697
145
485
67
20.8
69.6
9.6
Lithuanian . . .
United States
523
97
404
22
18 5
77.2
4.2
Abroad . .
155
21
119
15
13.5
76.8
9.7
Magyar
United States
352
38
298
16
10.8
84.7
4.5
Abroad
310
76
205
29
24.5
66.1
9.4
Polish
United States
1 566
297
1,208
61
19.0
77.1
3.9
Abroad . .
457
111
315
31
24.3
68.9
6.8
Portuguese
United States
188
22
155
11
11.7
82.4
5.9
Ruthenian
Abroad
United States
120
491
11
83
90
381
19
27
9.2
16.9
75.0
77.6
15.8
5.5
Scotch...
Abroad
United States
92
144
17
4
61
130
14
10
18.5
2.8
66.3
90.3
15.2
6.9
Slovak..
Abroad
United States
43
1.161
8
185
31
912
4
64
18.6
15.9
72.1
78.6
9.3
5.5
Abroad
283
54
210
19
19.1
74.2
6.7
Upon studying the tendencies of the several races it is seen that a
larger proportion of Bohemian and Moravian children who were born
abroad were at home and a smaller proportion at work and at school
than of those who were born in the United States. On the other
hand, the French Canadian children of foreign birth were more
extensively employed than those of native birth, while the smaller
proportion were at home and at school. No sharp differences are
noticeable in the case of the Croatian children, only a slightly smaller
proportion of those of foreign birth than of those of native birth being
at home and at work, while a slightly larger proportion are at school.
In the case of the English, German, North Italian, South Italian, Polish,
and Scotch children a somewhat larger proportion of those born abroad
were at work and at home, and a slightly smaller proportion at school,
than of those born in this country. Of the French a slightly smaller
proportion of children of foreign birth were at school, and a larger
proportion at work, than of those of native birth. The Lithuanians
show a smaller proportion of children of foreign birth at home and
at school and a larger proportion at work, as compared with, children
of native birth. On the other hand, the Magyars exhibit a much
larger proportion of children of foreign birth than of native birth at
72289°— VOL l—ll 31
474
The Immigration Commission.
home, and a considerably larger proportion of native children of this
race than of foreign-born were at school. A much larger percentage
of Lithuanian children who were born abroad than of those born m
the United States were at work.
ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH.
The extent to which members of non-English-speaking races are
able to speak English affords one of the most important indications
of the degree of their assimilation. In this connection the following
table is submitted, which shows, by sex and race, the per cent of
246,673 employees of foreign birth who were able to speak English:
TABLE 92. — Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table Includes only non-English-speaking races with 80 or more persons reporting. The total, how-
ever, is for all non-English-speaking races.]
Race.
Number reporting complete
data.
Per cent who speak English.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Armenian , . . .
658
3,861
940
9,231
9,679
3,005
594
1,450
3,594
136
1,831
18,831
5,440
3,660
1,359
199
13,147
15,990
133
147
9,148
573
11,335
203
250
674
40,050
3,483
1,857
6,430
802
1,627
24,463
4,716
1,921
5,309
980
325
14
600
5
8,216
210
623
60
251
302
33
396
1,835
569
1,366
388
""i,~853"
3,741
1
672
4,461
945
17,447
9,889
3,528
654
1,701
3,896
169
2,227
20,666
6,009
5,026
1,747
199
15,000
19,731
134
147
10,298
574
11,952
205
250
723
47,628
5,862
1,994
7,317
881
1,647
24,996
4,901
2,052
5,463
1,422
330
54.9
66.0
20.3
79.4
50.9
19.1
96.5
86.1
50.3
45.6
68.6
87.5
33.5
74.7
79.5
14.6
58.8
48.7
64.7
66.0
51.3
21.1
46.4
59.6
38.0
96.9
43.5
45.2
33.3
43.6
36.8
41.2
55.6
51.7
19.6
94.7
54.6
22.5
57.1
58.7
80.0
54.2
21.4
19.9
98.3
73.7
24.5
21.2
45.5
80.2
12.3
75.7
86.6
54.9
65.0
20.6
67.5
50.3
19.2
96.6
84.2
48.3
40.8
64.5
86.8
31.5
75.0
81.1
14.6
56.3
44.4
64.2
66.0
2l! 3
45.2
59.0
38.0
96.5
39.1
37.8
33.3
43.9
34.4
41.0
55.1
50.9
19.5
94.7
48.9
22.7
Bohemian and Moravian .
Bulgarian
Canadian French
Croatian
Cuban . .
Danish
Dutch
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian
Italian, North
39.1
25.8
(«)
Italian, South
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
Lithuanian
1,150
1
617
7
22.3
(a)
24.0
(0)
""gi.'s"
15.5
27.0
32.8
45. 9
10.1
20.0
26.6
30.3
19.1
94.2
36.4
40.0
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin
Norwegian
49
7,578
2,379
137
887
79
20
443
185
131
154
442
5
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish.
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Total
211,716
34,957
246,673
55.6
38.6
53.2
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Of the total number ^ of employees of foreign birth and of non-
English-speaking races in mines and manufacturing establishments,
53.2 per cent, or slightly more than one-half, were able to speak
English. The smallest proportion with ability to speak English
exhibited by any race is shown by the Herzegovinians, with a per-
centage of only 14.6. Less than one-fifth of the Cuban and Spanish
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
475
and slightly more than one-fifth of the Bulgarian, Macedonian, and
Turkish races were able to speak the language. The other races
which fall below the percentage of 53.2 for the total foreign-born
were the Syrian, Slovenian, Servian, Ruthenian, Russian, Roumanian,
Portuguese, Polish, Montenegrin, Magyar, Lithuanian, South Italian,
Greek, Flemish, Finnish, and Croatian. Of the races of southern
and eastern Europe, the highest percentages of English-speaking
ability are exhibited by the Hebrews, Italians, and Slovaks. The
French Canadians show a higher proportion of members who could
speak English than any race from southern and eastern Europe. As
regards the races from northern and western Europe, the Danes show
96.6 per cent, the Norwegians 96.5 per cent, the Swedes 94.7 per cent,
the Germans 86.8 per cent, the Dutch 84.2 per cent, and the French
64.5 per cent, with ability to speak English. The females of prac-
tically ah1 races, and especially those of southern and eastern Europe,
show a smaller proportion than the males able to speak the English
language. Of the total number of females, only 38.6 per cent, as con-
trasted with 55.6 per cent of the males, could speak English. This
situation is due to the greater segregation of the females, as com-
pared with the males, and their lack of contact with American life
and institutions.
The folio whig table shows, by sex and general nativity and race
of individual, the proportion of persons of non-English-speaking races
in the households studied who were 6 years of age or over and who
were able to speak English:
TABLE 93. — Per cent of persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by sex and gen-
eral nativity and race of individual.
(STUDY OP HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 40 or more persons reporting. The totals,
however are for all non-English-speaking racesj
General nativity and race of individual.
Number reporting complete
data.
Per cent who speak English.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
475
435
128
201
81
45
47
1,062
344
241
351
293
208
33
1,057
115
289
719
104
454
251
632
57
751
792
1,141
60
499
481
110
220
84
' 48
59
1,044
300
230
404
310
195
42
1,074
108
293
. 688
89
465
186
555
30
10
804
698
75
974
916
238
421
165
93
106
2,106
644
471
755
603
403
75
2,131
223
582
1,407
193
919
437
1,187
87
761
1,596
1,839
135
99.8
94.0
92.2
100.0
95.1
100.0
100.0
99.5
99.7
97.9
96.0
94.5
98.6
100.0
92.2
97.4
95.2
94.9
100.0
99.8
87.3
77.5
70.2
7.2
77.7
54.5
36.7
99.8
90.6
93.6
100.0
96.4
100.0
100.0
98.7
99.7
97.8
93.8
95.5
94.4
100.0
90.6
93.5
92.5
94.0
100.0
100.0
58.1
61.1
33.3
20.0
58.3
26.9
18.7
99.8
92.2
92.9
100.0
95.8
100.0
100.0
99.1
99.7
97.9
95.1
95.0
96.5
100.0
91.4
95.5
93.8
94.5
100.0
99.9
74.8
69.8
57.5
7.4
67.9
44.0
26.7
Canadian, French
Croatian
Dutch
Finnish
Flemish ...
French
German
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Ruthenian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban...
476
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 93. — Per cent of persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by sex and gen-
eral nativity and race of individual — Continued.
General nativity and race of individual.
Number reporting complete
data.
Per cent who speak English.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Foreign-born — Continued .
Danish
20
162
159
112
223
1,257
1,020
1,226
1,078
3,402
76
1,661
91
1,872
64
29
3,971
424
161
176
1,077
209
2,013
233
77
572
383
443
26
135
148
107
190
1,038
227
1,186
786
2,051
1
985
46
297
307
219
413
2,295
1,247
2,412
1,864
5,453
77,
2,646
91
3,109
103
58
6,730
870
249
274
1,923
285
8,549
432
125
1,056
628
443
95.0
96.3
88.1
82.1
67.3
86.4
23.8
83.3
68.2
53.2
18.4
59.8
13.2
45.5
21.9
100.0
52.9
58.3
34.8
39.2
52.6
16.3
61.2
78.5
29.9
96.0
80.2
1.4
92.3
83.7
37.8
62.6
65.3
79.2
11.9
67.9
42.0
35.6
(0)
35.9
""35."5"
15.4
93.1
35.4
39.0
21.6
24.5
30.6
6.6
40.5
41.2
29.2
92.1
61.6
93.5
90.6
63.8
72.6
66.3
83.1
21.7
75.7
57.1
46.6
18.2
50.9
13.2
41.5
19.4
96.6
45.8
48.4
30.1
33.9
42.9
13.7
52.2
61.3
29.6
94.2
72.9
1.4
Dutch
Finnish
Flemish
French. . . ..
German
Greek. . .
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese . . .
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
1,237
39
29
2,759
446
88
98
846
76
1,536
199
48
484
245
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish .
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian .... ...
Ruthenian
Servian
Slovak . .
Slovenian
Spanish...
Swedish.. . . .
Syrian
Turkish
Grand total
32,666
24,228
56,894
as. 3
59. 3
9571"
45.1
62.8
9579
52.3
Total native-born of foreign father.
0, 787
25,879
6,858
17,370
13,645
43,249
96.4
57.2
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the totals in the foregoing table it is seen that
more than 95 per cent of the persons of native birth but of foreign
father were able to speak English, a greater proportion of males than
of females being able to use the language. On the other hand, only
about 52 per cent of the persons of foreign birth in the households
studied were able to speak English, and a considerably larger pro-
portion of males than of females had acquired an ability to speak
the language. The reason for the more favorable showing of the
males as compared with the females arises from the fact that a larger
proportion of males than of females come into contact with American
life and institutions through worjdng and otherwise. As a rule, the
immigrant women are practically segregated in immigrant colonies
and have no association with American life or people except a little
domestic service. Of the persons of foreign birth of the old immi-
gration, the French indicate the least progress in acquiring an
ability to speak English. The Norwegians and Swedes show the
largest proportion of persons with English-speaking ability, with
the Germans next in order. Of the races of recent immigration, the
Turks show the smallest proportion, or only 1.4 per cent, of their
total number able to speak English. The Bulgarians, Greeks, Jap-
anese, Macedonians, Mexicans, and Servians also exhibit less than
one-fourth of their number with English-speaking ability. Of the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
477
southern and eastern Europeans, the highest degree of English-speak-
ing ability is indicated by the Armenians, Bohemians and Moravians,
Hebrews, and Syrians. Slightly less than one-half of the Croatians,
South Italians, Poles, Portuguese, and Ruthenians are able to speak
English. The Bravas and Finns show the least advancement in
acquiring an ability to speak English. A considerably greater pro-
portion of males than of females of the Flemish, North and South
Italian, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Ruthenian, Slovenian, and Slovak
races can speak English.
The table next presented exhibits the advancement in ability to
speak English made by foreign-born members of non-English-speak-
ing races after designated periods of residence in the United States.
It shows, by sex, years in the United States, and race, the proportion
of 246,673 employees of foreign birth who could speak English.
TABLE 94. — Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex, years in the
United States, and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only non-English-speaking races with 200 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all non-
English-speaking races.]
MALE.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak English, by years in United
States.
Under 5.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Total.
Armenian
658
3,861
940
9,231
9,679
3,005
594
1,450
3,594
1,831
18,831
5,440
3, 660
1,359
13, 147
15, 990
9,148
573
11,335
203
250
674
40,050
3,483
1,857
6,430
802
1,627
24, 463
4,716
1,912
5,309
980
325
28.3
35.9
15.3
45.2
37.8
77.4
87.4
58. 5
26.2
34.3
50.9
25.8
64.5
61.8
36.6
30.6
28.8
19.6
29.8
48.8
33.2
88.4
21.5
16.8
28.6
26.7
18.6
30.4
33.3
34.2
9.8
72.8
39.5
16.1
68.5
64.4
68.4
71.5
66.8
15.4
92.7
77.9
63.7
68.4
80.9
64.5
78.3
82.1
70.9
63.2
62.5
90.9
61.1
69.8
54.5
98.5
49.5
56.8
66.0
63.8
52.4
62.8
62.0
63.6
16.2
94.6
70.6
75.0
83.4
84.3
84.0
86.8
84.1
41.5
99.3
94.8
81.7
90.5
94.8
83.6
86.5
87.7
85.7
78.1
81.6
• (a)
78.5
65.0
100.0
99.3
76.8
77.1
84.6
83.1
81.8
74.0
80.0
80.9
42.9
98.7
79.6
84.6
54.9
66.0
20.3
79.4
50.9
19.1
96.5
86.1
50.3
68.6
87.5
33.5
74.7
79.5
58.8
48.7
51.3
21.1
46.4
59.6
38.0
96.9
43.5
45.2
33.3
43.6
36.8
41.2
55.6
51.7
19.6
94.7
54.6
22.5
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian .
Cuban
Danish .
Dutch
Finnish . .
French
German. .....
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Italian, North .
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican. . .
Montenegrin
Norwegian .
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian '
Russian..
Ruthenian
Servian...
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish . . .
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Total
211, 716
30.7
61.6
85.3
55.6
FEMALE.
Armenian ...
14
42.9
(a)
(a)
57.1
Bohemian and Moravian
600
26.2
59.8
88.1
58 7
Bulgarian
5
(a)
(a)
(a)
80.0
Canadian, French...
8,216
25.4
46.3
65.2
54.2
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
478
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 94.— Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex, years in the
United States, and race — Continued.
FEMALE-Continued.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak English, by years in United
States.
Under 5.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Total.
Croatian
210
523
60
251
302
396
1,835
569
1,360
388
1,853
3,741
1,150
1
617
2
49
' 7, 578
2,379
137
887
79
20
443
185
131
154
442
5
10.7
12.2
(a)
39.4
13.0
19.3
40.5
7.0
65.5
77.4
14.7
11.1
9.7
(a)
13.7
(a)
83.3
5.9
88.6
14.9
33.4
4.4
17.6
9.5
17.6
9.9
79.2
20.2
(a)
81.8
13.6
100.0
88.5
34.6
57.0
81.5
24.5
92.1
94.4
58.0
38.2
49.0
72.7
32.8
100.0
100.0
59.5
82.3
94.9
66.7
97.4
96.1
77.1
53.8
84.8
21.4
19.9
98.3
73.7
24.5
45.5
80.2
12.3
75.7
86.6
39.1
25.8
22.3
(a)
24.0
(a)
91.8
15.5
27.0
32.8
45.9
10.1
20.0
26.6
30.3
19.1
94.2
36.4
40.0
Cuban. .
Danish
Dutch
Finnish
French
German .
Greek
Hebrew, Russian...
Hebrew, Other
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar. . .
74.6
92.3
Mexican
Norwegian . . .
90.9
19.8
34.4
84.4
72.0
16.7
(a)
57.0
60.7
21.2
92.3
55.9
(a)
100.0
55.5
57.4
(a)
86.3
80.0
(a)
89.6
93.3
58.8
97.4
63.0
Polish ...
Portuguese
Roumanian .
Russian
Ruthenian
Servian ..
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Total..
34, 957
17.1
43.7
69.7
38.6
TOTAL.
Armenian
672
28.6
68.7
83.2
54.9
Bohemian and Moravian
4,461
34 2
63 8
84 7
65.0
Bulgarian
945
15 5
67 8
84 6
20 6
Canadian, French
17, 447
33.8
58.1
77.4
67.5
Croatian
9,889
37.0
67 0
84 0
50 3
Cuban
3 528
8 4
15 2
39 8
19 2
Danish
654
86.7
93.1
99 4
96.6
Dutch
1,701
53 0
79 2
95 4
84 2
Finnish
3,896
24.9
61.7
80.8
48.3
French ,
2,227
30.3
66.5
89.6
64.5
German
20, 666
49 4
81 0
94 8
86 8
Greek
6,009
24.1
59.8
82.1
31.5
Hebrew, Russian
5,026
64.9
81 2
88 3
75 0
Hebrew, Other
1,747
67 3
85 2
88 6
81 1
Italian, North
15,000
33.5
69.7
84 6
56.3
Italian, South
19, 731
26.7
58 9
73 4
44. 4
Lithuanian
10,298
25 6
61 7
81 8
48 1
Macedonian
574
19.8
90.9
(a)
21.3
Magyar
11,952
28.6
61 4
78 7
45 2
Mexican
205
47 6
69 8
65 0
59 0
Montenegrin
250
33.2
54 5
100 0
38.t)
Norwegian
723
87.8
97 9
99 3
96.5
Polish
47,628
18 2
45 8
74 9
39 i
Portuguese
5,862
13.3
47.6
70 2
37.8
Roumanian
1,994
27.8
68.6
83 3
33.3
Russian
7,317
27 6
64 6
83 4
43 9
Ruthenian .
881
16.8
51.3
81.8
34.4
Servian
1,647
30.2
62.5
74.3
41.0
Slovak
24,906
32.5
62 0
80 1
55 1
Slovenian .
4,901
33.3
63.5
81.1
50.9
Spanish
2,052
97.7
16-4
43 4
19.5
Swedish
5,463
73.0
94 6
98 6
94.7
Syrian . ...
1,422
33.4
66.0
74.9
48.9
Turkish
330
16.2
76.2
84 6
22.7
Total
246, 673
28.6
59 6
83 1
53.2
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 479
Upon reference to the total in the preceding table it is seen that
there is a rapid advancement in the proportions of employees able
to speak English corresponding to an increased period of residence
in the United States. Of the total number who had been in this
country less than five years only 28.6 per cent could speak English,
as contrasted with 59.6 per cent with a residence of five to nine
years and 83.1 per cent who had been in the United States ten
years or over. The smallest proportions of employees able to speak
English with a residence under five years are shown, in the order
named, by the Cuban, Portuguese, Bulgarian, Turkish, Ruthenian,
Polish, Macedonian, Greek, Finnish, Lithuanian, South Italian, Rus-
sian, and Roumanian races, all of which fall below the general show-
ing for the total number of foreign-born wage-earners. Of the em-
ployees with a residence of five to nine years the Cubans exhibit a
percentage of only 15.2 and the Spaniards of 16.4 with ability to
speak English, while the French Canadians, South Italians, Montene-
grins, Poles, Portuguese, and Ruthenians have percentages less than
that for the total number of employees within this residence period.
Of the employees who had been in the United States ten years or
longer the Cubans, Spaniards, Mexicans, Portuguese, South Italians,
Servians, Syrians, Poles, French Canadians, and Magyars, all of
whom have less than four-fifths of their number able to speak Eng-
lish, indicate, in the order mentioned, the least progress in ability to
speak English.
Of the males from southern and eastern Europe with a residence
of ten years or over the smallest proportion of employees able to
speak English is exhibited by the Servians, the showing of the Poles,
Portuguese, Magyars, and South Italians being but slightly more
favorable. The lowest percentages are found in the case of the
Cuban and Spanish cigar makers. Almost three-fifths of these races
are unable to speak the English language.
Upon referring to the totals for the male and female wage-earners
it is seen that the former not only show a larger proportion than the
latter in each period of residence with the ability to speak English,
but exhibit greater progress in acquiring the language after specified
periods of residence. As stated, this condition of affairs is due to
the greater segregation of the female workers and their more limited
opportunities, as compared with the males, for contact with American
life and institutions. Of the southern and eastern European females
who have been in this country ten years or longer, the South Italians
exhibit the smallest proportion with ability to speak English. The
Polish, Portuguese, Finnish, and Syrian females make a somewhat
better showing than the South Italian, but fall below the proportion
for the total foreign-born females.
The table which is next presented sets forth, by race of individual
and by years in the United States, the per cent of foreign-born per-
sons of non-English-speaking races in the households studied who
were 6 years of age or over and who were able to speak English.
480
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 95. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak English,
by years in the United States and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
| By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only non-English-speaking races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all non-
English-speaking races.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak English, by
years in United States.
Under 5.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Armenian
437
1,187
87
761
1,596
1,839
135
46
297
307
219
413
2,295
1,247
2,412
1,864
5,453
77
2,646
91
3,109
103
58
6,730
870
249
274
1,923
285
3,549
432
125
1,056
628
443
58.6
36.2
28.1
6.0
37.5
24.1
.0
(a)
60.0
23.7
54.8
34.4
40.5
13.1
65.0
30.6
26.5
12.0
24.1
12.4
21.9
.0
87.5
21.8
37.1
27.1
16.7
14.9
7.0
25.7
26.3
13.2
71.6
62.6
.9
77.2
58.8
73.1
47.8
66.8
55.6
14.8
87.5
73.3
62.1
71.4
72.9
79.4
50.0
76.5
61.4
60.4
26.9
55.3
(a)
56.7
13.6
100.0
50.3
44.5
45.2
43.4
51.9
33.8
54.0
64.7
30.0
93.1
80.9
14.3
94.5
82.4
75.9
(a)
76.0
78.7
57.1
97.3
92.6
75.9
83.9
94.4
96.6
78.4
88.8
84.3
75.9
W77.1
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian ... . .
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban ....
Danish
Dutch
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
79.8
23.9
97.9
77.0
59.9
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish . . . .
Portuguese .
Roumanian
Russian
81.0
68.8
^i
78.0
70.4
96.3
92.6
Ruthenian
Servian
Slovak.
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Total
43, 249
26.1
58.5
80.8
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Upon reference to the total of 43,249 persons studied, it is seen
that there is a steady advancement in ability to speak English corre-
sponding to period of residence in the United States. Among the
persons who have been in the United States less than five years, the
following races report less than 25 per cent of their number with
ability to speak English: Lithuanian, Croatian, Finnish, Magyar,
Polish, Russian, Ruthenian, Spanish, Macedonian, Japanese, Greek,
Servian, Bulgarian, Turkish, Cuban, and Mexican, the two last
named reporting none. Among those persons with a residence of
five to nine years, only three races, the Cuban, Turkish, and Mexican,
report less than 25 per cent with ability to speak English, and of
those who have been in the United States ten years or longer, the
Mexicans alone report less than 25 per cent. The unfavorable
showing of the Mexicans is largely to be ascribed to the fact that the
greater number of representatives of this race are coal-mine workers
living in more isolated localities than the other races studied and
consequently having less opportunity to acquire the language. Of
the races of recent arrival in the United States the Armenians exhibit
the highest percentage of persons with a residence of ten years or
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
481
over able to speak English, the Syrians being next in order, closely
followed by the Hebrews.
The table which immediately follows shows, by sex, age at time of
coming to the United States, and race, the per cent of 246,673
employees of non-English-speaking races who were able to speak
English:
TABLE 96. — Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex, age at time of
coming to the United States, and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 200 or more persons reporting. The total, how-
ever, is for all non-English-speaking races.]
MALE.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak English, by age
at time of coming to United States.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Total.
Armenian
658
3,861
940
9,231
9,679
3,005
594
1,450
3,594
1,831
18,831
5,440
3,660
1,359
13, 147
15,990
9,148
573
11,335
203
250
674
40,050
3,483
1,857
6.430
802
1,627
24,463
4,716
1,921
5,309
980
325
94.7
97.6
81.8
93.3
84.5
45.0
98.8
99.3
94.3
97.9
99.7
75.5
96.7
99.4
94.1
83.1
85.4
(«).
91.2
74.3
100.0
98.7
93.3
91.5
93.3
89.8
76.2
78.6
92.2
95.0
33.8
100.0
91.4
(°)
53.7
58.7
19.6
68.2
50.5
15.3
96.1
80.6
48.3
61.1
83.6
32.7
72.3
76.5
56.2
45.7
50.5
21.0
45.1
56.5
36.5
96.6
40.7
34.2
32.8
42.4
35.7
40.9
54.1
50.6
18.5
94.0
51.3
22.0
54.9
66.0
20.3
79.4
50.9
19.1
96.5
86.1
50.3
68.6
87.5
33.5
74.7
79.5
58.8
48.7
51.3
21.1
46.4
59.6
38.0
96.9
43.5
45.2
33.3
43.6
36.8
41.2
55.6
51.7
19.5
94.7
54.6
22.5
Bohemian and Moravian .
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew Other
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian . .
Macedonian
Magyar
Mexican
Montenegrin
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese . . .
Roumanian
Russian. .
Ruthenian ;
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian . . .
Turkish
Total
211,716
93.2
51.7
55.6
FEMALE.
Armenian
14
(a)
50.0
57.1
Bohemian and Moravian
600
93.1
29.5
58.7
Bulgarian
5
(a)
(a)
80.0
Canadian, French
8,216
75.8
31.2
54.2
Croatian
210
78 3
14 4
21 4
Cuban
523
39 1
11 7
19 9
Danish
60
100 0
96 9
98 3
Dutch
251
99 3
34 3
73 7
Finnish...
302
93.8
20 6
24 5
French . .
396
96 0
28 4
45 5
German
1,835
99.2
62.1
80 2
Greek '
569
59 0
6 7
12 3
Hebrew, Russian
1,366
97.0
67.7
75.7
Hebrew, Other
388
99 3
79 9
86 6
Italian, North
1,853
74 8
22 9
39 1
Italian, South
3,741
67.7
13.1
25 8
Lithuanian
1,150
88 1
13 6
22 3
Macedonian
1
(«)
(a)
Magyar...
617
84.8
15.1
24.0
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
482
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 96. — Per cent of foreign-born employees who speak English, by sex, age at time of
coming to the United States, and race — Continued.
FEMALE— Continued .
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak English, by age
at time of coming to United States.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Total.
Mexican
2
49
7,578
2,379
137
887
79
20
443
185
131
154
442
5
(a)
100.0
76.8
77.5
95.5
97.3
60.0
(a)
86.0
94.7
40.9
100.0
90.2
(«)
90.0
7.3
11.0
20.9
35.7
6.8
15.8
10.9
22.9
14.7
89.5
27.8
40.0
(a)
91.8
15.5
27.0
32.8
45.9
10.1
20.0
26.6
30.3
19.1
94.2
36.4
40.0
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian . .
Ruthenian ,
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish . . .
Syrian
Turkish
Total
34,957
79.9
21.8
38.6
TOTAL.
Armenian
672
95.2
53.6
54.9
Bohemian and Moravian
4,461
96.4
56.0
65 0
Bulgarian
945
83.3
19.8
20.6
Canadian, French
17,447
84.5
51.9
67.5
Croatian
9,889
83.5
49 8
50 3
Cuban
3,528
43.3
14.9
19.2
Danish
654
99.1
96. 1
'.»<;•<)
Dutch
1,701
99 3
76 5
84 2
Finnish
3,896
94.2
46.2
48.3
French
2,227
97.5
55 6
64 5
German
20 666
99 6
82 3
86 8
Greek
6,009
69.3
30.5
31.5
Hebrew, Russian j
5,026
9f> 9
71 2
75 0
Hebrew Other
1 747
99 4
77 1
81 1
Italian, North
15,000
86.4
53.1
56.3
Italian, South
19, 731
76 9
40 4
44 4
Lithuanian
10,298
86.4
46.7
48.1
Macedonian
574
(a)
21 0
21 3
Magyar
11,952
899
43 7
45 2
Mexican
205
72.2
56.2
59.0
Montenegrin
250
100 0
36 5
38 0
Norwegian
723
98 9
96 2
96 5
Polish
47, 628
88.5
35.7
39 1
Portuguese
5,862
85 0
25 1
37 8
Roumanian
1 994
94 6
32 1
33 3
Russian..
7,317
93.3
41 7
43 9
Ruthenian
881
73 1
33 2
34 4
Servian
1 647
80 0
40 6
41 0
Slovak.
24,906
91 6
53 5
55 1
Slovenian
4,901
95 0
49 6
50 9
Spanish
2,052
34.9
18.3
19.5
Swedish
5,463
100.0
93 9
94 7
Syrian
1.422
90 8
44 3
48 9
Turkish
330
(0)
22.3
22.7
Total
246. 673
88 7
48 3
53 2
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
These tabulations were planned to show the relative adaptiveness
and progress of immigrants 'of a younger as compared with those
of an older age, according to the time of their arrival in this countrv.
The significant fact disclosed by the grand total for both sexes is
that a much greater proportion of the immigrants who were under 14
years of age when they came to the United States are able to speak
English at the present time than of those who were 14 years of
age or over when they immigrated to this country. This condi-
tion of affairs is due not only to the greater adaptability of the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
483
younger immigrants, but also to their greater opportunities in the
way of attending the public school and in mingling with native
Americans. The females, as compared with the males, exhibit not
only smaller proportions able to speak English, but also a less de-
gree of advancement among those less than 14 years old when they
arrived in this country.
The relative progress in acquiring the ability to speak English of
the younger or older immigrants in the households studied, according
to their age at the time of arrival in the United States, is shown
in the table which immediately follows:
TABLE 97. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by
age at time of coming to the United States and race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total,
however, is for all non-English-speaking races.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak
English, by age at
time of coming to
United States.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Armenian
437
1.187
87
761
1,596
1,839
135
46
297
307
219
413
2,295
1,247
2,412
1,864
5,453
77
2,646
91
3,109
103
58
6,730
870
249
274
1,923
285
3,549
432
125
1,056
628
443
99.0
91.2
92.9
85.7
84.3
82.7
48.8
100.0
100.0
87.9
98.3
85.8
96.8
72.6
94.8
90.7
83.9
67.9
61.7
50.7
6.6
55.9
39.4
17.0
90.0
84.1
58.2
62.9
59.0
78.4
18.5
67.3
49.5
37.3
18.2
46.0
13.2
35.1
11.7
95.8
40.1
32.2
28.9
28.4
38.8
12.5
46.4
56.6
17.5
93.3
67.7
1.4
Bohemian and Moravian . .
Brava
Canadian, French
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
Finnish
Flemish
French
German
GTeek
Italian North
Italian South
Japanese
91.0
Macedonian
Maevar
79.3
42.3
100.0
81.2
87.1
50.0
77.4
75.5
38.5
85.2
100.0
51.1
100.0
93.1
(0)
Mexican
Norwegian
Polish
Portuguese
Russian
Ruthenian
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish .
Total
43, 249
86.6
44.9
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Of the total number of foreign-born individuals who were less than
14 years of age at the time of their arrival in this country 86.6 per
cent, as shown by the table above, can now speak English, while of
those who were 14 years of age or older when they came to the United
States only 44.9 per cent are now able to speak the English language.
The same greater adaptability and progress among the younger, as
contrasted with the older immigrants, is indicated in the case of each
484
The Immigration Commission.
race, the most marked difference in favor of the younger immigrants
being noticeable in the case of the Brava, Bulgarian, Greek, Magyar,
Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Ruthenian, Slovak, and Slovenian races.
CITIZENSHIP.
The following table shows, by race, the present political condition
of foreign-born male employees who have been in the United States
five years or over and who were 21 years of age or over at time of
coming to this country:
TABLE 98. — Present political condition of foreign-born male employees ivho have 'been in
the United States 5 years or over and who were 21 years of age or over at time of coming ,
by race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States.]
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number —
Per cent—
Fully nat-
uralized.
Having
first
papers
only.
Fully nat-
uralized.
Having
first
papers
only.
Albanian . . .
2
171
1,259
3
49
1,539
480
1,903
961
5
251
531
1
4,456
1,031
29
651
7,859
421
890
403
6
3,449
4,069
3,811
40
2,727
7
3,200
60
18
21
270
1
10,923
564
128
1,388
161
1,088
26
236
7,433
1,391
647
2,359
116
21
729
7
1
8
606
421
1
114
2
36
349
(a)
28.1
48.5
(o)
-18.4
23.0
41.9
8.8
9.8
(a)
62.9
51.8
(a)
55.2
36.5
(a)
40.9
69.6
6.9
22.7
35.0
(a)
70.2
25.3
15.7
35.0
21.1
(a)
10.8
8.3
(a)
(a)
55.6
(0)
19.0
3.2
8.6
15.1
8.7
64.1
»«
12.1
14.3
9.7
73.9
11.2
(a)
73.0
(a)
(a)
(a)
22.1
45.1
(•)
76.3
(a)
21.1
27.7
(a)
18.4
8.5
14.8
13.7
2.3
(a)
23.9
28.1
(a)
25.4
24.7
(a)
25.7
Ifcl
13.3
34.5
26.6
(a)
12.4
20.5
14.4
10.0
11.4
(a)
16.0
1.7
(a)
(a)
30.0
(a)
14.1
2.3
13.3
12.9
11.2
15.0
(a)
8.1
10.7
21.5
3.9
18.4
9.5
(0)
14.0
(a)
(a)
(a)
31.0
31.4
(a)
15.8
Armenian
48
611
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian j . .
Bulgarian
9
354
201
167
94
1
158
275
1
2,460
376
8
266
5,466
29
202
141
9
131
• 71
260
22
1
60
149
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Dalmatian
Danish
Dutch
Egyptian
English
1,132
255
10
167
1,263
56
307
107
Finnish
Flemish
French .
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Herzegovinian. . .
Irish..
2,421
1,028
597
14
576
426
834
547
4
310
Italian, North
Italian, South
Italian (not specified)
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
344
5
4
4
150
513
1
2
2
81
1
1,535
13
'17
179
18
163
3
19
792
299
25
433
11
4
102
Mexican
Montenegrin
Negro
Norwegian
Persian...
Polish
2,075
18
11
210
14
697
17
11
898
199
63
1,744
13
3
532
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
Scotch-Irish .
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Syrian ....
Turkish
Welsh
West Indian (other than Cuban)
Alsatian (race not specified)
Australian (race not specified)
1
4
134
190
Austrian (race not specified)
188
132
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not specified)
Swiss (race not specified)
87
18
Total
68,942
22, 931
11.059
33.3
16.0
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
485
The tendency toward a permanent residence in the United States
on the part of the various foreign-born races may be readily seen by
a study of the foregoing table, which shows that of the 68,942 foreign-
born male employees concerning whom information was obtained,
exactly one-third are fully naturalized, and that an additional 16 per
cent have secured ffrst papers. In other words, a fraction less than
50 per cent of these foreign-born employees have either become full
citizens or intend to become such. On account of the difference in the
length of time the various races have been coming to the United
States, a comparison of the older with the more recent immigrants is
hardly fair. For this reason it is considered best to separate the
races into two groups, one including all races of older immigration
and the other all races of more recent immigration. When this is
done it is seen that about seven-tenths of the older, as compared with
about three-tenths of the more recent, have either become fully
naturalized or declared their intent to become so. Although one
race may show a much larger proportion fully naturalized than
some other, this other race may, and in many instances does, show
a much larger proportion with first papers only. . Therefore the only
natural conclusion to be drawn is that the one with the largest pro-
portion fully naturalized was quicker than the other to appreciate the
advantages to be gained by becoming citizens. This is perhaps
better illustrated by the recent immigrants than by the older. For
instance, the Italians (race not specified) show 35 per cent fully
naturalized and only 10 per cent additional holding first papers,
while the Austrians show 22.1 per cent fully naturalized, but an
additional 31 per cent holding first papers. Thus it will be seen
that the Austrians have in reality manifested greater interest in
American citizenship than have the Italians. For this reason it is
considered best to combine the proportion of each race fully natural-
ized with the additional proportion with only^ first papers. By such
a combination it will be seen that the interest in acquiring citizenship
manifested by the more recent immigrant races ranges as follows :
Per cent.
Bohemian and Moravian 76. 2
Hebrew (other than Russian) 61. 6
Finnish 61. 2
Hebrew, Russian 57. 2
Austrian (race not specified) 53. 1
Armenian 49. 2
Italian, North 45. 8
Italian (not specified) 45. 0
Bulgarian 36. 8
Slovenian 35. 8
Polish 33.1
Lithuanian 32. 5
Italian, South 30. 1
Per cent.
Russian 28. 0
Magyar 26. 8
Slovak 22. 8
Croatian 22. 5
Roumanian 21. 9
Syrian 20. 7
Greek 20.2
Ruthenian 19. 9
Spanish 13. 6
Servian 12. 8
Cuban 12.1
Portuguese 5. 5
486
The Immigration Commission.
As contrasted with the foregoing, the following proportions repre-
sent the interest manifested by the older immigrants :
Per cent.
Dutch 79. 9
Scotch 79. 1
Belgian (race no! specified) 76. 5
French 66. 6
Canadian (other than French) .... 56. 7
Canadian, French 31. 5
Mexican 10. 0
Per cent.
Swedish 92. 3
Swiss 92. 1
Welsh 87. 0
Danish 86. 8
German 85. 7
Norwegian 85. 6
Irish 82. 6
English 80.6
The following table shows, by race of individual, the present politi-
cal condition of foreign-born males in the households studied who
had been in the United States five years or over and who were 21
years of age or over at the time of their arrival in this country :
TABLE 99. — Present political condition of foreign-born males who have been in the
United States 5 years or over and who were 21 years of age or over at time of coming,
by race of individual.
(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number —
Per cent—
Fully nat-
uralized.
Having
first papers
only.
Fully nat-
uralized.
Having
first papers
only.
Armenian
67
198
11
17
210
345
15
9
54
223
71
42
83
503
109
373
254
428
952
553
1
512
30
17
1.216
113
24
48
278
73
35
672
80
18
271
60
11
50
39
123
14
46
58.2
62.1
c
19.4
(°)
(a)
77.8
65.0
56.3
57.1
41.0
65.4
3.7
24.1
79.1
32.9
18.1
21.9
(a)
15.0
.0
(a)
21.6
5.3
.0
8.3
14.7
68.5
.0
17.1
30.0
(0)
84.9
20.0
(°)
84.0
20.9
23.2
(a)
W ,7
19.1
(a)
W,,8
15.7
23.9
23.8
18.1
14.1
6.4
29.5
7.1
22.0
9.9
11.8
(a)
19.3
.0
(•)
13.9
.9
4.2
8.3
8.3
9.6
5.7
14.7
18.8
(Vi
15.0
(°)
10.0
Bohemian and Moravian
Brava
Bulgarian
2
12
66
1
3
8
35
17
10
15
71
7
110
18
94
94
65
Canadian, French
57
67
3
6
42
145
40
24
34
329
4
90
201
141
172
121
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finmish
Flemish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Irish
Italian North ...
Italian South
Lithuanian
Macedonian
Magyar
77
99
Mexican
Norwegian
11
263
6
5
169
1
1
4
23
7
2
99
15
2
30
9
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
4
41
50
Ruthenian
Scotch
Servian
Slovak
115
24
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
230
12
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
42
5
Total
8,026
2,513
1,159
31.3
14.4
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
487
Upon reference to the totals in the preceding table it is seen that
of the total number of 8,026 foreign-born males only 31.3 per cent had
attained to full citizenship, and only 14.4 per cent had taken the pre-
liminary steps toward acquiring citizenship by securing their first
papers. A hard and fast comparison between the races of the new
and of the old immigration as to the degree of citizenship obtaining
among them is not altogether fair unless the length of residence
of each class of immigrants be taken into account, but after making
due allowance for this favorable factor in the case of the races of old
immigration it is evident that they evince a much greater interest in
political and civic affairs than the southern and eastern European
races which have come to the United States during recent years.
The proportions of naturalized citizens among the representative
races of old immigration from Great Britain and northern Europe
are as follows:
Per cent.
Dutch 77. 8
English 65. 0
German 65. 4
Irish.. . 79.1
Per cent.
Scotch 68.5
Swedish 84. 9
Welsh.. . 84.0
By way of contrast, the per cents of the members of representa-
tive races of recent immigration who have become fully naturalized
are given below:
Per cent.
Armenian. . . 58. 2
Bohemian and Moravian 62. 1
Croatian 19. 4
Finnish 56. 3
Greek 3.7
Hebrew 24.1
Italian, North 32.9
Italian, South 18. 1
Lithuanian.. . 21.9
Per cent.
Magyar 15. 0
Polish... 21.6
Portuguese 5. 3
Russian 8. 3
Ruthenian 14. 7
Slovak 17. 1
Slovenian 30. 0
Syrian 20. 0
Among the older immigrants, the Swedes, Welsh, and Irish have
a somewhat higher proportion of citizens, although each race of
this class has more than three-fifths of its number with citizenship
transferred to the United States. Of the recent immigrant races of
representative numbers, the North Italians, Hebrews, Croatians, and
Poles, in the order named, display the greatest tendency toward
seeking citizenship.
The table which immediately follows shows, by years in the United
States and race, the present political condition of 68,942 foreign-
born male industrial workers who were 21 years of age or over at the
time of their arrival in this country.
488
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 100. — Present political condition of foreign-born male employees who were 21
years of age or over at time of coming to the United States, by years in the United
States and race.
(STUDY OF EMPLOYEES.)
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only races with 100 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race.
In United States 5 to 9
years.
In United States 10
years or over.
In United States 5
years or over.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Per cent—
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Per cent —
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Per cent—
Fully
natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers
only.
Fully
natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers
only.
Fully
natu-
ralized.
Having
first
papers
only.
Armenian
83
553
340
91
1,455
665
57
123
980
634
279
1,367
836
559
176
558
2,520
2,483
1,656
2,193
83
6, 115 -
366
110
876
97
209
188
4,248
952
408
494
74
39
16.9
8.7
6.5
8.8
3.2
3.3
14.0
8.9
13.3
18.1
9.0
12.9
2.1
7.5
10.2
19.4
10.5
5.8
8.2
3.3
6.0
2.7
1.4
6.4
4.3
1.0
10.0
2.1
2.2
4.6
2.5
22.5
5.4
12.8
24.1
46.5
3.8
11.0
11.4
.6
45.6
31.7
42.4
30.1
31.5
40.2
12.8
44.4
42.0
30.8
21.5
14.1
10.3
15.2
59.0
. 11.3
1.6
10.9
11.4
10.3
32.1
6.4
8.6
22.6
2.2
57.3
10.8
46.2
88
706
1,199
389
448
296
194
408
3,476
397
372
6,492
85
331
227
2,891
1,549
1,328
1,071
1,007
187
4,808
198
18
512
64
879
48
3,185
439
239
1,865
42
690
38.6
79.7
27.7
49.6
26.8
24.3
77.3
64.7
67.0
65.7
64.8
81.5
25.9
48.3
54.2
80.0
49.3
34.0
41.1
26.9
77.5
39.8
6.6
22.2
33.6
20.3
76.9
14.6
25.3
35.3
22.2
87.6
21.4
76.4
18.2
13.0
9.8
15.7
21.0
6.1
17.5
27.0
20.6
16.1
21.2
11.0
15.3
17.8
14.5
8.8
18.9
14.8
13.1
17.9
17.1
17.5
3.5
27.8
15.4
12.5
10.9
14.6
13.3
19.1
6.7
8.0
7.1
12.2
171
1,259
1,539
480
1,903
961
251
531
4,456
1,031
651
7,859
421
890
403
3,449
4,069
3,811
2,727
3,200
270
10, 923
564
128
1,388
161
1,088
236
7,433
1,391
647
2,359
116
729
28.1
48.5
23.0
41.9
8.8
9.8
62.9
51.8
55.2
36.5
40.9
69.6
6.9
22.7
35.0
70.2
25.3
15.7
21.1
10.8
55.6
19.0
3.2
8.6
15.1
8.7
64.1
4.7
12.1
14.3
9.7
73.9
11.2
73.0
21.1
27.7
8.5
14.8
13.7
2.3
23.9
28.1
25.4
24.7
25.7
16.1
13.3
34.5
26.6
12.4
20.5
14.4
11.4
16.0
30.0
14.1
2.3
13.3
12.9
11.2
15.0
8.1
10.7
21.5
3.9
18.4
9.5
14.0
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian, French
Canadian, Other
Croatian
Cuban
Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish *
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Norwegian. . . ...
Polish
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch ....
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish .
Swedish
Syrian
Welsh
Total
32, 142
6.2
18.1
36,800
56.9
14.2
68,942
33.3
16.0
The foregoing data indicate a tendency on the part of wage-earners
of foreign birth to acquire citizenship, which increases according to
length of residence in this country. Of the total number who had a
residence of five to nine years, only 6.2 per cent were fully naturalized,
as compared with a degree of citizenship of 56.9 per cent of those with
a period of residence of ten years or over. Of the total number of
68,942 employees for whom information was received, only one-
third had become citizens, and only 16 per cent had taken the pre-
liminary steps toward acquiring citizenship by taking out first papers.
The Swedish, Irish, and Finnish exhibit the greatest interest in
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
489
acquiring citizenship shortly after they are eligible. More than
three-fourths of the Bohemian and Moravian, Danish, German, Irish,
Norwegian, Scotch, Swedish, and Welsh races who had been in the
United States ten years or longer had been fully naturalized. The
lack of political or civic interest of southern and eastern European
wage-earners, on the other hand, is shown by the following percent-
ages of fully naturalized representatives of some of the principal
races with a residence of ten years or longer:
Race.
Per cent
fully natu-
ralized.
Race.
Per cent
fully natu-
ralized.
Croatian
26.8
Magyar
26 9
Hebrew, Russian. ...
48.3
Polish
39 8
Italian, North
49 3
Russian
33 6
Italian, South
34.0
Slovak..
25 3
Lithuanian .
41.1
T22S90— VOL 1—11 32
THE INDUSTRIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RECENT IMMIGRATION.
RECENT EXPANSION OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
Kecent immigration is responsible for many social and political
problems. Its chief significance, however, is industrial, and of th3
industrial phases of the subject none is of greater importance than
the effect of recent immigration from southern and eastern Europe
upon native Americans as well as upon wage-earners belonging to the
races of past immigration from northern and western Europe and
Great Britain. The changes are of almost equal importance to indus-
trial organization, and industrial methods and processes resulting
from the entrance of such large numbers of southern and eastern
European and Asiatic immigrants into the industrial life of the coun-
try during the past thirty years. The effect of recent immigration
upon the working and living conditions of wage-earners in industrial
localities is also of great interest and importance.
The period covered by the past thirty years has been marked in the
United States by an extraordinary industrial development, including
manufacturing, mining, and all branches of industrial enterprise.
This expansion has obviously been most pronounced in the manufac-
turing States east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio and Poto-
mac rivers. There has been, however, a considerable development
in the territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains and
in the South, although not so extensive as in the Middle West and the
Middle and New England States. The remarkable growth in manu-
factures in the territory between the Rocky Mountains and the Atlan-
tic seaboard during the twenty-five years 1880-1905, may be readily
seen from the table below, which shows the amount of capital invested
and the value of output of all manufacturing establishments during
this period according to census years :
TABLE 101. — Total capital and value of products of manufactures in the States east of the
Rocky Mountains, 1880-1905, by census periods.a
Year.
Total capital.
Value of products.
1905
$12 031 388 950
$13 987 674 015
1900
9 384 263 009
12 346 530 185
1890
6 268 979 279
9 Oil 543 324
1880
2 708 545 445
5 212 505 186
a These computations are made solely for manufactures in the States chosen, as it is impossible to
form parallel comparisons for the mines and quarries, owing to the various statistical forms used in their
tabulation in the several censuses.
INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF WAGE-EARNERS,
The most significant fact regarding recent immigration disclosed
by the industrial study is the unprecedented increase in the
operating forces of the mines and manufacturing establishments
491
492
The Immigration Commission.
accompanying the rapid extension of industrial activities. The
number of employees of mines and manufacturing establishments
in the territory east of the Rocky Mountains was more than doubled
during the thirty years 1880-1909. The extent of this increase during
the first twenty-five years of that period is shown in the table below,
whic'h sets forth, according to the federal census returns, the average
number of wage-earners engaged in mining and manufacturing in the
years specified:
TABLE 102. — Average number of wage-earners employed in mining and manufacturing,
1880-1900, by census periods.
Year.
Number.
1900
7,
037, 731
1890
5,
018 300
1880
3
743 374
The great increase in laboring forces becomes more apparent when
the agricultural States of the area under discussion are eliminated
and those engaged principally in manufacturing and mining are con-
sidered. In order that the real significance of the situation may be
seen, the growth in the number of wage-earners in the principal man-
ufacturing and mining States east of the Rocky Mountains is shown
for the period 1880-1900 in the table which immediately follows:
TABLE 103. — Total number of employees engaged in manufactures, mines, and quarries in
1880, 1890, and 1900, by selected States.
[Compiled from Census of 1900, Special Report, "Occupations," page c.]
State.
1900.
1890.
1880.
Alabama
78,004
48, 870 '
21 622
Connecticut
175, 773
150 120
114 307
Delaware
22, 262
18, 678
13 854
Illinois
479, 894
353 021
203 960
Indiana
206 285
152 511
107 356
Kansas
71, 769
62 245
36 104
Maryland .
123, 352
109 100
81 679
Massachusetts
560 387
484 706
363 142
Michigan
225, 549
188 450
li>0 400
Minnesota
118 354
92 740
37 488
New Jersey
301 642
232' 126
157 195
New York..
1 031 020
854 920
021 930
Ohio
462 812
308 730
240 788
Oklahoma
8 823
2 213
(a)
Pennsylvania
982 290
770 979
528 873
Rhode Island
100 437
82' 977
65 056
West Virginia
67 764
41 804
26 006
Wisconsin .
175 267
130 456
82 111
Total
5 191 084
4 151 300
2 816 877
a Unobtainable.
From these figures it will be noted that there has been a steady
increase in the number of employees in the manufactures, mines,
and quarries of each of the States specified. The total number of
employees rises from 2,816,877 in 1880 to 5,191,684 in 1900, an
increase of 84.3 per cent. Between 1880 and 1890 there was an
increase of 47.4 per cent in the total number and the slightly decreased
growth in the next decade can probably be attributed to the general
introduction of labor-saving machinery during that period. In the
case of the individual States, it will be noted that but three, Alabama,
Indiana, and West Virginia, show their greater increase in numbers
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 493
in the ten years from 1890 to 1900. Several western States show a
great increase from 1880 to 1890; for example, Illinois shows an
increase of 73 per cent, Michigan of about 56 per cent, Minnesota of
147 per cent, and Wisconsin of 66 per cent. ,In the East and North
the proportion has not been so great. The increase in number of
wage-earners from 1880 to 1900 ranges from 51 per cent in the case
of Maryland to 260.8 per cent in the case of Alabama.
EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANT LABOR.
The labor force that in large part was used for this industrial expan-
sion was drawn from the recent immigration from southern and east-
ern Europe and Asia. The result has been that the racial composition
of the industrial population of the country has within recent years
undergone a complete change, and the cities and industrial localities
of the United States have received large additions to their population
in the form of industrial workers of alien speech, manners, and cus-
toms. The greater proportion of the wage-earners at the present
time engaged in manufacturing and mining are of foreign birth, and
of the total number of foreign-born employees the larger part consists
of representatives of races from the south and east of Europe and from
Asia. This condition of affairs is not limited to the manufacturing
areas of the Middle States and New England. It prevails wherever
manufacturing interests or mining operations are or any importance.
The southern and eastern European is extensively employed in the
iron ore and copper mines of Michigan and Minnesota, in the coal
mines of the Middle WGS^J Southwest, and South, and in the steel
plants and glass factories of the Middle West and South, as well as
in the mines, mills, and factories of Pennsylvania, New York, and New
Jersey, and the cotton and woolen goods manufacturing establish-
ments of New England. The presence of this class of wage-earners
is not only characteristic of the basic industries of the country, but
is also found in all minor divisions of manufacturing and mining. More-
over, railroad and canal construction, together with other temporary
and seasonal work, in all sections of the country is now being done
by members of races of recent immigration. There is not an indus-
trial community of any importance east of the Mississippi and north
of the Ohio and Potomac rivers which does not include within its
borders a considerable number of industrial workers of races of recent
immigration. Of the total number of wage-earners employed in
the principal industries within this area from whom information was
secured, about 60 per cent are of foreign birth, 39 per cent being
from southern and eastern Europe and Asia. Of the total number
of foreign-born about 6.7 per cent are of races of southern and
eastern Europe and Asia.a
REASONS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS.
It is not possible to determine definitely whether the recent rapid
and unprecedented expansion of industry has been the cause of the
recent influx of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, or
a The racial composition of the operating forces of the principal industries within
the geographical area between the Rocky Mountains and Atlantic seaboard is shown
in detail in Table 6, pp. 320-322.
494 The Immigration Commission.
whether the existence of an available supply of cheap labor easily
induced to immigrate was the cause of the industrial expansion. It
is a possibility that if the demand for labor had not found so large
a supply of cheap labor available, increased wages and better work-
ing conditions required to attract labor might have induced a con-
tinuation of immigration from northern and western Europe and the
United Kingdom. On the other hand, less immigration of a character
tending to keep down wages and working conditions might have been
attended by a larger natural increase among the native-born portion
of the population. There is ground for argument or speculation on
each side of these various points. As a matter of fact, it has not
appeared in the case of the industries covered by the present investi-
gation that it was usual for employers to engage recent immigrants
at wages actually lower than those prevailing at the time of their
employment in the industry where they were employed. It is un-
doubtedly true that the expansion in all branches of industry between
thirty and forty years ago was primarily responsible for the original
entrance of the southern and eastern Europeans into the operating
forces of the mines and manufacturing establishments. They were
found, from the standpoint of the employer, to be tractable and
uncomplaining. Although they were possessed of a low order of
industrial efficiency, it was possible to use them in a more or less
satisfactory way. Upon the ascertainment of this fact by the em-
ployers and with the realization of the existence of this large source
of labor supply, a reversal of conditions occurred. The industrial
expansion which had originally caused the immigration of southern
and eastern Europeans was in turn stimulated by their presence, and
new industrial undertakings were doubtless projected on the assump-
tion of the continuing availability of this class of labor. At the same
time, the influx of southern and eastern Europeans brought about
conditions of employment under which there was no sufficient induce-
ment to the races of Great Britain and northern Europe to continue
to seek work in those industries. It may be said, therefore, that
industrial expansion was the original reason for the employment of
races of recent immigration, but that after the availability of this
labor became known further industrial expansion was stimulated by
the fact of this availability, the original cause thus becoming largely
an effect of the conditions it had created.
CONDITIONS WHICH MADE POSSIBLE THE EXTENSIVE EMPLOYMENT
OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS.
An interesting point in this connection is the fact that it was
possible to receive such a large body of employees of foreign birth
into the American industrial system. The older immigrant labor
supply was composed principally of persons who had had train-
ing and experience abroad in the industries which they entered after
their arrival in the United States. English, German, Scotch, and
Irish immigrants in textile factories, iron and steel establishments,
or in the coal mines, usually had been skilled workmen in these
industries in their native lands and came to the United States in the
expectation of higher wages and better working conditions. In the
case of the more recent immigrants from southern and eastern Europe
this condition of affairs has been reversed. Before coming to the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 495
United States the greater proportion were engaged in farming or
unskilled labor and had no experience or training in manufacturing
or mining. As a consequence their employment in the mines
and manufacturing plants of this country has been made possible
only by the invention of mechanical devices and processes which
have eliminated the skill and experience formerly required in a large
number of occupations. Probably one of the best illustrations of
this fact is to be found in the operation of coal, copper, and other
metalliferous mines. In bituminous coal mining, for example, the
pick or hand miner was formerly an employee of skill and experience.
He undercut the coal, drilled his own holes, fired his own shots, and,
together with his helper, loaded the coal which came down upon the
cars, and was paid so much per ton for the entire operation. By the
invention of the mining machine, however, the occupation of the pick
miner has been largely done away with, thereby increasing the pro-
portion of unskilled workmen who load the coal on cars after it has
been undercut and the holes drilled by machinery, and the coal
knocked down by a blast set off by a shot firer specialized for that
division of the labor. Such work can readily be done, after a few days'
apprenticeship, by recent immigrants who, before immigrating to the
United States, had never seen a coal mine. The same situation is
found in the cotton factories, where unskilled and inexperienced immi-
grants can, after a, brief training, operate the automatic looms and
ring spinning frames which do the work formerly requiring skilled
weavers and mule spinners. In the glass factories, also, which are
engaged in the manufacture of bottles and window and plate glass,
untrained immigrants, through the assistance of improved machinery,
turn out the same products which in past years required the services
of the highly trained glass blowers. In the iron and steel plants and
other branches of manufacturing similar inventions have made it
possible to operate the plants with a much smaller proportion of skilled
and specialized employees than was formerly the case. It is this
condition of industrial affairs, as already stated, which has made it
possible to give employment to the untrained, inexperienced, non-
English-speaking immigrant of recent arrival in the United States.
PRESENT-DAY INDUSTRIAL COMMUNITIES.
The general effects of the extensive employment of immigrant labor
in American industries are found in the municipal and civic problems
which are the outgrowth of the presence of the alien population. The
foreign or immigrant communities which have come into existence
because of the recent industrial expansion and the resultant influx of
immigrants from southern and eastern Europe are of two general
types. The first type is a community which has, by a gradual proc-
ess of social accretion, affixed itself to the original population of an
industrial town or city which had already been established before the
arrival of races of recent immigration. Foreign communities of this
type are as numerous as the older industrial towns and centers of the
country, any one of which in New England, in the Middle States, or
in the Middle West or Southwest will be found to have its immigrant
section or colony. The second type of immigrant community has
come into existence within recent years because of the development
496 The Immigration Commission.
of some natural resource, such as coal, iron ore, or copper, or by rea-
son of the extension of the principal manufacturing industries of the
country. They are usually communities clustering around mines or
industrial plants, and their distinguishing feature^is that a majority
of their inhabitants, often practically all, are of foreign birth, the popu-
lation being composed of Slavs, Italians, Magyars, and other peoples
of recent immigration. Illustrations of this type of immigrant com-
munities are common in the bituminous and anthracite coal-mining
regions of Pennsylvania and in the coal-producing areas of Virginia,
West Virginia, Alabama, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, and Okla-
homa. In the Mesabi and Vermillion iron-ore ranges of Minnesota,
as well as in the iron-ore and copper-mining districts of Michigan,
many communities of this character are found. Although not so
numerous, they are not infrequently established in connection with
the leading industries, such as the manufacture of iron and steel, glass,
cotton and woolen goods, etc. As representative types of this class
in different sections of the country there may be cited West Seneca
or Lackawanna City, near Buffalo, New York, a steel town 10 years
old, with a total population of 20,000, more than 80 per cent of which
is foreign-born; Hungary Hollow, near Granite City and Madison,
Illinois, another steel-producing community, established during the
past seven years, which is the center of a Bulgarian colony of 15,000
persons; and Charleroi, Kensington, Tarentum, and Arnold, Pennsyl-
vania, and Ford City, Ohio, which furnish illustrations of glass-man-
ufacturing communities of this description. Charleroi, Pennsylvania,
is at present a city having a population of 10,500, composed chiefly of
French and French Belgians, with an admixture of races of recent
immigration from southern and eastern Europe. The community
was established in 1890, when the first glass factory was erected, and
has grown in size and importance as the glass industry within its
borders has been extended. Numerous other communities of this
type might be mentioned, but the foregoing examples will serve to
set forth the general situation.
In both classes of communities there has resulted a distinct segre-
gation of the immigrant Copulation wiiich has been attracted to the
locality by the opportunities for work. Between the immigrant colo-
nies which have affixed themselves to the industrial centers, such as
the New England textile manufacturing cities or the iron and steel
manufacturing localities of Pennsylvania, and the older native-born
portion of the towns or cities there is little contact or association
beyond that rendered necessary by business or. working relations.
The immigrant workmen and their households usually live in sections
or colonies according to race, attend and support their own churches,
maintain their own business institutions and places of recreation, and
have their own fraternal and beneficial organizations. There is some
association of the immigrant wage-earners with native Americans in
the necessary working relations of the industrial establishments, and,
in the case of communities where labor unions prevail, the different
races of employees are brought together for a common purpose. Even
in the mines and industrial establishments, however, there is a sharp
line of division in the occupations or the departments in which recent
immigrants and persons of native birth are engaged, and in unskilled
labor the immigrant workmen are as a rule brought together in gangs
composed of one race or closely related races. Even in industrial
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 497
localities which are strongly unionized, the extent of the affiliation of
immigrant workmen with native Americans is small. A large propor-
tion of the children of foreign-born parents mingle with children of na-
tive birth in the public schools, but a considerable proportion are also
segregated by race in the parochial schools. a The women of recent
immigrant races, beyond the small degree of contact which they
obtain by work .in factories or as domestic servants, in many cases
live in a condition entirely removed from Americanizing influences.
As a consequence of this general isolation of immigrant colonies, the
tendencies toward assimilation exhibited by the recent immigrant
population are small, and the maintenance of old customs and
standards leads to congestion and insanitary housing and living con-
ditions. The native-born elements in the population of the type of
industrial communities under discussion are in most cases ignorant of
conditions which prevail in immigrant sections,- and even when
aware of them are usually found to be indifferent so long as such
conditions do not become too pronounced a menace to the public
health and welfare. Agencies for the Americanization and assimila-
tion of the immigrant wage-earners and their families are still inade-
quate, though a number of agencies have recently developed to meet
this need. As a rule, under normal conditions there is no antipathy
to the immigrant population beyond the feeling uniformly met with
in all sections that a certain stigma or reproach attaches to working
with the recent immigrants or in t|ie same occupations.
In the case of the second type of immigrant industrial communities,
those which have recently come into existence through industrial
development and which are almost entirely composed of foreign-born
persons or in which the foreign-born elements are predominant, a
situation exists where an alien colony has been established on Ameri-
can soil, often composed of a large number of races, living according
to their own standards and largely under their own systems of con-
trol, and practically isolated from all direct contact with American
life and institutions. The Americanization of such communities, as
compared with the immigrant colonies of old-established industrial
towns and cities, must necessarily be slow. As serious as are the
problems, therefore, presented by the first-mentioned type of immi-
grant communities which are the result of recent industrial expansion,
those of the second type, which have arisen from the same cause, are
much greater. In both cases these problems, however, are the gen-
eral ones which confront a self-governing republic as a result of the
influx of an immigrant population of alien speech, standards, and
customs, and may be more properly considered in another connec-
tion. In the present discussion of the purely industrial aspects of
immigration it is sufficient to note that these immigrant communities
and the problems which they present are the direct outcome of the
extraordinary industrial development which has been in progress in
this country within recent years. The succeeding discussion will be
limited to a consideration of the effects of recent immigration (1) upon
native American and older immigrant wage-earners, (2) upon labor
organizations, (3) upon industrial organizations and methods, and
(4) upon the establishment of new industries.
« See Children of Immigrants in Schools. Reports of the Immigration Commission,
vols. 29-33. (S. Doc. No. 749, 61st Cong., 3d sess.)
498 The Immigration Commission.
SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RECENT IMMIGRANT LABOR SUPPLY.
The real significance of the entrance of recent immigrants into
American industry can not be fully comprehended, however, without
taking into account the personal and industrial characteristics of the
wage-earners from southern and eastern Europe who have been em-
ployed in such large numbers. Preliminary to the discussion of the in-
dustrial effects of recent immigration, therefore, it will be necessary
to review briefly the salient qualities of the recent immigrant labor
supply. The data substantiating the following characterization
appear elsewhere in minute detail, and consequently in the present
connection the characteristics of wage-earners of foreign birth are set
forth in a summary form as the basis for the subsequent discussion:0
(a) From a strictly industrial standpoint, one of the facts of great-
est import relative to the new arrivals has been, as already pointed
out, that an exceedingly small proportion have had any training or
experience while abroad for the industrial occupations in which they
have found employment in this country. The bulk of recent immi-
gration has been drawn from the agricultural classes of southern and
eastern Europe and most of the recent immigrants were farmers or
farm laborers in their native lands. In this respect they afford a
striking contrast to immigrants of past years from Great Britain and
northern Europe, who were frequently skilled industrial workers
before coming to the United States and who sought positions in this
country similar to those which they had occupied abroad.
(6) In addition to lack of industrial training and experience, the
new immigrant labor supply has been found to possess but small
resources from which to develop industrial efficiency and advance-
ment. The southern and eastern Europeans have, as a rule, given
evidence of industriousness and energy, but, unlike the races of older
immigration, they have been unable to use the English language, and
a large proportion have been illiterate. Practically none of the races
of southern and eastern Europe have been able to speak English at
the time of immigration to this country, and, owing to their segrega-
tion and isolation from the native American population in living and
working conditions, their progress in acquiring the language has been
very slow. The incoming supply of immigrant labor has also been
characterized by a high degree of illiteracy. Of a total of 290,059
industrial workers of foreign birth for whom detailed information was
secured, 17 per cent were unable to read and write and 14.8 per cent
could not read. In the case of the races from southern and eastern
Europe, the proportions unable to read and write were even larger.
(c) Still another salient fact in connection with the recent immi-
grant labor supply has been the necessitous condition of the new-
comers upon their arrival in American industrial communities in
search of work. Recent immigrants have usually had but a few
dollars in their possession when they arrived at the ports of disem-
barkation. Consequently they have found it absolutely imperative
to engage in work at once. They have not been in position to take
a See section entitled "Statistical summary of results," pp. 315-489; also the
separate reports dealing in detail with the different industries.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 499
exception to the wages'or working conditions offered, but must needs
go to work on the most advantageous terms they could secure.
(d) The standards of living of the recent industrial workers from
the south and east of Europe have been low, and the conditions
of employment, as well as the rates of remuneration in American
industry, have not as a rule constituted to them grounds for dissatis-
faction. During the earlier part, at least, of their residence in the
United States, they have been content with living and working con-
ditions offered to them, and it has only been after the most earnest
solicitation, or sometimes even coercion, upon the part of the older
employees, that they have been persuaded or forced into protests.
The living conditions of southern and eastern Europeans and the
members of their households is shown in the detailed studies of the
various industries, the most significant indication of congestion and
unsatisfactory living arrangements being the low-rent payments each
month per capita. The recent immigrant males being usually single,
or, if married, having left their wives abroad, have been able to
adopt in large measure a group instead of a family living arrangement,
and thereby to reduce their cost of living to a point far below that of
the American or older immigrant in the same industry or the same
level of occupations. The method of living usually followed is that
commonly known as the " boarding-boss system." Under this
arrangement a married immigrant or his wife, or a single man, con-
stitutes the head of the household, which, in addition to the family of
the head, will usually be made up of 2 to 20 boarders or lodgers.
Each lodger pays the boarding boss a fixed sum, ordinarily from $2
to $3 per month, for lodging, cooking, and washing, the food being
usually bought by the boarding boss and its cost shared equally by
the individual members of the group. Another common arrange-
ment is for each member of the household to purchase his own food
and have it cooked separately. Under this general method of living,
however, which prevails among the greater proportion of the immi-
grant households, the entire outlay for necessary living expenses of
each adult member ranges from $9 to $15 each month. The addi-
tional expenditures of the recent immigrant wage-earners have been
small. Every effort has been made to save as much as possible.
The life interest and activity of the average wage-earner from southern
and eastern Europe has seemed to revolve principally about three
points: (1) To earn the largest possible amount or immediate earn-
ings under existing conditions of work; (2) to live upon the basis
of minimum cheapness; and (3) to save as much as possible.
The ordinary comforts of life as insisted upon by the average Ameri-
can have been subordinated to the desire to reduce the cost of living
to its lowest level.
(e) Another salient quality of recent immigrants who have sought
work in American industries has frequently been that they have
constituted a mobile, migratory, wage-earning class, constrained
mainly by their economic interest, and moving readily from place to
place according to changes in .working conditions or fluctuations in
the demand for labor. This condition of affairs is made possible by
the fact that so large a proportion of the recent immigrant employees,
as already pointed out, are single men or married men whose wives
are abroad, and by the additional fact that the prevailing method of
500 The Immigration Commission.
living among immigrant workmen is such as to enable them to detach
themselves from a locality or an occupation whenever they may wish.
Their accumulations are also, as a rule, in the form of cash or quickly
convertible into cash. In brief, the recent immigrants have no property
or other restraining interests which attach them to a community, and
a large proportion are free to follow the best industrial inducements.
The transitory characteristic which has been developed as a result of
these conditions is best illustrated by the racial movements from the
larger industrial centers into railroad construction, seasonal and other
temporary work, and by the development of a floating immigrant
labor supply handled through labor agencies and padrones. There is
also a pronounced movement, as in the racial migrations westward of
bituminous coal-mine workers, from place to place or from industry
to industry, due to the ascertainment of relatively better working
conditions or other inducements. During the industrial depression
of 1907-8 this migratory tendency was particularly noticeable in
two ways: (1) By a large movement of southern and eastern Europ-
eans out of the country because of the lack of employment, and (2)
by the concentration of those who remained in this country in locali-
ties where there was opportunity for employment.
(/) To the above-described characteristics of recent immigrant
wage-earners, should be added one other. The members of the larger
number of races of recent entrance to the mines, mills, and factories
as a rule have been tractable and easily managed. This quality seems
to be a temperamental one acquired through present or past condi-
tions of life in their native lands. When aroused by strikes or other
industrial dissensions, some eastern European races have displayed
an inclination to follow their leaders to any length, often to the point
of extreme violence and disorder, but in the normal life of the mines,
mills, and factories, the southern and eastern Europeans have ex-
hibited a pronounced tendency toward being easily managed by
employers and toward being imposed upon without protest, which
has created the impression of subserviency. The .characteristic of
tractability, while strong, is confined, however, to the immigrant
wage-earners of comparatively short residence.
EFFECT OF THE COMPETITION OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS UPON NATIVE
AMERICANS AND OLDER IMMIGRANT EMPLOYEES.
If the foregoing characteristics of the immigrant labor supply from
southern and eastern Europe be borne in mind, the effect of the influx
of recent immigrants upon native American wage-earners and those
of older immigration from Great Britain and northern Europe may be
briefly stated. The remarkable expansion in manufacturing and
mining during the past thirty years, by creating a constant demand
for a relatively small number of additional places for experienced and
trained employees in supervisory and skilled positions, nas undoubt-
edly led to the advancement in the scale of occupations of a relatively
small proportion of native Americans, and of English, Irish, Scotch,
Welsh, and members of other races who constituted the wage-earning
classes before the arrival of recent immigrants. On the other hand,
the entrance into the operating forces of American industries of such
large numbers of wage-earners of the races of southern and eastern
Europe —
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 501
(1) Has exposed the original employees to unsafe and insanitary
working conditions, and has led to or continued the imposition of
conditions of employment which the Americans and older immigrants
have considered unsatisfactory and in many cases unbearable ;
(2) Has brought about or continued living conditions and a stand-
ard of life with which the native American and older employees have
been unwilling, or have found it extremely difficult, to compete;
(3) Has led to the voluntary or involuntary displacement from
certain occupations and industries of the native American and older
immigrant employees;
(4) Has weakened the labor organizations of the original employ-
ees, and in some industries has led to their entire demoralization and
disruption.
The existence of unsatisfactory working and living conditions
because of the competition of the recent immigrant has been due to
his lack of industrial training abroad, his tractability or subserviency,
and his low standard of living. When the older employees have
found unsafe and insanitary working conditions prevailing in the
mines and industrial establishments, and have protested, the recent
immigrant employees, usually through ignorance of mining or other
working methods, have manifested a willingness to accept the alleged
unsatisfactory conditions. The southern and eastern European
employee also, because of his tract ability, 'necessitous condition, and
low standards, has been inclined as a rule to acquiesce in the demand
upon the part of employers for extra work or longer hours. The
industrial workers of recent immigration have also accepted without
protest the system of co-called company stores and houses which
prevails so extensively in bituminous and anthracite coal, iron-ore,
and copper mining, and other industrial localities. The impossi-
bility of competition between the older employees and those with
standards of living like the standards of the recent immigrant, may
be readily inferred from what has already been said relative to the
methods of domestic economy of immigrant households and the cost
of living of their members. In addition to these conditions brought
about by the influx of southern and eastern European industrial
workers, another factor, mainly psychological in its nature, but no
less powerful in its effect, has been operative in the displacement of
native Americans and older immigrant employees. In all industries
and in all industrial communities a certain reproach has come to be
associated with native American or older immigrant employees who
are engaged in the same occupations as southern and eastern Euro-
peans. This feeling on the part of the older employees is mainly
due to the habits of life and conduct, and to the ready acceptance
of conditions by recent immigrants, but it is also largely attributable
to a conscious or unconscious antipathy, often arising from igno-
rance or prejudice, toward races of alien customs, institutions, and
manner of thought. The same psychological effect was produced
upon the native Americans in all branches of industrial enterprise
wno first came into working contact with the older immigrants from
Great Britain and northern Europe. In the decade 1840-1850, when
the Irish immigrant girls were first employed in the New England
cotton mills, the native women who had previously been the textile
operatives protested; twenty years later the Irish girls, after they
502 The Immigration Commission.
had become firmly fixed in the industry, rebelled because of the
entrance of French Canadian girls into the spinning rooms, just as the
French Canadian women are refusing to be brought into close working
relations with the Polish and Italian females who are entering the
cotton mills at the present time. Whatever may be the cause of
this aversion of older employees to working by the side of the newer
arrivals, the existence of the feeling has been crystallized into one of
the most potent causes of racial substitution in manufacturing and
mining occupations.
RACIAL DISPLACEMENT IN THE VARIOUS INDUSTRIES.
The racial displacements which have been a result of the con-
ditions outlined above have manifested themselves in three ways.
In the first place, a larger proportion of native Americans and older
immigrant employees from Great Britain and northern Europe have
left certain industries, such as bituminous and anthracite coal mining
and iron and steel manufacturing. In the second place, a part of the
earlier employees, as already pointed out, who remained in the indus-
tries in which they were employed before the advent of the southern
and eastern European have been able, because of the demand growing
out of the general industrial expansion, to attain to the more skilled
and responsible technical and executive positions which required
employees of training and experience. In the larger number of
cases, where the older employees remained in a certain industry after
the pressure of the competition of the recent immigrant had begun
to be felt, they relinquished their former occupations and segregated
themselves in certain occupations. This tendency is best illustrated
by the distribution of employees according to race in the bituminous
coal mines. In this industry all the so-called " company" occupa-
tions, which are paid on the basis of a daily, weekly, or monthly rate,
are occupied by native Americans or older immigrants and their
children, while the southern and eastern Europeans are confined to
pick mining and to the unskilled and common labor. The same
situation exists in iron and steel and glass manufacturing, the textile
manufacturing industries, and in all divisions of manufacturing enter-
prise. It is largely the reproach which has become attached to
the fact of working in the same occupations as the southern and
eastern Europeans that in some cases, as in the bituminous coal-
mining industry, has led to the segregation of the older class of
employees in occupations which, from the standpoint of compensation,
are less desirable than those occupied by recent immigrants. In most
industries the native Americans and older immigrant workmen who
have remained in the same occupations as those in which the recent
immigrants are predominant are made up of the thriftless, unpro-
gressive elements of the original operating forces. The third striking
feature resulting from the competition of southern and eastern
Europeans is seen in the fact that in the case of most industries, such
as iron and steel, textile, and glass manufacturing and the different
forms of mining, the children of native Americans and older immi-
grants from Great Britain and northern Europe are not entering the
industries in which their fathers have been emplo}red. Manufacturers
of all kinds claim that they are unable to secure a sufficient number
of native-born employees to insure the development of the neces-
sary number of workmen to fill the positions of skill and responsi-
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 503
bility in their establishments. This condition of affairs is attributable
to three factors: (1) General or technical education has enabled a
considerable number of the children of the industrial workers of the
passing generation to command business, professional, or technical
occupations more desirable than those of their fathers; (2) the
conditions of work which the employment of recent immigrants has
largely made possible have rendered certain industrial occupations
unattractive to the prospective wage-earner of native birth; and (3)
occupations other tnan those in which southern and eastern Euro-
peans are engaged are sought for the reason that popular opinion
attaches to them a higher degree of respectability.
It is obviously extremely difficult to form generalizations as to the
effect of the competition of recent immigrant industrial workers upon
native Americans and employees of the immigration of former years
without referring to certain industries and taking into account certain
exceptions. The general displacements and their causes, it is be-
lieved, as applicable to manufacturing and mining as a whole are
succinctly set forth above. Specific reference as to the conditions
in any of the principal industries may be had by referring to the
detailed reports.0 In the present connection, for the purpose of
illustrating the points already made, a brief account is submitted of
the racial movements to and racial displacements in several repre-
sentative industries. No other large industry in the United States,
with the possible exception of iron and steel and textile manufacturing,
has absorbed such a number of recent immigrants or such a diversity
of races as bituminous coal mining, and the racial movements to,
and displacements in, the operating forces of the bituminous coal
mines may be set forth as representative of the situation which has
developed to a more or less marked degree in the other leading in-
dustries of the country.
BITUMINOUS COAL MINING FIELDS.
Remarkable development has been in progress in the bituminous
coal-producing areas of Pennsylvania during the past forty years. A
conception of the expansion in bituminous mining operations in this
State during the period mentioned may be gathered from the fact that
the output in short tons was 150,143,177 in 1907, as compared with
7,798,518 short tons in 1870, and from the additional fact that the
average number of wage-earners in bituminous coal mining in 1907 was
163,295, as contrasted with only 16,851 in 1870. During the decade
1880-1890, the operating forces of the Pennsylvania bituminous
mines consisted of native Americans and members of the English,
Irish, Scotch, Welsh, and German races who had, as a rule, been
practical miners before immigrating to this country, and who after
their arrival in the United States, as might be expected, sought work
in the industry in which they had had experience abroad. The
predominance of mine workers from Great Britain and northern
Europe continued up to 1890, but after that year the entrance of
these races into the bituminous coal mines practically stopped.
Because of the rapid development of the industry and the consequent
need of labor, Slovaks had been employed in the Pennsylvania mines
as early as 1880. This race was soon followed by the Magyars or
a Immigrants in Industries. Reports of the Immigration Commission, vols. 6-20.
(See list on p. in of this volume.)
504 The Immigration Commission.
Hungarians, Poles, North and South Italians, Croatians, Russians,
Bulgarians, Roumanians, Ruthenians, Syrians, Armenians, and Ser-
vians. These races from southern and eastern Europe, particularly
the Slovaks, Magyars, Poles, and Italians, have gradually supplanted
the older immigrants in the less skilled and responsible positions, and
during the past ten years have not only gained the ascendancy in
numbers but have also begun to advance in the scale of occupations.
The pioneer operatives, under the increasing pressure and competition
which arose from the influx of the southern and eastern European im-
migrants, have, in constantly growing numbers since 1890, left the
Pennsylvania coal fields for localities in the Middle West or Southwest
in search of better working conditions or, on the other hand, have
entirely abandoned the coal industry to engage in other pursuits made
available by the industrial development which has been in progress
in western Pennsylvania during the same period as that in which the
expansion of bituminous coal-mining operations occurred. Those that
remained in the bituminous mines have in most cases attained to the
skilled and responsible executive positions created by the development
of the industry, such as those of engineers and foremen.
An extraordinary and similar expansion in coal mining was in
progress during the same period in the Middle West and the South-
west as in Pennsylvania. In 1870, in the States of Ohio, Indiana,
and Illinois, 5,589,318 short tons of coal were mined, and 15,237 men
were employed, as compared with an output of 97,445,278 short tons
and an operating force of 133,436 men in 1907. The greatest develop-
ment in the Southwest came somewhat later. Kansas and Oklahoma
(then Indian Territory) produced 892,389 short tons in 1880, as con-
trasted with a production of 10,965,107 short tons in 1907. Data
are not available for the employees in Oklahoma (Indian Territory)
in 1880, but Kansas employed 3,617 mine workers at that time. In
1907 the number of workers employed in the mines of Kansas and
Oklahoma was 20,837. The opening of mines in Texas did not
assume important proportions until 1900 and, although development
was going on in both Arkansas and Iowa at an early date, the aggre-
gate annual output of these States combined has never been important.
In the Middle West, as in the State of Pennsylvania, there were
very few mine workers prior to 1890 who were not native Americans
or representatives of races from Great Britain and Germany. Races
of southern and eastern Europe, principally North and South
Italians, Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, French, and French Belgians,
entered the Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois fields during the decade 1890-
1900, and during the past ten years have rapidly increased in numbers.
The races of older immigration, however, have never lost the ascend-
ancy in the mines of the Middle West, because of a large migration
to that section of English, Irish, Scotch, Welsh, and German miners
from Pennsylvania and West Virginia during the ten years 1890-
1900, as mentioned above. But the miners of northern Europe and
Great Britain did not remain permanently in the coal fields of the
Middle West. Many of them, in the effort to attain more satisfactory
working conditions, when the pressure of recent immigration began
to be felt, moved onward to the newly opened mines of the South-
west. Moreover, at the same time that the natives and older immi-
grants were leaving the West Virginia and Pennsylvania mines
for those of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, others migrated directly to
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 505
the coal fields of Oklahoma (then Indian Territory) . As a matter of
fact, when the mines of Kansas and Oklahoma were, in the year 1880,
first opened on a commercial basis, the operating forces were brought
by special trains and carloads from Pennsylvania and the Middle
West. The Americans, English, Irish, and Scotch were predominant
among these pioneer mine workers, although there were among them
a few representatives of the German, Polish, Lithuanian, French,
and Croatian races. The rapid increase of the British and northern
European races continued in Oklahoma (then Indian Territory) up
to 1890, and in Kansas until 1895. In 1890, the Americans, English,
Irish, and Scotch in large numbers left the Oklahoma mines and
sought employment in the Kansas fields. The number of mining
employees in the Southwest belonging to races of southern and eastern
Europe rapidly increased in the twenty years subsequent to 1890,
this supply of labor being used to take the places of the natives and
older immigrants who left Oklahoma after 1890, and to meet the
demand for labor growing out of the expansion in the coal industry
in both Oklahoma and Kansas. During the same period, and espe-
cially since 1900, there has also been a movement, of smaller extent but
quite -pronounced, of the natives, English, Irish, Scotch, and Welsh,
farther to the West and Southwest. Some have left Kansas and
Oklahoma for the recently developed mines of Texas and New
Mexico. Others have gone to the bituminous mining fields of Colo-
rado. A small number have forsaken coal mining for the Colorado
and other gold fields, and a considerable proportion, especially of the
second generation of English, Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, have engaged
in lead and zinc mining in Missouri.
In the South the development of bituminous coal mining has
been more recent than in the other localities discussed. West Vir-
ginia and Alabama first entered upon their present large production
after 1890. The remarkable growth in the industry which has taken
place, however, may be quickly realized by the statement that West
Virginia had an output of 7,394,654 short tons in 1890 and an oper-
ating force of about 9,778 men, as compared with 48,091,583 short
tons mined in 1907, and a force of 59,029 employees. Alabama had a
corresponding development, her output in 1890 being 4,090,409
short tons, and her mine workers 6,864, as compared with a pro-
duction of 14,250,454 short tons in 1907, and an operating force of
21,388 men. Native whites and negroes were principally used in the
early development of the southern coal mines. The pioneer immi-
grant employees both in West Virginia and Alabama were English,
Irish, Scotch, Welsh, and Germans, and representatives of all of these
races were among the employees of both States prior to 1890. During
the decade 1890-1900 Slovaks, Poles, French, Croatians, Russians,
Magyars, and North and South Italians entered the mines in consider-
able numbers. Within the past fifteen years there has been, especially
in West Virginia, a racial movement in two directions: (1) The
original immigrant mine workers from Great Britain and northern
Europe have migrated in large numbers to the Middle West and
Southwest, and (2) the immigrants of southern and eastern European
races have entered the coal fields to take the places made vacant by
the departure of the original employees and to supply the demand for
labor arising from the extension of mining operations. In Kentucky
and Tennessee the mines have been exclusively operated by native
72289°— VOL 1—11 33
506
The Immigration Commission.
whites and negroes, and the number of immigrants employed has been
negligible. The Virginia coal-producing territory was not opened
to any great extent until after the year 1900, and most of the labor
was drawn from outside sources. Native whites and negroes were
at first employed, and when this source of supply was exhausted
recourse was had to recent immigrants. The majority of the mine
workers in Virginia are at present representatives of southern and
eastern European races.
The above-outlined racial movements, as well as the extent to
which the various races of southern and eastern Europe enter into
the operating forces of the bituminous mines at the present time,
may be more clearly comprehended from the following table. It is
based on returns from 88,368 mine workers and indicates the extent
to which each race or nativity is employed in the industry and in the
different mining fields. Only the principal races are shown, Arme-
nians, Bosnians, French Canadians, Cubans, Dalmatians, Dutch,
Finns, Greeks, Herzegovinians, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Portu-
guese, Roumanians, fiuthenians, Servians, Slovenians, Spanish, and
Turks being employed in the bituminous mines in smaller propor-
tions than the races presented in the table. a
TABLE 104. — Male employees of each race for whom information was secured, by locality;
per cent distribution.
[This table includes only races reporting in considerable numbers. The totals, however, are for all races.
Per cent distribution in each specified locality.
General nativity and race.
Middle
West.
Pennsyl-
vania.
South.
Southwest.
Total
bitumi-
nous coal
mining.
Native-born of native father:
White. .
32 0
13 1
32 6
23 8
21 0
Negro
3 1
1 9
35 7
5 6
7 6
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
Austria-Hungary
g
1 2
2
4
9
England
3.1
2 0
.5
2 6
2 0
Germany
4 7
2 5
4
1 5
2 6
Ireland
1 7
1 6
g
2 0
1 5
Scotland
1.5
9
5
21
1 0
Wales
1 i
4
(b)
6
5
Foreign-born, by race:
Bohemian and Moravian
1.4
9
1
4
8
Bulgarian
1
1
9
1
2
Croatian
1 0
4 o
1 9
2
2 7
English
4.3
2 7
9
3 6
2 8
French
1 0
7
3
3 1
9
German . . .
4.6
3.1
8
26
3.1
Irish .
.7
1 3
3
1 4
1 i
Italian , North
9.2
6.9
3.0
16.6
7.5
Italian, South
2.3
4.6
8 8
6 1
4 8
Lithuanian
5 8
1 3
3
1 8
2 1
Magyar
3.5
7.2
2.6
.7
5.2
Mexican.. . .
(6)
.0
(b)
1 6
1
Polish
4 4
12 3
2 2
3 1
8 3
"Russian
2.0
2.6
.6
1 5
2.1
Scotch .
1.9
1.1
8
2 1
1 3
Slovak
4 2
20 3
2 9
1 9
12 8
Swedish...
.4
.4
(6)
3
.3
Welsh
9
.4
1
5
5
Grand total
100.0
100.0
100 0
100 0
100.0
Total native-born of foreign father
14.5
9.3
2.5
11.3
9.5
Total native-born
49.7
24.3
70 9
40 8
38.1
Total foreign-born
50 3
75 7
29 1
59 2
61 9
a See Immigrants in Industries: Bituminous Coal Mining,
vols. 6 and 7. ( S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 1, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
b Less than 0.05 per cent.
Reports of the Immigration Commission,
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 507
The salient fact disclosed by this table is that of the total number
of bituminous mine workers at present, slightly more than three-
fifths are foreign-born and slightly less than two-fifths are of native
birth. Among the foreign-born comparatively small proportions are
seen to be of the English, Irish, Scotch, Welsh, and German races of
the older immigration, while the greater part of the persons of
foreign birth employed in the industry are Croatians, North and
South Italians, Lithuanians, Magyars, Poles, Russians, Slovaks,
Slovenians, and other races of recent immigration. The South
exhibits the lowest percentage of foreign-born mining employees and
Pennsylvania the highest.
The racial substitutions in, and the present racial composition of,
the operating forces of the bituminous coal mines of the country may
be considered typical of all other extractive industries, with the excep-
tion of agriculture. On the other hand, the racial movements to the
cotton-goods manufacturing industry may be presented as represent-
ative of conditions in the different branches of manufacturing indus-
try in which the factory system has reached its highest form of
development. In submitting a history of immigration to, and racial
displacements in, this industry the racial movements to the industry
in the North Atlantic States are first presented, followed by a detailed
account of the racial displacements in a representative cotton-goods
manufacturing center in New England.
NEW ENGLAND COTTON MILLS.
The first employees of the New England cotton mills were secured
almost exclusively from the farm and village population immediately
adjacent to the early cotton-goods manufacturing centers. These
employees consisted in the main of the children of farmers, usually
the daughters, who undertook work in the mills for the purpose of
assisting their fathers or in order to lay aside sums for their own
dowries. The young women were attractive and, as a rule, well
educated, and the young men sober, intelligent, and reliable. At
the time of the erection of the first modern cotton mills, about 1813,
there was a strong prejudice in New England against the so-called
factory system, because of the conditions which prevailed among
cotton-mill operatives in Great Britain. As a consequence, the chief
endeavor of the promoters of the new industry was to secure housing
and living conditions under such restrictions as would warrant the
parents of New England in permitting their sons and daughters to
enter the mills. This policy was successful, and sufficient labor
rapidly moved into the new textile manufacturing towns.
In the light of the changed conditions which afterwards became
prevalent in the New England textile manufacturing towns it will be
instructive to consider somewhat in detail this early class of operatives
and the conditions under which they lived. A distinguished French
traveler, who visited the United States in 1834, in the words which
follow gave his impressions of the operatives of Lowell, Massachusetts,
Lowell then being the most representative cotton-goods manufacturing
center in New England.0
"The cotton manufacture alone," he stated, 'employs 6,000 per-
sons in Lowell. Of this number nearly 5,000 are young women from
a Chevalier: United States, 1834, p. 137.
508 The Immigration Commission.
1 7 to 24 years of age, the daughters of farmers from the different New
England States, and particularly from Massachusetts, New Hamp-
shire, and Vermont. They are here remote from their families and
under their own control. On seeing them pass through the streets in
the morning and evening and at their meal hours, neatly dressed; on
finding their scarfs and shawls, and green silk hoods which they wear
as a shelter from the sun and dust (for Lowell is not yet paved),
hanging up in the factories amidst flowers and shrubs, which they
cultivate, I said to myself, 'This, then, is not like Manchester;' and
when I was informed of the rate of their wages I understood that it
was not at all like Manchester."
The measures which made possible this intelligent and efficient
class of operatives is explained by a later historian of Lowell : a
" While devoting his inventive skill in the perfecting of machinery,
Mr. Lowell," the author states, "gave considerable thought to the
improvement of those he employed. He had seen the degraded state
of operatives in England, and his chief endeavor, next after the fitting
of his mill, was to insure such domestic comforts and restrictions as
would warrant the parents of New England in letting their daughters
enter his employment. He provided boarding houses conducted by
reputable women, furnished opportunities for religious worship, and
established rules which were a safeguard against the evils which assail
the young who are beyond parental supervision * * *.
"When the - - mills were first established the operatives were
drawn from the towns and villages of New England. They were
sober, industrious, and reliable people. The building of the mills
attracted immigrant labor. It was also of a sober and reliable
quality, for fares were high in those days and it was only those who
were seeking homes that came to the new town of Lowell. This
foreign labor mingled with the native element and imbibed the best
of its many admirable qualities * * * .
"As the industries developed, there was demand for men skilled in
the art of calico printing, and a superior class of workmen accordingly
came from England and from other countries to add their intelligent
influence to the moral progress of the community * * *.
"The corporations were under necessity to pro vide food and shelter
for those they employed. They adopted Mr. Lowell's plan so effec-
tively instituted at Waltham, and built boarding and tenement houses.
Over these a rigid supervision was maintained. The food in the
former was required to be of a certain standard. The rules governing
the conduct of those who lived in the boarding houses were rather
strict, but they were wholesome."
One of the New England girls who worked in the Lowell mills
during this period has given an interesting account of the situation
which existed during her employment. In writing of the methods by
which the mill girls were secured, and the conditions under which they
lived and worked, her description affords a pleasing contrast to the
Lowell of the present.6
"Troops of young girls came," she writes, "by stages and baggage
wagons, men often being employed to go to other States and to
Canada to collect them at so much per head and deliver them to the
factories.
« Bayles: Lowell — Past, Present, and Prospective, pp. 7-15.
& Robinson: Loom and Spindle.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 509
"A very curious sight these country girls presented to. young eyes
accustomed to a more modern style of things. When the large
covered baggage wagon arrived in front of a block of the corporation
they would descend from it, dressed in various and outlandish
fashions, and with their arms brimful of bandboxes containing all
their worldly goods. On each of these was sewed a card, on which
one could read the old-fashioned New England name of the
owner
* * *
11 Except in rare instances, the rights of the early mill girls were
secure. They were subject to no extortion; if they did extra work
they were always paid in full, and their own account of labor done by
the piece was always accepted. They kept the figures and were
paid accordingly. This was notably the case with the weavers and
drawing-in girls. Though the hours of labor were long, they were
not overworked; they were obliged to tend no more looms and
frames than they could easily take care of, and they had plenty of
time to sit and rest * * *.
11 Their life in the factory was made pleasant to them. In those
days there was no need of advocating the doctrine of the proper rela-
tion between employer and employed * * *.
"The knowledge of the antecedents of these operatives was the
safeguard of their liberties. The majority of them were as well born
as their ' overlookers/ if not better; and they were also far better
educated * * *.
"Those of the mill girls who had homes generally worked from
eight to ten months in the year; the rest of the time Vas spent with
parents or friends. A few taught school during the summer months
* * *
"The life in the boarding houses was very agreeable. These
houses belonged to the corporation, and were usually kept by widows
(mothers of mill girls) who were often the friends and advisors of
their boarders * * *. *
"Each house was a village or community of itself. There fifty or
sixty young women from different parts of New England met and
lived together. When not at their work, by natural selection they
sat in groups in their chambers, or in a corner of the large dining room,
busy at some agreeable employment; or they wrote letters, read,
studied, or sewed, for, as a rule, they were their own seamstresses
and dressmakers."
Charles Dickens, during his tour of the United States, visited
Lowell and has recorded his observations in his American Notes.
Concerning the American girl operatives and the impression they
made upon him, he had the following to say: a
"These girls, as I have said, were all well dressed; and that phrase
necessarily includes extreme cleanliness. They had serviceable
bonnets, good warm cloaks and shawls, and were not above clogs and
pattens. Moreover, there were places in the mill in which they could
deposit these things without injury; and there were conveniences for
washing. They were healthy in appearance, many of them remark-
ably so, and had the manners and deportment of young women;
not of degraded brutes of burden * * *.
a Dickens: American Notes, 1841, pp. 56-57.
510 The Immigration Commission.
"The rooms in which they worked were as well ordered as them-
selves. In the windows of some there were green plants, which were
trained to shade the glass; in all, there was as much fresh air, cleanli-
ness, and comfort as the nature of the occupation would possibly
admit of. Out of so large a number of females, many of whom were
only then just verging upon womanhood, it may be reasonably sup-
posed that some were delicate and fragile in appearance; no doubt
there were. But I solemnly declare that, from all the crowd I saw
in the different factories that day, I can not recall or separate one
young face that gave me a painful impression; not one young girl
whom, assuming it to be a matter of necessity that she should gain
her daily bread by the labor of her hands, I would have removed
from those works if I had had the power * * *.
"They reside in various boarding houses near at hand. The
owners of the mills are particularly careful to allow no persons to
enter upon the possession of these houses whose characters have not
undergone the most searching and thorough inquiry. Any com-
plaint that is made against them by the boarders, or oy anyone else
is fully investigated, and if good ground for complaint be shown to
exist against them, they are removed, and their occupation is handed
over to some more deserving person. There are a few children
employed in these factories, but not many. The laws of the State
forbid their working more than nine months in the year, and require
that they be educated during the other three. For this purpose
there are schools in Lowell, and there are churches and chapels of
various persuasions in which the young women may observe that
form of worship in which they have been educated.
1 i I am now going to state three facts which will startle a large class
of readers on this side of the Atlantic very much.
"Firstly, there is a joint-stock piano in a great many of the boarding
houses. Secondly, nearly all these young ladies subscribe to circu-
lating libraries. Thirdly, they- have got up among themselves a
periodical."
The state of affairs and the operative class described above con-
tinued until about 1840, when the expansion of the industry exceeded
the local labor resources and it became necessary to secure operatives
from localities in this country outside of New England, as well as
from Canada, Great Britain, and northern Europe.
Immigration to the industry from Canada and Great Britain was
characteristic of the period 1840-1880. Members of the English,
Irish, and Scotch races, as already mentioned, immigrated to the
New England cotton goods centers at an early date. Small numbers
of skilled English operatives were secured from the British textile-
manufacturing towns in the early history of the development of the
industry in New England. Considerable numbers of Irish were also
employed in the unskilled work in connection with the erection of the
mills and the construction of the locks and canals in certain localities,
such as Lowell, to furnish the necessary water power. Although
these races continued to enter the industry, the heavy immigra-
tion of the Irish did not set in until after 1840, and of the English
until thirty years later. The Irish were employed in the mills in the
largest numbers during the forties and fifties and the English during
the seventies, both races, however, continuing to seek work in the
cotton mills in gradually diminishing numbers up to 1895. Although
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 511
the Scotch and Germans were early settlers in the mill towns and
have always been represented among the cotton-mill operatives, the
extent to which these races have been employed in the industry has
always been of comparatively small importance. By the year 1895
the immigration of all races from Great Britain and northern Europe
to the cotton-goods manufacturing centers of the North Atlantic
States had practically stopped.
As soon as the expansion of the cotton industry in New England
rendered it necessary to go beyond the local labor supply, an attempt
was made to secure operatives from Canada. Considerable numbers
of French Canadians entered the mills during the fifties, but the
heaviest immigration of this race was during the period of ten years
following immediately upon the close of the civil war. During the
next thirty-five years they continued to arrive in large numbers, but
during the past decade small additions to the operating forces have
been made by this race.
Since the year 1885, and especially during the past fifteen years,
the operatives of the cotton miUs have been mainly recruited from
the races of southern and eastern Europe and from the Orient. There
were very few representatives of these races in the mills before 1890.
During the decade 1890-1900, however, the movement of races from
the south and east of Europe set in rapidly. Immigration from
Great Britain and northern Europe, as already noticed, had practically
ceased, and that from Canada was on a reduced basis as compared
with former years. Of the new immigrant operatives, the Greeks,
Portuguese and Bravas from the Western Islands, Poles, Russians,
and Italians came in the largest numbers. During the past ten years
the immigration of all the above-mentioned races has continued in
undiminished proportions. Other races have also sought work in the
cotton mills, the most important in point of numbers having been
the Lithuanians, Hebrews, Syrians, Bulgarians, and Turks. At the
present time immigration from the older sources has ceased or been
reduced to unimportant proportions, and the races of recent immi-
gration, so far as numbers are concerned, are rapidly attaining an
ascendancy in the industry.
The Americans, who formerly composed the bulk of the cotton-mill
operatives in the North Atlantic States, at the present time form only
about one-tenth of the total number of the employees in the cotton
mills, and are divided in about equal proportions between males and
females. If the employees of the second generation of immigrant
races, or, in other words, persons native-born of foreign father, be
added to this pure American stock, or those native-born of native
father, the total number of native-born operatives amounts to about
three-tenths of the operating forces of the North Atlantic mills. The
remaining part of the operatives, or about seven-tenths, is composed
of employees of foreign birth. Of the total foreign-born operatives,
about one-half are representatives of races of southern and eastern
Europe and the Orient, the remainder being composed mainly of
English, Irish, and French Canadians, with a relatively smah1 number
of Scotch, Germans, Swedes, Dutch, and French. The French
Canadians, among the foreign-born, are employed at present in
greater proportions than any other race, the proportion of French
Canadian cotton-mill operatives exceeding that of the Americans.
The English furnish about one-tenth and the Irish about one-
512
The Immigration Commission.
twentieth of the total number of employees in the industry. Of
the operatives from southern and eastern Europe, the Poles, Portu-
guese, and Greeks, in- the order named, furnish the largest propor-
tions, the total number of these races constituting more than one-
fourth of the total number employed. More than thirty other races
from southern and eastern Europe are working in the cotton mills
of the North Atlantic States; the North and South Italians, Lithuan-
ians, and Russians are numerically the most important. Several
oriental races, including Turks, Persians, and Syrians, are also found.
The larger part of the female employees at the present time is made
up of English, Irish, and French Canadian operatives, of both the first
and second generations, together with large proportions of Portuguese
and Polish women. The American females, as already stated, form
only about one-tenth of the total number of female operatives.
Fall River, New Bedford, and Lowell, Massachusetts, Manchester,
New Hampshire, and other centers of the same sort, all have a large
proportion of French Canadians, Manchester showing the highest per-
centage of employees of that race. Manchester has also the largest
proportion of Polish operatives, although that race is well represented
in the other three cities. The Irish and English, who are employed
extensively in all localities, have their largest representation in Lowell
and New feedford. The Portuguese are employed in largest propor-
tions in New Bedford and Fall River. Only an unimportant percent-
age of Greeks are working in Fall River and New Bedford, but in Man-
chester, New Hampshire, the Greeks make up one-twentieth, and in
Lowell more than one-seventh, of the total number of operatives.
The other races are scattered in comparatively small numbers through
all the localities.
WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS.
The racial movements to the woolen and worsted goods manufac-
turing establishments in New England may be well illustrated by the
history of immigration to Lawrence, Massachusetts, a representative
woolen-goods manufacturing community.
The possibility of water power at what is now Lawrence, Massachu-
setts, was discovered as early as 1837, but no attempt was made to de-
velop it until eight years later. In 1845 a dam was constructed by a
water-power company at a cost of $250,000. A village was established
in the same year, and by 1847 its population had increased from not
more than 200 to 3,577 souls. The earliest of the mills was laid out
in 1846. Others followed during the fifties and the sixties.
A local newspaper analyzed the population of the town in 1848 as
follows:
American 3, 750
Irish 2, 139
English 28
Scotch 9
French 3
Welsh.. . 2
Italian..
German.
Colored .
Total population 5, 949
This table is significant in that it shows what is borne out by later
censuses, that the large foreign-born population of the city is no
new condition of things, but has existed continuously from the
founding of the village.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 513
Irish. — The Irish population of Lawrence is as old as the city itself,
there being no fewer than 1,200 of that race residing there within two
years of the first settlement, which occurred in 1845. In 1848 the
Irish numbered 2,139. In April, 1846, religious services were held
in Catholic homes, and soon afterwards a wooden chapel was erected.
At the present time the Irish population of the community, accord-
ing to a parochial census, is about 21,000, or by far the largest racial
element in the population of the city.
English and Scotch. — About 1865 there occurred a heavy immi-
gration of skilled textile workers from Yorkshire and Lancashire,
England. A large number of English had entered the community
previous to 1865, and in the decades which have followed additional
immigration from the worsted districts of England has occurred as
the worsted industry in this community has developed. During the
past few years a number of English from Yorkshire and Lancashire
have immigrated to the city as in the earlier days, but the numbers
reached have not been very large. It is difficult to estimate the
English population at the present time, for, unlike the Irish, the
English are confined within no parochial bounds. They probably
number about 9,000 or 10,000. The Scotch population is similarly
mingled with other elements. It probably numbers between 2,000
and 2,500.
French Canadian. — In 1865 the number of persons in the com-
munity born in ' 'British America" was 563. In 1875 there were 1,924
born in the ''Dominion of Canada.'7 French Canadian immigration
appears to have progressed more slowly than to the more distinctively
cotton towns of New England. It was 1871 when the subject of organ-
izing a church among them was first agitated. In 1875 a church
building was secured, and in 1878 there were about 1,300 communi-
cants. At the present time the French Canadian population numbers
about 12,000. During the industrial depression of 1907 possibly 2,000
returned to Canada or left the community for other places in the
United States. Most of the people who went to Canada were waiting
for better industrial conditions before returning to the United States.
In the meantime they worked on farms. In times of industrial activity
the seasonable emigration to Canada is not very large. It is notice-
able in the community as elsewhere that after fifteen or twenty years'
residence in this country the birth rate of French Canadians is much
less than at the time of then* arrival. The men realize the financial
burden imposed by a large family, and the women learn to prize a
measure of ease and freedom.
German. — The first German church was organized in May, 1872, and
the next year it was incorporated as the ' 'German Church and School
Society." As early as 1853, however, 5 German families had settled
in Lawrence, and the total German population at that time was not far
from 40. In 1908 local newspapers estimated the German population
at 12,000 and the German-speaking population, including certain
Hebrews, Poles, and Russians, at 15,000. It is also maintained that,
next to Boston, Lawrence was the largest German center in New
England. The Germans of the community came principally from
the textile districts of Saxony, Bavaria, and Silesia, and a large
number of the weavers in the worsted mills are of the German race.
Polish. — Polish immigrants have been numbered among the popula-
tion of the city only during the past fifteen or twenty years. The
514 The Immigration Commission.
census of 1895 showed but 15 born in Poland. In 1903 there were said
to be 600 Poles in the city. The Polish Roman Catholic Church
was established that year. At the present time there are about 2,100
Poles in the city. Of these about two-thirds are from Galicia in
Austria-Hungary, nearly one-third from Russia, and about 2 per cent
from Posen, Germany.
Portuguese. — A small number of Portuguese immigrants were found
among the* foreign population of the city soon after the close of the
civil war. It is only within the past ten years that their numbers have
increased to any considerable extent. A church was organized in
1906. At present the Portuguese population is about 685.
Hebrew. — Hebrew immigration to Lawrence has taken place mainly
within the past twenty years. One of the oldest Hebrew residents in
the city states that in 1890 there were about 50 Hebrew families in
the city, as compared with about 400 at the present time. Estimat-
ing 6 individuals to a family, this would give a Hebrew population
at present of nearly 2,500. Rather an unusual number of this race are
found employed as mill operatives, due perhaps to the fact that a part
of the Hebrew population came from cities in Russia, such as War-
saw, which are seats of the textile industry. Many Hebrews who
enter the mills sooner or later pass out into some business venture
of their own.
Italian. — -The Italian population of Lawrence was very small previ-
ous to 1895. Since that time the increase has been rapid, due in part
to artificial stimulation by the management of one or two of the larger
worsted mills. An Italian priest states that when he came to the
city in 1902 there was an Italian population of 2,000, that by 1905
it had increased to about 5,000, and that in 1906 his own census
showed a total of 9,700. At present the Italian population is about
15,000, so this priest claims, but from inquiry in other quarters it is
thought that these figures must be rather too high, and that prob-
ably 8,000 would be a safer estimate for the present population.
The growth, however, during the past few years has been rapid. Ah1
but a few families are South Italians. From 1,100 to 1,500 went
back to Italy during the depression of 1907. At the present time
from 50 to 75 Italians a month are coming into the city.
Syrian. — The census of 1895 was the first which showed any appre-
ciable number of immigrants from the Turkish Empire. The major-
ity of the 213 reported that year were no doubt Syrians. The greater
part of the colony has come within the past ten years. The total
Syrian population at the present tune is between 2,500 and 3,000.
There are a large number of families, and about a fourth of the popu-
lation consists of children under 16 years of age. The reports and
savings of the first Syrian immigrants formed the incentive needed
to bring their fellow-countrymen. The greater part of the Syrian
population is employed in the textile mills, but a considerable num-
ber of stores — about 25 — have been established by Syrians. These
are usually small grocery, fruit, or general stores. There are 4
Syrian farmers in me vicinity, 1 Syrian physician, and 1 dentist
practicing in the city. The Syrian population has permanent employ-
ment, and only a score or so of the race left the city during the
panic year of 1907. There is a tendency on the part of Syrians to
remain permanently in this country; but, if conditions change
decisively for the better in Turkey, it is probable that the current
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 515
will flow in the other direction, for the soil there is more fertile,
while living is cheaper. The majority of the Syrians in Lawrence
are from tne Mount Lebanon district. About 60 per cent of the
Syrians are able to speak English, some of them having received
training in American schools in their own land. In religion the
Syrians of the city are divided roughly as follows:
Roman Catholic (Maronite) 1, 200
Roman Catholic (Greek rite) 800
Greek Orthodox 800
Protestant 150
Mohammedan 50
3,000
Armenian. — The Armenian population of the community numbers
about 600, of whom about one-sixth are Protestants and the rest Gre-
gorian Catholics. Most of the Armenians work in the mills. Since
constitutional government has been established in Turkey, egress from
the Empire has been possible, and more Armenians than formerly
have come to this country. This tendency is likely to continue, so
that in time the Armenian population may equal the Syrian. Arme-
nian immigration to Lawrence dates from about fifteen years ago.
Lithuanian. — The first Lithuanian came to Lawrence in 1885 and
the second in 1888. A Lithuanian society was organized in 1894
with 12 members. In 1898 the Lithuanian population numbered
300. A Lithuanian church was established in 1905. The popula-
tion has about doubled within the past three years, and at the present
time numbers about 3,000 persons. The Lithuanians have been
drawn to the community by the opportunity for employment in the
mills.
Franco-Belgian. — These people are for the most part French-
speaking textile workers from Belgium and the adjacent districts of
France who have been coming to a number of American wool and
worsted towns where they find employment as skilled operatives.
The larger part are weavers. Carpenters and other mechanics are
also found among them. The first of this race to enter Lawrence
came about fifteen years ago, but the majority have arrived since
1905. The term "race" as applied to these people may be open
to question, as a considerable mixture of bloods has occurred in
that polyglot corner of Europe. Between 1,000 and 1,200 of these
people have already made their homes in Lawrence and an annual
immigration is expected. There is no church among them, and there
is not likely to be one, since, like many Belgian workingmen, they
have no inclinations in that direction. Unlike the French Canadians,
but true to the traditions of their own land, they are quick to espouse
the cause of trade unionism in their new home. The recently organ-
ized weavers' union meets in the hall of the Franco-Belgian Club.
Foreign population of Lawrence at the present time.
Bringing together the scattered estimates set forth hi the preceding
pages, the racial composition of the city is about as follows:
Irish 21, 000
English 9, 000
Scotch 2, 300
French Canadian 12, 000
516 The Immigration Commission.
German 6, 500
Polish 2,100
Portuguese 700
Hebrew 2,500
Italian 8, 000
Syrian : 2, 700
Armenian 600
Lithuanian 3, 000
Franco-Belgian 1, 200
American <* , 12, 000
Other races 1, 400
Total 85, 000
CLOTHING MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY.
The manufacture of clothing is based upon another form of
industrial organization and has an operating force of a different
character from that of the textiles or bituminous coal mining. A
brief review of the racial substitutions which have occurred in the
industry will therefore be. of value, and a historv of the racial changes
which have occurred in connection with the industry in the large
clothing manufacturing centers of Chicago, New York, and Balti-
more may be considered as representative of racial displacements
in the industry as a whole.
From the beginning until as late as 1890 Germans almost exclu-
sively were employed in shops and by establishments engaged in
the manufacturing of clothing in Baltimore, Maryland. During the
past twenty years, however, a very large number of Russian Hebrews
have come to this locality, most of whom have obtained employ-
ment in this industry. Although many of this race were tailors by
trade, they entered the less skilled occupations in the shops and
factories of Baltimore. A very short time afterwards, or in 1895,
the Lithuanians entered the industry, and they were followed, in
1900, by the Bohemians, Poles, Italians, and representatives of a
few of the other races from Austria-Hungary. Since 1905, the
Russian Hebrew, Lithuanian, and Italian have been the principal
races from which the manufacturers have obtained their necessary
supply of labor. The early history of clothing manufacturing
establishments in Chicago differs from that of the establishments
in Baltimore, in that not only Germans but German Jews, Bohe-
mians, and a few Americans and Poles were among the first employees.
About fifteen years ago the Scandinavians entered the industry and
within a short time became very proficient. Following the Scandi-
navians came the Russian Jews, who were employed prior to either
the Italians or Lithuanians. In recent years, however, the number
of Russian Jews entering the industry has increased rapidly, and it
is from this source that clothing manufacturing establishments have
secured the greater proportion of employees. Unlike the tailoring
shops of Baltimore and Chicago, those in New York depended
originally upon the Irish, who predominated from 1850 to 1888.
The introduction of machines has made it possible to employ a less
intelligent and less skilled force than when all work was done by
hand. From 1865 to 1888 a few Swedes, and from 1880 to 1890 the
Germans, entered the industry. Russian and Polish Hebrews first
obtained employment in large numbers from 1890 to 1895, while the
a Not of foreign birth nor of immediate foreign parentage.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 517
Italians, many of whom were employed as early as 1880, entered the
industry in largely increased numbers in 1895, and are now sup-
planting the Russian Hebrews.
BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS.
The boot and shoe manufacturing industry, like that of the textiles,
represents the highest development of the factory system with the
use of the most elaborate machine methods and the most minute
division of labor. As a result, it has been able to use a large propor-
tion of unskilled labor in the operating forces of the boot and shoe
factories, and as a consequence a high percentage of unskilled laborers
have been employed. A history of immigration to a number of
representative establishments in New England and the Middle West
will illustrate the racial movements to and the racial displacements
in the industry.
New England,
As illustrative of the racial changes which have occurred in the
operating forces in the New England States, the history of the
employment of the several races of operatives in a number of repre-
sentative establishments is set forth below. To prevent identifica-
tion, each establishment is designated by a numeral.
Establishment No. 1. — Establishment No. 1, in Massachusetts, in
which shoe findings are manufactured, was established about ten
years ago. With the exception of the Greek, all races now repre-
sented, together with the Irish, were employed when the plant first
began operations. The Greeks have been employed only within the
last five years, while all of the Irish and very nearly all of the native
Americans who were formerly employed have left the plant to accept
work, in most instances, in the more skilled occupations of the same
industry. The native Americans and Irish were not forced out,
but voluntarily left this plant as they became older and more capable,
and their places were gradually filled by the more recent immigrants.
At the present time the racial complexion of the employees of this
plant is as follows: Greek 33, Hebrew 30, Italian 6, native American
4, and Polish 1. Thus it will be seen that the Greeks and Hebrews
constitute over 85 per cent of the total number employed.
Establishment No. 2. — Establishment No. 2, in Massachusetts, in
which men's shoes are manufactured, has been in operation for forty
years. When operations were first begun native American whites
and Irish were employed exclusively. About thirty years ago the
French Canadians secured their first employment. A little later on
the Hebrews entered this plant, and they in turn were closely followed
by the Italians. It has been only within the past fifteen years that
the Lithuanians and Poles have secured employment, while the
Greeks were first employed in this plant upon their arrival in the
community five years ago. There has been no sudden change in the
racial complexion of the employees in plant No. 2, for the more
recent immigrants have gradually worked in as the business expanded.
Therefore no displacement of the native Americans or older imrni-
frant employees can be said to have taken place. As occasion
emanded and the more recent immigrants sought employment,
they were employed without any discrimination whatever for or
against any particular race. Of the few older employees who have
gone out of this plant, some, it is said, have gone into the Middle
518
The Immigration Commission.
West and have been employed in the same industry in the capacity
of foremen and superintendents. Although by far the largest num-
ber of employees of this plant are classed by those in authority as
native American whites, it is more than likely that the largest pro-
portion of those so designated are the second generation of the older
immigrants from northern Europe. Of the non-English-speaking
races employed at present the French Canadian largely outnumbers
any other. Following the French Canadian is the Hebrew, the
representatives of which constitute a much larger proportion of the
total number of employees than do the representatives of the Greek,
Italian, Armenian, Lithuanian, Polish, or Syrian races, numerically
important in the order named.
Establishment No. 3. — Twenty years ago when plant No. 3, in
which women's "turned" shoes and slippers are manufactured, was
established in Massachusetts, it was the custom among shoe manu-
facturers to send the uppers and soles into the houses of the farmers
and cobblers to be stitched together by hand. With the invention
and perfection of a sewing; machine for this purpose this method
was changed. The manufacturers found that they could better
control the work and that the output would be largely increased by
having all labor done within the factory. Since the manufacturers
owned the machines and the outside cobblers were without sufficient
capital to install them, it became necessary for those who had pre-
viously been employed to move into the city, provided they wished
to continue in the trade. It was fifteen years ago, or just about
the time shoe-stitching machinery was adopted, that the Irish
obtained their first employment in this factory. Their entrance was
coincident with the expansion of the factory work and the with-
drawal from the shoemaking trade of the native American country
people, which resulted from concentrating in factories all labor neces-
sary in manufacturing shoes. Following closely upon the employ-
ment of the Irish were the French Canadians, who constitute at this
time a larger proportion of all employees than do the representatives
of any other race with the exception of the native Americans.
The representatives of the other races, who, in each instance,
constitute only a small proportion of the total number employed,
have obtained employment in this factory from time to time, but
not in sufficient numbers to be considered a factor in its operation.
As showing the present composition of the employees the following
statement, which exhibits, by race of individual, the number of each
race in specified occupations, is herewith submitted:
Race.
Occupation.
d
<<
1
M
Can a d i a n,
French.
d
o
O
1
C5
bt
2
1
.i
1
I
Scotch.
Other races.
1
Cutter
40
19
1
17
1
I
79
Stitcher (mainly women)...
75
18
40
3
32
......
10
2
180
Stitcher, beater-out, and
laster.
68
2
44
1
1
1
15
2
1
135
Heeler and finisher
55
7
29
2
5
6
104
Packer and trimmer
21
3
2
1
1
4
5
37
Sole leather and stock fitter.
15
2
3
20
Total
274
30
134
2
2
11
76
g
1
12
5
555
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 519
The Middle West.
As representative of racial substitutions in connection with the
industry in the Middle West, the history of immigration to boot
and shoe manufacturing establishments in St. Louis may be pre-
sented. The manufacture of shoes in St. Louis began nearly forty
years ago. To establish the industry it was necessary to secure men
as foremen who had had training and experience. New England at
the time occupied the commanding position in this industry, and it
was to this section that St. Louis turned for well-trained men.
The men secured were native whites, and these men, as foremen,
together with local native whites and Germans and Irish, formed the
working nucleus of what has become one of the most important
industries in St. Louis to-day. As the industry expanded the more
skilled of this force were employed by other companies or in other
plants of the same company, in the same capacity as were those from
New England. Only within the past ten years have the more recent
immigrants to this country entered the industry in this particular
section. The first were the Italians employed in 1900. This race
was followed by the Bohemians and Poles in 1902, the Greeks,
Armenians, and a few Turks in 1904, and a small number of Swedes
and Magyars in 1905. In the opinion of the officials of several com-
panies, not over 16 per cent of the employees in this locality are of
the more recent immigrant races. This percentage, when the large
number of employees is considered, is a very small proportion.
Moreover, a considerable proportion are of the second generation.
From" officials and employees long in the service of their respective
companies it may be assumed that the races previously named are
the only ones that have become a factor in operating the various
plants. In St. Louis, as in other large cities where the various plants
are so widely scattered, the racial make-up of each plant's force is
governed almost entirely by its location. By way of illustration,
on© plant is located in the heart of an Irish and German community,
another in a Polish, and still another in a section of St. Louis where
the Bohemians are quite strong. Practically all of the more recent
immigrants have entered the unskilled occupations. Rare excep-
tions in the case of individuals have been noted. In this connection
the Italian is more favorably commented on than the others. This is
attributed to his knowledge of the needle and knife gained in his
native country, where many of the race have worked as " cobblers."
There are certain occupations requiring a little instruction that these
people enter, but such should be termed specialized rather than
skilled.
GLASS MANUFACTURING.
Racial displacements in the glass-manufacturing industry are of
peculiar interest because of the invention of machinery within recent
years which has made possible the extensive employment of unskilled
labor in factories engaged in the manufacture of plate and window
glass and glass bottles. In the early development of the industry,
it was necessary to secure skilled glass workers from glass manu-
facturing centers in Europe. At the present time it is possible to
recruit a large proportion of the operating forces from the untrained
and inexperienced immigrant labor supply of southern and eastern
520 The Immigration Commission.
Europe. A brief account of the history of immigration within recent
years to a number of representative glass manufacturing localities
in different sections of the country will illustrate the racial displace-
ments which have occurred in the industry.
Community A.a
Community A, which is in western Pennsylvania, supports only
two industrial establishments, one of which is a plate-glass factory.
The other industry is of little importance, and employs only a very
small number of immigrants. The total population of the town is
about 2,600, and its history of immigration is contained in the history
of the racial changes which have taken place in the glass plant.
The plate-glass plant was started in 1886, as the property of an
important glass company, with a nucleus of Belgian, English, and
German workers who were brought from other plants of the company
in the United States to serve as skilled workers. All of the work at^
that time was done by hand, and native Americans served as un-*
skilled laborers and were apprenticed with the idea of taking the
place of the foreign skilled workman as the latter dropped out.
When this company first began operation in its factories in other
sections of the United States, the English method of glass making
was adopted. In 1885 a change was made to the Belgian method.
In both instances skilled workers were imported from England first
and afterwards from Belgium and from sections of Germany where
the Belgian methods were used. There were no skilled American
workmen to be secured, as the plate-glass industry was new in
America. The importation of foreign workmen was thus indispen-
sable in establishing the plate-glass industry in this country. The
skilled workmen among the Americans and recent immigrant races
have learned their trade under Belgian tutoring.
After 1895, however, most of the American employees, except those
who had become skilled workmen or who held responsible positions
of an executive nature, were drawn away from the glass industry
into the steel plants in and about Pittsburg by reason of the higher
wages, and it was necessary for the company to look elsewhere for
ordinary labor, as well as for material out of which to develop future
skilled labor. As early as 1888 a few Poles, Russians, and Slovaks were
secured, but not insufficient numbers to meet the demands for unskilled
labor until after 1890. They gradually took the place of American
workers after that date, and at the present time not more than 30
per cent of the entire force of the plant is composed of Americans.
With the change to machine methods in making plate glass
and the gradual exodus of the original skilled hand workers
and of unskilled Americans to other industries, the demand for
labor was met by a supply of Slovaks, Poles, and Russians. In
1900 the superintendent of the plant realized the change which
was taking place and that his plant faced a competition with the tin
and steel mills, as well as other plate-glass plants, in the labor market.
The supply of skilled labor was being reduced, and the material out
of which future skilled workers could be drawn was being lowered by
the racial change from American to cheap foreign labor.
<* The community designations used in the abstract are not the same as those in the
complete report on the glass industry.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 521
In 1902 the total number of employees in the manufacturing
department of the plant numbered about 560, consisting of 16 fore-
men, 290 skilled workmen (52 per cent), at an average rate of pay of
20 cents per hour, arid 254 unskilled workmen, at an average rate of
Eay of 13 cents per hour. An experiment had been made to raise the
jvel of the unskilled labor in 1900 by increasing the rate of pay of
workers in the construction department from 12 J cents per hour to
15 cents; but in 1902, out of 300 laborers in this department, there
were fewer than 25 Americans even at this increased rate of pay, the
rest of them being unskilled Slovaks, Poles, and Russians.
The plant was confronted, therefore, with (1) a lessening number of
skilled glass workers; (2) an increasing number of unskilled Slovak,
Polish, and Russian immigrants, who could not, the company believed,
be advanced into skilled occupations; and (3) an unsuccessful com-
petition for American labor with the various branches of the steel
industry.
It soon became possible to substitute machinery for some of the
skilled occupations, such as lajdng, grinding, and polishing, and this
the racial changes practically demanded. The Belgians and other
skilled glass workers were retained in those positions requiring skill
in hand work, while Americans and workmen of other races who
possessed enough intelligence were put in charge of the machines.
Each machine displaced several skilled hand workers, but the increase
in the output required an increase of about the same number of
unskilled workers in the casting rooms.
Within recent years not only Poles and Slovaks have come to the lo-
cality, but also a number of Macedonians, together with a few Italians.
Several racial movements may thus be distinguished in the history of
the plate-glass plant, which can be grouped as follows :
First, the use of skilled glass workers imported by the company
from England to plants in other parts of the United States and then
brought to the new plant in Community A.
Second, the change from the English methods of glass making to
the Belgian method and the importation of Belgians and Germans to
the various older plants of the company whence they were taken to
serve as skilled workers in the new plant. At this time a system
of apprenticeship was also inaugurated in the hope that native
Americans would learn glass making.
Third, the drawing away of native unskilled workmen into the
steel mills and of skilled Belgians and English into new independent
glass plants.
Fourth, the coming of Slovaks, Poles, Russians, and Macedonians
into the unskilled occupations.
Fifth, the advancement of a few natives, nearly all of the second-
generation Belgians, Germans, and English glass makers, and of a
small number of Slovaks and Poles, into the skilled occupations.
The statement next presented shows the number of persons employed
by this plate-glass plant in 1909, by race and number of years employed.
72289°— VOL 1 — 11 34
522
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 105. — Employees of plate-glass plant in Community A in 1909, by race and
number of years employed.
Race.
Number
em-
S88.
Number
of years
em-
ployed.
Race.
Number
em-
ployed
in 1909.
Number
of years
em-
ployed.
English
190
20
Macedonian
100
4
German
204
14
Italian ..
5
2
Belgian
108
10
Dutch
3
1
Russian
51
10
American (white)
600
20
Slovak
312
7
Polish
333
6
Total
1 906
Community B.a
Community B, which is in western Pennsylvania, has an estimated
population of 1,200 individuals, of whom about 60 per cent are immi-
grants. An important window-glass factory, employing under nor-
mal business conditions about 700 wage-earners, constitutes the
industrial importance of the town. The settlement lies about a mile
distant from another town and has practically no town activities of
its own. If it were not for the glass plant the place would be of no
importance from either a business or an industrial standpoint.
The racial history of the glass plant is the history of immigration
to the town. In 1892 the factory was erected and placed in operation
with a working force of about 600, of which about 50 per cent were
native Americans, 40 per cent Belgians, 5 per cent English, and 5 per
cent Germans. The Belgians, English, and Germans were employed
in the skilled occupations, while the Americans filled the unskilled
positions.
The composition of the employees remained practically unchanged
until 1900, when the unskilled native workmen began to enter the
tin mills located in the adjoining town. Their places were filled by
unskilled Italian glass workers. The skilled Belgian workers began
a like emigration from Community B about the same time, going, in
the majority of cases, to the glass communities farther westward. A
number of unskilled American laborers were gradually promoted to
the places left vacant by the Belgians, until the introduction of
machinery throughout the establishment in 1903. In that year
machinery was installed in all departments of the plant except in
the flattening and cutting rooms. The introduction of machinery
was opposed by the labor unions, and in 1904 a strike was called,
with the result that all of the employees of the plant, with the ex-
ception of the flatteners and cutters, were placed upon a nonunion
basis. The Bohemians and skilled native workmen left the factory on
the failure of the strike, and native machine runners, many of whom
had been employed as skilled laborers, were put in their places. In
the places left vacant by the advancement of the unskilled native
workmen were employed unskilled Italians, Poles, Slovaks, Mace-
donians, and representatives of a few other European races of recent
immigration. At the present time about 40 per cent of the employees
are Americans, 25 per cent Italians, 10 per cent Poles, 10 per cent
Slovaks, 10 per cent Macedonians, 3 per cent Germans, and 2 per cent
Belgians. The changes in the races employed at the glass plant
affected the population of the town, which is now composed chiefly of
a The community designations used in the abstract are not the same as those in
the complete report on the glass industry.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 523
Americans, Slovaks, Italians, and Poles. The only signs of the former
Belgian population are a few business establishments operated by
retired Belgian glass workers.
Community C.
Community C forms a link in the chain of glass communities along
bhe Allegheny River, and comprises one township. The population is
composed almost entirely of the employees of an important plate-
jlass plant, which was established in 1884. At the time the glass
ractory was placed in operation the population of the community
was composed chiefly of Belgians, who predominated, Germans,
English, and Americans. Since then the racial composition of the
community has followed closely that of the plant. Hand methods
tiave been employed in the plant from the beginning, and, with the
3xception of the introduction of electric cranes for moving glass, no
machinery is used. During the early days of the plant about 50
per cent of its employees were skilled Belgians, 25 per cent skilled
Germans from Westphalia and Rhenish Prussia, where the Belgian
^lass-making methods are used, and 25 per cent English and Ameri-
can, who constituted the unskilled labor in the casting rooms. At
present the proportions of the races employed are: Belgians, 5 per
cent; Germans, 5 per cent; Italians, 20 per cent; Americans, 10 per
sent; Slovaks, 30 per cent; Poles, 10 per cent; all other races, 20 per
cent.
These figures show an almost total displacement of the Belgians
and Germans and a displacement of about one-half of the native
workmen by the Slovaks, Poles, and Italians. The causes assigned
For this change in the races by the officials of the plant may be
grouped as follows:
(a) The gradual decrease in the number of skilled Belgians and
Germans by reason of death, retirement, return to Belgium and
Germany, and employment in other glass plants located farther west.
(b) The entering into the steel works and other industries of
native and English employees and of the second generation of
Belgians and Germans.
(c) The influx of Slovak, Polish, and Italian workmen, and their
influence in the unskilled labor market of the Pittsburg district
since 1898.
The first of the recent immigrants were employed in 1898. Slovaks
were employed in 1898 and Poles in 1900, but not until about 1907
were Italians employed in any considerable numbers. The Slovaks
and Poles took the place of the unskilled natives and others who
were advanced into the skilled occupations in the glass factory or
entered new fields of work. As the Belgians and Ger;mans gradually
left, numbers of Slovaks and Poles were advanced into the skilled
occupations. At the present time the unskilled labor is done by the
Italians and Macedonians. A large number of the first layers, first
grinders, and first polishers — among the most skilled operatives in
the plant — are Slovaks and Poles. The Slovaks, however, are the
predominating race in the plant at the present time.
The Poles and Slovaks are not regarded as the equals of the aver-
age Belgian and German glass workers, or of the natives, but the
officials of the factory claim that they are the best workers who can
be secured in face of the competition which exists among the larger
524 The Immigration Commission.
industries for native labor and of the cessation of immigration of
skilled glass workers from Belgium and Germany. Due to this
situation, the vacancies in the plant have been filled as they occurred
with Slovaks and Poles, who, however, demanded much attention to
fit them for the work.
Community D
Community D is in western Pennsylvania. The total population
of the town is between 1,200 and 1,500. The chief foreign population
is composed of Italians, about 15 per cent of whom are North Italians.
There are about 100 Poles, 25 Slovaks, a few Russian Hebrews, and
a small number of first-generation Belgians and Germans, together
with a few of the second generation of the last named.
The Belgians, with a few English, were the first immigrants to enter
the community. They were induced to come to Community D by the
establishment of a window-glass factory in 1888. About the same
time a number of German miners were employed in the coal mines in
the locality. The Belgians composed 75 per cent of the employees
of the window-glass plant when it was placed in operation and con-
stituted, with the exception of a few English, all of the skilled workers.
The unskilled workers at that time were all native Americans. Bel-
gians continued as skilled workers and in about the same proportion
to the total number of employees in the plant until the strike of 1903
and the introduction of machinery in 1904.
Following the introduction of machinery in 1904 all of the Bel-
gians except those who owned property left the town to seek employ-
ment in other communities where the work was done by hand.
Americans were placed on the machines, the introduction of which
meant a large increase in the number of unskilled and semiskilled
workmen. The lower occupations were filled by Italians and Poles
and Slovaks. At the present time 70 per cent of the window-glass
workers are recent immigrants of this class, chiefly Italians.
The Italians have to some extent entered the semiskilled occupa-
tions, earning from $20 to $25 per week. A few Belgian flatteners
and cutters are still employed, since this work is yet done by hand,
but their number is gradually diminishing because of the cessation of
immigration of Belgian glass workers and the removal by death of
those now employed. Americans are gradually taking their places.
On the other hand, the plant of a bottle manufacturing company
located in the community has employed a large proportion of Italians
since it was started in 1898. Of the total number o± employees in this
establishment, 300 in all; about 175 are Italians. Fifty of these are
from northern Italy. In addition to the Italians there are about 10
Poles, 6 Belgians, and one or two Slovaks. All of this class of labor
receive from 15 to 20 cents per hour for men and from 11 to 15 cents
per hour for boys, the work being largely unskilled and carried on in
ten-hour periods a day. Americans do all of the skilled work in
the bottle works, receiving from $6 to $9 per day on piecework. They
constitute about one-third of the total number of employees. There
has been practically no change in the racial composition of this plant
since it was started, with the exception of the small number of roles
who have been employed within the past five years.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 525
These two glass plants employ practically all of the immigrant labor
in the community, and the changes which have been made by them
in the races employed furnish the history of immigration.
Community E.
This town in western Pennsylvania, although located in a bitu-
minous coal-mining district, supports a number of important glass
factories, which constitute its chief industry. In 1908 the estimated
population was 9,000, composed of the following races:
Americans 3, 000
Belgians (including French) I 1, 200
Croatians 100
Germans 500
Hebrews ' 100
Italians 1, 200
Magyars 100
Poles 500
Russians 300
Slovaks 1 1, 700
All other races... 300
Total 9, 000
The first glass plant was erected in the community in 1890, and
was followed by several other establishments in the course of a
few years. To provide the necessary skilled labor to operate the
new plants, large numbers of Belgian, English, German, and French
glass workers, who had learned their trades in Europe, were imported
by the larger companies. The unskilled occupations were filled by
native Americans and a few Germans. As most of the work demanded
trained operatives under the hand methods employed at that time,
the number of unskilled employees was comparatively smah1. In the
course of a year or two the Americans were slowly advanced into the
skilled occupations as they mastered their trades.
Just at this period, however, the methods of manufacture were
revolutionized in the glass industry by the introduction of machinery.
Instead of the demand for skilled hand workers a demand was created
for cheaper laborers possessed of sufficient intelligence to operate
the machines. The labor organizations among the glass workers in
Community E immediately recognized this new element and directed
all of their powers to preventing the installation of machinery in the
plants. Their efforts were defeated in 1898, when one of the largest
plate-glass works abolished the old hand methods. By 1904 each
plant in the community was fully equipped with labor-saving
machinery.
With the defeat of the unions and the adoption of machine methods,
employment of the races of recent immigration began. Slovaks, Eus-
sians, Poles, and Italians were employed in larger numbers by the
plate-glass plants and other manufactories. The industry in Com-
munity E is practically conducted as an "open shop" at present, but
the labor organizations are making every effort possible to unionize
the several plants, in the hope of being able to put an end to the
employment of cheap immigrant labor wlrch has recently entered
the locality.
526
The Immigration Commission.
The following statement shows the period of immigration of each
foreign race employed in the glass establishments of Community E
and the industries each has entered :
TABLE 106. — Period of immigration of foreign races employed in Community E, and
industries entered.
Race.
Year of
first
entrance.
Industries entered.
Glass manufacturing.
Bitumi-
nous coal
mining.
Skilled.
Unskilled.
Belgian
1892
1892
1892
1894
1896
1896-1909
1896-1909
Per cent.
67
67
50
Per cent.
33
33
15
67
50
33
20
Per cent.
French
German
35
33
50
67
80
Slovak
Russian
Italian
Polish
Community F.
This community, which is located in eastern Missouri, has been
developed industrially since the year 1875. In that year an impor-
tant plate-glass company entered the town and erected a glass
factory which now gives employment to about 600 persons. Native
Americans, English, Slovaks, Roumanians, and Poles compose the
labor forces of the plant, as well as the population of the town, which
was estimated at 1,600 individuals in 1909. This glass factory is the
only industrial establishment in the community, and the history of
its development is the industrial and racial history of the community.
The factory was established with a working force of about 100
English skilled glass workers, and an equal number of native Ameri-
cans employed in the unskilled occupations. At the time the plant
was established glass making was a new enterprise in the United
States, while in England, France, and Belgium it was numbered
among the most important industries. It was impossible, therefore,
to secure skilled native glass workers, and in turning to the European
labor markets for the supply of skilled workmen required to operate
the factory the officials of the new company gave the preference to
the English glass workers in that they spoke a common language.
The English glass workers who were imported by the factory at this
time formed the first immigrant colony in the town.
From the year of establishment until 1906 no appreciable increase
was made in the number of employees in the factory, although
machines and modern methods were slowly introduced. In the latter
part of the year 1906 the plant was enlarged, and a demand created
for additional labor which resulted in the importation of a group of
40 Roumanians, which people had been successfully employed in tine
glass factories in the eastern States. The institution of machinery
had made necessary the employment of larger numbers of unskilled
workmen, and as the experiment with the Roumanians was successful,
a number of Slovaks and Poles were imported in 1909.
The colonies which these races formed in the town have been
enlarged from time to time by immigrants seeking employment.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 527
About 50 per cent of the total population of the town at the present
time is composed of recent immigrants, while the racial composition
of the glass factory is about 50 per cent native American, 25 per cent
English, 12 per cent Slovak, 8 per cent Roumanian, and 5 per cent
Polish. The present immigration is chiefly made up of Slovaks,
Roumanians, and Poles.
OIL REPINING INDUSTRY.
A conception of the part which members of races of recent and
past immigration have had in the development of the oil-refining
industry and the extent to which they are employed at the present
time may be obtained from a study of the racial movements to and
racial composition of communities which have had their establish-
ment and growth in connection with oil refining. For this reason the
history of immigration to two representative oil-refining communi-
ties is set forth below: (1) To Whiting, Indiana, which is a city of the
Middle West, the labor and capital of which are almost exclusively
engaged in oil refining, and (2) to Bayonne, New Jersey, which is a city
of the same description in the East, the industries of which, however,
are somewhat more diversified than those of Whiting.
The city of Whiting is located on the shores of Lake Michigan, in
the extreme northwestern corner of the State of Indiana, about 17
miles southeast of the city of Chicago, Illinois. It was first s'ettled
about the year 1850 by a few native American and German families,
who formed a small village. These early settlers lived on the produce
of the sandy ranges of the district and by fishing and hunting. From
year to year the population of this settlement was increased by
German immigrants seeking homes, until in 1890 the number of
persons in the village was about 200.
During the latter part of the year 1889 a petroleum-refining com-
pany entered the community and began the erection of an extensive
refinery. In order to build the plant it* was found necessary to import
large numbers of workmen from other parts of the United States, the
majority of whom were native Americans and Irish transferred from
other establishments of the company, chiefly from a refinery in
Cleveland, Ohio. When the plant was opened, in 1890, practically
the same laborers who had been employed to erect it were placed in
the several departments to carry on the operations. Following
closely upon this event a general immigration to the community
began, composed chiefly of Poles, Slovaks, Croatians, and Magyars,
who came seeking employment. From year to year, after this period,
the community increased in population until 1900, when the census
of the United States placed the population at 3,983., In 1895 the
community was incorporated under a town charter, and on May 4,
1903, was granted a city charter. The estimated population in 1909
was 7,000 individuals, 65 per cent, or 4,550, being composed of
immigrant aliens, and 35 per cent made up of native Americans.
528
The Immigration Commission.
The following statement shows the racial composition in 1909, by
number of families and number of individuals :
TABLE 107. — Estimated population of Whiting, Indiana, 1909, by race.
Race.
Number
of fam-
ilies.
Number
of indi-
viduals.
Race.
Number
of fam-
ilies.
Number
of indi-
viduals.
Native white Americans
800
2.450
Foreign-born — Continued:
Forei gn-born
1 037
4,550
Italian, North.. .
3
25
30
100
Foreign-born:
Magyar. . .
50
300
Bohemian
20
100
Polish..
125
500
Croatian
100
500
Ruthenian
75
290
English
45
150
Slovak
250
1.300
Finnish
25
75
Slovenian.
6
25
French
5
30
Swedish
26
130
German ...
75
400
Welsh
15
50
12
100
Irish
175
475
Total
1,837
7,000
Since the entrance of the first Austro-Hungarian races about
1890 there has been an annual immigration, not alone of the Poles,
Slovaks, Croatians, and Magyars, but of other races, including Swedes,
English, Welsh, North Italians, Bohemians, Lithuanians, Ruthenians,
and Hebrews. The Slovak immigration during this period has been
the heaviest, and at present the number of Slovaks in Whiting
is greater than that of any other one race except the Americans. It
is stated by old residents of the city that many of the immigrants
who entered the community shortly after the opening of the refinery
are still living in the locality. Industrially, Whiting is at the present
time essentially an oil-refining community. The petroleum refinery
is the only industrial establishment located in the city, and among
the employees will be found represented nearly all races living in the
community.
The territory upon which Ba*yonne, N. J., now stands was settled by
the Holland DutcJh. during the period from 1646 to 1664. The present
city of Bayonne was first incorporated in 1869, at which time the
population was composed of the descendants of the early settlers,
together with quite a number of Irish who came in about four years
previous. The Germans settled in the locality shortly after the Irish,
and for some time the representatives of these races largely predom-
inated as laborers. About the same time the English, Scotch, and
Welsh came to Bayonne, although a few English were among the
early settlers. The combined numbers of these races, however, have
never constituted a large proportion of the population. A small
number of Swedes came to the locality prior to 1880, but the period
of their greatest influx was from 1880 to 1882. From 1880 to 1885
large numbers of Slovaks, Ruthenians, and Poles, in the order named,
and in 1887 many Magyars, settled in Bayonne. These, the first of
the more recent immigrants to come to this locality, were almost
exclusively employed in an oil refinery. The Russian Jews and
Italians settled in considerable numbers from 1896 to 1900, although
the largest proportions of these have come in within the past six or
seven years. A number of other races also are represented, but those
mentioned are considered to have been the most important factor
in building up the larger industries of the locality.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 529
SILK GOODS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY.
The racial movements to the silk goods manufacturing industry
may be best illustrated by the history of immigration to Paterson,
New Jersey, the principal silk goods manufacturing center in the
United States.
The silk industry was established in Paterson by English immi-
grants in 1854, but these people did not come in large numbers
until 1870. A few Scotch and Irish immigrants were included in
this early movement. During the late seventies experienced French
operatives were persuaded to leave their native land and come to the
sflk mills of Paterson. A few left the mills in Paterson and returned
to France in 1888 and 1890, and practically all of them returned to
their native country in the early nineties because of the closing of a
number of the mills on account of the industrial depression that occurred
during that period. English immigration continued more or less
steadSy up to 1890, when the Italians entered the industry. The
Italians obtained their first employment in the silk mills during that
period from 1888 to 1890 when several strikes occurred among the dye
workers, although quite a number of them had settled in Paterson and
had been employed in other occupations five or six years previously.
The large increase, however, in the percentage of Italian workmen dates
from 1896-97. Although thePoles first entered the community hi 1898,
several years prior to the Russian Hebrews, they were not employed
in the silk mills until 1 at er. Only a very small number of the Armenians
who came to Paterson in 1901 and who were employed in the silk
mills remain, preferring, it seems, to obtain employment in localities
with a larger population of their own race. Only very small numbers
of German and Swiss immigrants have ever been employed in the
silk mills of Paterson, and these came in the days of the early expansion
of the industry.
LEATHER TANNING, CURRYING, AND FINISHING.
The racial movements to and substitutions in the leather manu-
facturing industry are represented by the history of immigration
to the principal divisions of the industry: (1) To the leather tan-
ning and finishing establishments of Wilmington, Delaware ; (2) to the
glazed-kid branch of the industry in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania;
and (3) to the tanneries of western Pennsylvania and Milwaukee,
Wisconsin.
At the time the leather tanning and finishing industry in Wilming-
ton, Delaware, was established forty or more years ago, the immi-
f rants chiefly employed were the Germans, Scandinavians, and Irish,
'he employment of these immigrants decreased after the introduction
of machinery in the industry about fifteen years ago, and has now
practically ceased. Among the more recent immigrants only the
Poles and Italians appear to have become a factor in the operation
of the various plants. Although both Poles and Italians obtained
employment in the leather factories about twenty years ago, the
maj ority of employees of these races were employed a few years later,
when there was an increased demand for unskilled labor.
Until twelve or fifteen years ago the employees in the glazed-kid
industry in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, were practically all Ameri-
cans, Irish, and Germans. As a result of a new process adopted
530 The Immigration Commission.
about that time less skilled labor was required, and it was then that
the more recent immigrants to the United States were employed.
The first of the more recent immigrants to be employed were the Poles,
but they were so quickly foUowed by the Slovaks, Magyars, South
Italians, Armenians, and Greeks that there was practically no
difference in the tune of employment. The Irish and native Ameri-
cans still constitute about 50 per cent of ah1 employees, while among
the more recent immigrants the Poles predominate.
In the early days of the tanning industry in western Pennsylvania
the Irish, Germans, and Swedes were the principal employees. Occa-
sionally a few Danes and Swiss were employed, but these people, like
the Irish and Germans, were soon largely supplanted by the Swedes,
who in turn are being supplanted by the more recent immigrants to
the United States, such as the -Slovaks, Poles, and Italians. The
Slovaks obtained their first employment in this section of the State in
1885, and were followed by the Poles in 1890, while the Italians, who
have become an important factor in the operation of some of the
tanneries were not employed in any appreciable number until 1901.
A few Belgians, French, and Macedonians have been employed since
1902, but not in sufficient numbers in any one tannery to have
become a factor in its operation.
The Germans, Irish, Aiaericans, and a few English and Scotch were
the first employees in the tanning industry in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
with the Germans largely predominating. In all, about 18 different
races are represented in this industry at the present time. The foreign-
born races now a factor in the operation of the tanneries in this locality
are the Germans, Poles, Greeks, Slovaks, Croatians, Lithuanians, Mag-
yars, and Russians. The Poles were the first of the more recent immi-
grants to secure employment in this industry. Their employment to
any extent first occurred in 1870. In 1877-78 they were strongly
represented and have continued so until now, although there has been
quite a falling off at various times. Russian Poles entered the industry
in 1885, Italians in 1890, Croatians, Magyars, and Slovaks in 1892, and
Lithuanians and Greeks in large numbers in 1903, although a few
of the last named were employed in 1898-99. Representatives of the
Swiss, Swedish, Danish, Bohemian, Finnish, Dutch, and Bulgarian
races have been employed from time to time, but in such small num-
bers that their employment has attracted little or no attention.
EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF KECENT IMMIGRANTS UPON LABOR
ORGANIZATIONS.
The extensive employment of southern and eastern European
immigrants in manufacturing and mining has in many places resulted
in the weakening of labor organizations or in their complete disrup-
tion. This condition has been due to the character of the recent
immigrant labor supply and to the fact that such large numbers of
recent immigrants found employment in American industry within a
short period of time. On account of their lack of industrial training
and experience before reaching this country, their low standards
of living as compared with native American wage-earners, their
necessitous condition on finding employment in this country, and
their tractability, the southern and eastern Europeans, as already
noted, have been willing to accept the rates of compensation and the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 531
working conditions as they have found them in the United States.
The tendency of recent immigrants to thrift and their desire for imme-
diate gains have made them reluctant to enter into labor disputes
involving loss of time, or to join labor organizations to which it was
necessary to pay regular dues. As a consequence, the recent immi-
grant has not, as a rule, affiliated himself with labor unions unless com-
pelled to do so as a preliminary step toward acquiring work, and after
becoming a member of a labor union he has manifested but little inter-
est in the tenets or policy of the organization. Where he has united
with the labor organizations he has usually refused to maintain his
membership for any extended period of time, thus rendering difficult the
unionizing of the occupation or industry in which he has been engaged.
Furthermore, the fact that the recent immigrants are usually of
non-English-speaking races has made their absorption by the labor
organizations of the native Americans and older immigrants very
slow and expensive. The high degree of illiteracy among recent
arrivals has also added to the difficulties of the situation from the
standpoint of the labor unions, and in many cases the conscious
policy of the employers of mixing the races in certain departments
and divisions, the diversity of tongues, and racial prejudice, prevent-
ing concert of action on the part of the employees, have rendered the
stable unionization of the recent immigrants almost impossible.
The attitude of the labor unions toward the southern and eastern
Europeans has been receptive, aggressive, and at times coercive.
Not only have they been willing to receive the immigrant into the
organizations, but thev have entered into expensive and extended agi-
tation and organizing in order to secure the support of the southern and
eastern European wage-earner. On the other hand, when the newer
immigrants have entered the union the native American and older im-
migrant members have, as a result of the personal and industrial char-
acteristics of the recent immigrants, often adopted a coercive attitude
toward them until they have become able to take an active and inde-
pendent part in the affairs of the organization.
A significant result of the whole situation, however, has been
that the influx of the southern and eastern Europeans has been too
rapid to permit of their complete absorption by the labor organiza-
tions which were in existence before the arrival of the recent immi-
grant wage-earners. In some industries the influence and power of
the labor unions are concerned only with those occupations in which
the competition of the southern and eastern European has been but
indirectly or remotely felt, and consequently the labor organizations
have not been seriously affected. In the occupations and industries
in which the pressure of the competition of the immigrant wage-
earner has been directly felt, either because the nature of the work
was such as to permit the immediate employment of the immigrant or
because through the invention of improved machinery his employment
was made possible in occupations which formerly required training
and apprenticeship, the labor organizations have been completely
overwhelmed and disrupted. In other industries and occupations in
which the elements of skill, training, or experience were requisite,
such as in certain divisions of the
effect upon labor organizations of t
migrant has not been followed with such results.
glass-manufacturing industry, the
the employment of the recent im-
532 The Immigration Commission.
The displacement of older employees and the effect of the com-
petition of recent immigrant industrial workers upon labor unions
may be seen in greater detail by a consideration of the results which
have manifested themselves in a ni#nber of representative indus-
tries since the competition of the wage-earner from southern and
eastern Europe began. One of the best illustrations in this connec-
tion is afforded by the conditions which have been developed in the
bituminous mining industry.
LABOR UNIONS IN THE BITUMINOUS COAL MINING INDUSTRY.
It will be recalled that the southern and eastern European races,
so far as the bituminous coal-mining industry is concerned, were
originally employed in the Pennsylvania mines, and consequently
the competition of the races of recent immigration was first felt in
the coal fields of that State. As the influx of the different races
became greater and greater its significance was brought home to the
pioneer mine workers by the realization that, if they wished to per-
petuate the existing standards of workmanship and the working con-
ditions to which they were accustomed, and if they were to hope for
better conditions and higher wages in the future, they must control
the incoming thousands and educate them as to what they considered
proper conditions of employment, standards of living, and rates of
compensation. Labor organizations were formed among the Penn-
sylvania mine workers in the early seventies, but considerable fric-
tion occurred between rival organizations until 1890, when all
organizations united under the control of the United Mine Workers
of America.
The problem confronting the labor unions at the outset was difficult,
and it steadily grew harder and more exacting. The new workers in
the field were without previous experience in mining and without
knowledge as to what wages, hours, or conditions of work they
should seek. Most of the incoming foreigners were without resources
and under the necessity of obtaining work immediately on the best
terms that could be secured. Very few could speak the English
language, and agitation among them had to be conducted through
interpreters. Under normal conditions of industrial peace it was
very difficult to make the recent immigrant see the necessity, from
the union standpoint, of contributing regularly to the union, and
consequently strike funds could not be accumulated. A significant
outcome of each strike was the fact that a greater or less number of
natives, English, Irish, Scotch, and Germans became dissatisfied
with the result and left Pennsylvania in search of better working
conditions in the Middle West or the localities in the Southwest or
West to which the recent immigrants had not penetrated in impor-
tant numbers. These employees were, as a rule, the most ambitious
and aggressive in the field and often were leaders in the labor organi-
zations. For this reason the conclusion of each strike found the
unions in a weaker condition than when it occurred, and the suc-
cession of dissensions and controversies marked an advancing state
of demoralization and dissolution.
The above-described characteristics of the incoming immigrants,
together with the constantly increasing number of arrivals, rendered
it impossible for the labor organizations to assimilate and control the
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 533
newcomers, and finally the old employees were forced to give up the
effort and practically retire from the Pennsylvania field. As typical
of the inundation and disruption of the unions by the influx of recent
immigrant employees, the case of the territory surrounding Greens-
burg, Connellsville, Scottdale, Uniontown, and Latrobe, which is
popularly and scientifically known as the Connellsville coke region,
may be cited. Slovaks, Magyars, Poles, and Italians, as the result of
the expansion in mining operations, were employed in this area, as early
as the year 1882, and from that time forward, as the coal industry
developed, other races of southern and eastern Europe entered the
territory in large numbers. In 1882 the Americans, English, and
Irish were in control of the labor organizations in the district. At
that time the number of recent immigrants employed was small, and
the unions were able to maintain their standing. Following a strike
in 1884, however, some of the older employees were discharged and
others voluntarily left the field. The result of a strike in 1886 was a
defeat for the Amalgamated Association of Mining Employees, which
at that time controlled the labor movements. As a matter of fact,
the strike left the association so weak and disorganized. that the next
year it was taken over by the Knights of Labor. It had been well
organized among the recent immigrants, but the results of the strike
so discouraged them that, instead of vigorously attempting to build
up the organization, they dropped their membership. In 1890 the
United Mine Workers of America entered the field and absorbed the
Knights of Labor and other organizations of the mines. The next
year the local organizations in the Connellsville regions entered upon
another general strike without the consent of the general council of the
United Mine Workers and were defeated. The recent immigrants, as
in the case of the two preceding strikes, shared in this strike and
participated in much rioting. After the loss of the strike, however,
they, as usual, dropped then: membership in the unions. Many, of the
older immigrants and native mine workers had, as already pointed
out, left the industry or the coke region after the strikes of 1884 and
1886, and many more were forced to move away or voluntarily left the
Connellsville territory after the unsuccessful strike of 1891. Their
departure, together with the withdrawal of the recent immigrants,
completely demoralized the labor organizations. Three years later,
when a general strike was called by the United Mine Workers of
America, the old local unions in the coke region were revived and a
prolonged strike inaugurated, but its unsuccessful conclusion com-
pletely destroyed the labor organizations and ended the existence of
the labor movement in the field.
This experience in the coke region was representative of conditions
everywhere in the Pennsylvania bituminous mining area. The entire
period from 1870 to 1894 was marked by a series of labor dissensions
and strikes, each of which left the labor organizations in a weaker con-
dition than did its predecessor, for the reason that the older employees,
who were the leaders in the movement for higher wages and better
working conditions, finding themselves unable to control the condi-
tions imposed by the increasing employment of recent immigrants,
and finally realizing that it was impossible to control the incoming
supply of immigrant labor, abandoned the Pennsylvania mines and
sought similar employment in other bituminous localities where the
534 The Immigration Commission.
pressure of competition of recent immigrants was not so strong, or, on
the other hand, found work along different lines.
The tables in this report show that the average earnings of mine work-
ers in this section are 42 cents per day less than the average earnings
in the territory of the Middle West and Southwest, to which the older
mine workers migrated, and in which they have been able to main-
tain their organizations. In the few localities in Pennsylvania where
unions still exist higher rates of wages and better conditions of employ-
ment prevail than in the sections where they have been driven out.
Practically the same situation with the same results was experienced
in the mines of West Virginia. Recent immigrants did not enter the
mines of that State in large numbers, as has already been seen,a until
after the year 1890. The competition was soon felt, however, and the
significance of their presence revealed by the strikes which occurred
in the Fairmont, Elk Garden, and other fields in the years 1894 and
1895. Natives and older immigrant employees left the mines, as they
had done in Pennsylvania, thus creating vacancies which were filled
by the employment of additional numbers of recent immigrants, who
reduced the strength of the labor organizations. The rapid expansion
of the mining operations after 1894 also brought into the mining fields
a constantly growing number of southern and eastern Europeans who
completely inundated the older employees and unconsciously but
effectually demoralized the labor unions and put a stop to any efforts
toward organization.
After this effort in the Pennsylvania and West Virginia fields the
older employees who had not entered other industries and occupations
or advanced to the more skilled and responsible positions in the mines
moved westward in search of better working conditions. The sons
of Americans and races of older immigration had already ceased enter-
ing the industry and, with the exception of the residuum of the inert
and thriftless representatives of natives and older immigrants and the
relatively small number of natives, Irish, English, Scotch, and Welsh
engaged in the skilled and supervisory positions, the immigrants from
southern and eastern Europe were left in undisputed control of the
situation.
Natives, together with immigrants from Great Britain and Ger-
many, it will be recalled,6 were almost exclusively employed in the
mines of the Middle West prior to 1890. During the period 1890-
1900 the additional demand for labor was principally supplied by
the Americans, Germans, Irish, Scotch, and Welsh who migrated
from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. A considerable number of
North Italians and Lithuanians, as well as some Croatians and
South Italians, had also joined the movement to the lUinois, Indiana,
and Ohio fields, but the older immigrants and natives were still in the
ascendency and constituted in 1900 more than 75 per cent of the
mine-operating forces. The labor organizations had maintained
their bargaining power unimpaired in this field. The immigrants
coming here were almost all former mine workers who were in full
sympathy with the tenets and policy of labor organization, and they
constituted an addition to the labor-union cause and not a disinte-
grating force, as had been the case during the influx of recent immi-
grants into Pennsylvania. Moreover, a considerable proportion of
the incoming North Italians and Lithuanians were of an extended
a See p. 505. *See p. 504.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 535
period of residence in the United States and had been educated to the
standards and ideas of the labor organizations in the Pennsylvania
anthracite and bituminous regions. Those of the newcomers who
were not trade unionists were energetically instructed and forced to
comply with the regulations of the organization as a condition of
working in the mines. In the many controversies during this period
the mine workers' union was successful. Working conditions were
improved and increased rates of pay for both machine and pick min-
ing secured.
During the past ten years, however, although the labor unions
have largely maintained their strength, conditions have changed and
the preservation of the standards of the organization has been a mat-
ter of the greatest difficulty. Mining operations have undergone a
great expansion, and recourse has been had to races of recent immi-
gration in greater and greater numbers, principally South Italians,
Croatians, Poles, and Lithuanians, some of whom have come from
other localities in the United States but the greater number direct
from Europe. These newcomers have entered the labor organizations
principally because they have considered it a necessary step prelimi-
nary to securing work in the mines, and not because they have had
any sympathy or interest in the labor-union program. They have
also manifested comparatively little activity in its behalf. The result
has been strongly apparent in dissatisfaction among the former mine
workers, who have considered the recent immigrant indifferent to the
working, and sanitary conditions in the mines. As the pressure
resulting from the increase in numbers of the recent immigrants
has become stronger, the tendency has been for the older immi-
grants and natives who had not secured more skilled or responsible
positions to move from localities and mines where the competition
of the southern and eastern European has been most strongly felt
to other localities in the Middle West or Southwest or to abandon
the coal-mining business entirely for the purpose of engaging in other
work. The children of natives, as well as those of the Scotch, Irish,
English, Welsh, and Germans, have also entered the mines in decreas-
ing numbers, and there has been a constantly growing tendency
toward the ascendency of the southern and eastern Europeans.
At the same tune the effort has been made by the labor organizations
to train the southern and eastern Europeans to their standards and
methods. In the case of the North Italians and Lithuanians the
attempt has been successful, and, in addition, a compliance, either
forced or voluntary, has been secured from mining employees of some
other races. Moreover, the dissatisfaction with the recent immi-
grant and the pressure of his competition has not only been strongly
reflected in the exodus of old employees but in the gradual separation
of the operating forces of the mines into two distinct groups — (1) the
natives and older immigrants who have entered the company or day
occupations and those demanding skill and responsibility, and (2)
the members of races of recent immigration who are almost exclu-
sively employed as loaders, pick miners, and laborers. The Middle
West, however, as compared with Pennsylvania, has had an advan-
tage in meeting the problems brought about by recent immigration,
because the influx has been smaller, the time covered as compared
with the number of arrivals has been longer, elements of strength
up to 1900 were received in the form of large additions to the mine-
536 The Immigration Commission.
working forces of persons of the same type as those at first employed,
and considerable numbers of the southern and eastern Europeans
who have entered the territory have been trained miners or strong
unionists. The greatest demoralization of the labor-union move-
ment has occurred during the past ten years by the arrival in large
numbers of inexperienced immigrants direct from the south and east
of Europe.
At the time when the older employees in large numbers migrated
from Pennsylvania to the Middle West, others went to the mines
of the Southwest.** Miners from Great Britain and Germany had
already entered Oklahoma (then Indian Territory) mines as early
as 1880, and after their numbers had been increased by the displaced
trades-unionists of Pennsylvania and West Virginia, labor organiza-
tions were formed and demand was made for concessions from the
operators. A long and bitter strike resulted in the early nineties, the
settlement of which in many particulars was unfavorable to the labor
leaders and the unions. As a consequence many of the English,
Irish, Scotch, Welsh, and Germans left the mines of Oklahoma (then
Indian Territory) and sought work in the Kansas coal fields. Since
that tune the coal mines of Kansas have been the stronghold of
unionism in the Southwest and the greatest point of concentration
for the mine workers from Great Britain and northern Europe.
The effects of the increasing numbers of recent immigrants in Kansas
and Oklahoma, however, during the past few years have begun to
be strongly apparent. Segregation of the representatives of the old
and the new immigration according to occupations has, as in the
Middle West, been adopted in the southwestern fields. A slow
but steady displacement has also been noticeable throughout the
whole territory and is constantly brought to the attention by the
departure of Americans and individual members of the English,
Irish, Scotch, and Welsh races for the coal fields of New Mexico and
for the coal and metal mines of Colorado. The native Americans
and the children of the older immigrants have not been entering
the Kansas and Oklahoma mines.
From the standpoint of the natives and the older immigrant
employees, it therefore seems clearly apparent that the competition
of recent immigrants has caused a gradual displacement, commenc-
ing in Pennsylvania and extending westward, until at the present
time the representatives of the pioneer employees in the bituminous
coal mining industry are making their last stand in the Southwest, and
especially in Kansas, where they are gradually being weakened and
are withdrawing to the newly opened fields of the West, to which
the recent immigrant has not come in important numbers. Along
with this displacement of the older employees in the different coal-
producing areas has proceeded the elimination of a correspondingly
large proportion from the industry and the development of such
working and living conditions that the sons of natives and the second
generation of immigrant races have to only a very small extent
consented to enter the industry. On the other hand, as regards the
pioneer employees and their descendants who have remained within
the industry, two facts are noteworthy: (1) A small part, consisting
of the inert, unambitious, thriftless element, have remained on the
lower level of the scale of occupations where they are in open com-
petition with the majority of the races of recent immigration, in
"Seep. 505.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 537
comparison with whom they are generally considered less efficient;
and (2) the larger proportion of those remaining, including the most
efficient and progressive element, have, as a result of the expansion of
the industry, secured advancement to the more skilled and respon-
sible positions or, as in the Middle West and Southwest, have largely
entered the day or regularly paid occupations where they have little,
if any, contact with recent immigrant employees. In the Pennsyl-
vania mines, where the sharpest and longest competition has been
felt, the displacements have bee'n more extensive than in other coal-
mining districts. The employees of native and older immigrant
stock are either at the top or at the bottom of the industrial scale,
and recent immigrant mine workers have been employed in all occu-
pations except the more skilled and responsible.
Another illustration of the effects of recent immigration upon the
labor unions of industrial workers, which revolves primarily around
the question of improved mechanical appliances, is furnished by the
cotton goods manufacturing industry. The discussion of conditions
which have developed in that industry follows.
LABOR ORGANIZATIONS IN THE COTTON GOODS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY.
In the cotton goods manufacturing industry the fact that the
American and older immigrant employees from Great Britain have
entered the skilled occupations, as weaving and tending the slashers,
and have been able to secure control of the immigrant employees
before these were advanced to the skilled occupations, has prevented
the complete disruption of labor organization in the industry. At
present it is only in Fall Kiyer, Massachusetts, that the unions of the
employees have any recognized standing, although the wage agree-
ments made in Fall River dominate the rates of pay in the whole
industry in the North Atlantic States. In Fall River five occupa-
tions are unionized — the weavers, carders, mule spinners, slasher
tenders, and loom fixers. Only about 9,000 of the total 30,000 oper-
atives in that city belong to the labor organizations, but as the rates
of pay in all occupations are adjusted to the rates received by the
weavers, the unions have practically the unanimous support of the
operatives. The strong unionist tendencies in Fall River are trace-
able to the influences of the early English immigrants, who formed
the first organizations and who educated later comers to the tenets
of unionism. The Irish have always been strong supporters of the
labor organizations, and the French Canadians were trained to be so
shortly after they entered the industry. The more recent immi-
grant employees from southern and eastern Europe and Asia, how-
ever, have been a constant menace to the labor organizations, and
have been directly and indirectly instrumental in weakening the
unions and threatening their disruption. The divergencies in lan-
guage and the high degree of illiteracy and ignorance among the recent
immigrant operatives have made the work of organization among
them very difficult and expensive. The greatest difficulty against
which the labor leaders have had to contend, however, has been the
low living and working standards of the southern and eastern Euro-
peans and their willingness to accept conditions of employment
which the older employees consider unsatisfactory. The recent
immigrants have also Ibeen reluctant to identify themselves with the
72289°— VOL 1—11 35
538 The Immigration Commission.
unions and to pay the regular dues under normal conditions, thus
Ereventing the labor organizations from accumulating large resources
:>r use in strengthening their general conditions and in maintaining
their position in time of strikes. Although the recent immigrants
have not been used as strike breakers, they have taken advantage of
labor difficulties and strikes to secure a foothold in the industry,
and especially in the more skilled occupations. This was especially
noticeable during the textile strike of 1903. Toward the conclusion
of this strike — when the controversy had practically been gained by
the mills, a large proportion of the operatives had resumed work, and
the unions were hesitating relative to ordering a return to work —
the southern and eastern Europeans entered the mills; and when the
older employees finally applied for work they found recent immi-
grants occupying a large proportion of the skilled positions which,
before the strike, had been exclusively held by the English, Irish,
and French Canadians. The mill corporations, with keen foresight,
had realized that by placing the recent immigrants in these posi-
tions they would break the strength of unionism for at least a
generation, and the southern and eastern Europeans had been quick
to see that the strike offered them an opportunity for an advance-
ment in the industry which, in the regular order of affairs, would
require a considerable period of years.
The pressure of the recent immigrant labor supply and its eager-
ness to advance in earning capacity made it possible for the employers
to carry out their plolicy of undermining the unions' elements of
strength and control in the industry. Since 1903, outside of Fall
River, the labor organizations are without recognition and prac-
tically demoralized. Moreover, the advancement in large numbers
of the southern and eastern Europeans to weaving, spinning, beam-
ing, and similar occupations has tended to bring them into more
direct competition with the Americans and older immigrant employees
and to destroy the advantage which the latter class, who control and
direct the unions, formerly possessed.
EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS UPON INDUS-
TRIAL ORGANIZATION AND METHODS.
The only effect observable upon the organization of the operating
forces of mines and manufacturing plants as the result of the exten-
sive employment of recent immigrants has been the increase in the
number of subordinate foremen in a great many industries. This
situation might naturally be expected because of the fact that the
wage-earners from southern and eastern Europe and Asia are of non-
English-speaking races and require a greater amount of supervision
and direction than the native Americans and the older immigrants
from Great Britain. As a matter of fact, in most instances the sub-
ordinate foremen referred to are usually little more than interpreters.
The body of non-English-speaking employees is subdivided into
smaller groups, which are placed under their direction in order to
insure more ease in handling and a greater degree of efficiency.
From what has already been said relative to the lack of any indus-
trial experience of the larger proportion of recent immigrant industrial
workers it is clear that their employment has increased the liability
to accidents and disease in mines and industrial establishments.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 539
This situation is due to ignorance upon the part of recent immigrant
wage-earners and their consequent willingness to accept dangerous
working conditions and not to insist upon safet}^ devices and proper
methods of protection. Jn certain industries their ignorance also
leads them to neglect the sanitary rules which have been formulated
for the protection of themselves and their fellow- workmen.
In a large number of cases the lack of training and experience of the
southern and eastern European affects only his own safety. On the
other hand, his ignorant acquiescence in dangerous or insanitary
working conditions may make the continuance of such conditions
possible and, as a result, he may become a menace to a part or to the
whole of an operating force of an industrial establishment. This fact
in some industries largely accounts for the withdrawal of native
Americans and the older immigrant employees from certain occupa-
tions in which the recent immigrant has become predominant. In
the mining occupations the presence of an untrained employee may
constitute an element of danger to the entire body of workmen.
There seems to be a direct causal relation between the extensive
employment of recent immigrants in American mines and the extraor-
dinary increase within recent years in the number of mining accidents.
This tendency may be illustrated by the character of recent immigra-
tion to the bituminous coal mines and in the increase in accidents,
of both a fatal and a nonfatal character. It is an undisputed fact that
the greater number of accidents in bituminous coal mines arises from
two sets of causes: (1) The recklessness, and (2) the ignorance and
inexperience, of employees. When the lack of training of the recent
immigrant while abroad is considered in connection with the fact that
he becomes an employee in the mines immediately on his arrival in
this country, and when it is recalled that a large proportion of the
new arrivals are not only illiterate and unable to read any precau-
tionary notices posted in the mines, but also unable to speak English
and consequently without ability to comprehend instructions intelli-
gently, the inference is plain that a direct causal relation exists
between the employment of recent immigrants and the increase in the
number of fatalities and accidents in the mines. No complete sta-
tistics have been compiled as to the connection between accidents
and races at work, but the figures available clearly indicate the con-
clusion that there has been a direct connection between the employ-
ment of untrained foreigners and the prevalence of mining casualties.0
The mining inspectors of the several coal-producing States, the
United States Geological Survey, and the older employees in the
industry, also bear testimony in this respect to the effect of the
employment of the southern and eastern European. The opinion
of the Geological Survey is of special interest and may be briefly
quoted :b
Another important factor in the United States is to be found in the nationality of
the miners. Most of the men are foreign-born, a large proportion of them are unable
to understand English freely, and a still larger number are unable to read or write
that language. Some of them are inexperienced and do not take proper precautions
either for their own safety or for the safety of others. This becomes a most serious
menace unless they are restrained by carefully enforced regulations.
°See Immigrants in Industries: Bituminous Coal Mining. Reports of the Immi-
gration Commission, vols. 6 and 7. (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 1, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
b Bulletin 333 of the United States Geological Survey, entitled "Coal Mining Acci-
dents: Their Causes and Prevention."
540 The Immigration Commission.
Another effect upon the personnel of the working forces resulting
from recent immigration is seen in the fact that cheap immigrant
male labor in some industries has been substituted for native and
sometimes foreign born female labor. This condition of affairs has
largely grown out of state legislation prohibiting night work of
women and children, and the willingness of the southern and eastern
European to accept low wages has made it possible to employ him
in occupations formerly held by women and children. An illustra-
tion of this tendency may be found in the racial composition of the
cotton mills in New England and of textile manufacturing establish-
ments in other localities, and in the fact that Greeks are employed
to do the night work in New England mills formerly done by women
and children.
The recent immigrant, by his low standards and tractability, has
also made the continuance of the so-called company store and house
system possible and its adoption more extensive than would otherwise
have been the case had he not been employed.
EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS UPON WORKING
RELATIONS.
As has already been pointed out, a there has been a sharp segregation
of the native and older immigrant employees into distinct occupa-
tions in the mines and manufacturing establishments growing out of
the employment of southern and eastern Europeans. This segrega-
tion also obtains, as already noted, in the case of living and business
relations. The general attitude of the native-born industrial workers
toward the recent immigrant is one of antipathy and superiority, but
this attitude does not manifest itself except under special provocation.
Normally the recent immigrant in the mines and manufacturing
establishments is treated with indifference by the classes of older
employees who are not directly associated with him. Practically the
only cases of open hostility on the part of the native Americans and
older immigrants from Great Britain and northern Europe toward
the southern and eastern European, met with during the course of the
general industrial studv, arose from the unusual pressure of competi-
tion due to the curtailment of employment during the industrial
depression of 1907-8. During that period the tendency of the
recent immigrant to concentrate in localities where employment
was available and to accept abnormal working conditions often led
to acts of hostility or coercion upon the part of the native American
and older immigrant wage-earners.
EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS UPON WAGES
AND HOURS OF WORK.
It has not appeared in the industries covered by this investigation
of manufactures and mining that it is usual for employers to engage
immigrants at wages actually lower than those prevailing at the
time in the industry where they are employed, whatever the ultimate
tendency of the large immigration may be. It is hardly open to
doubt, however, that the availability of the large supply of recent
immigrant labor prevented the increase in wages which otherwise
would have resulted during recent years from the increased demand
« See pp. 496 and 536.
Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining. 541
for labor. The low standards of the southern and eastern European,
his ready acceptance of a low wage and existing working conditions,
his lack of permanent interest in the occupation and community in
which he has been employed, his attitude toward labor organizations,
his slow progress toward assimilation, and his willingness seemingly
to accept indefinitely without protest certain wages and conditions
of employment, have rendered it extremely difficult for the older
classes of employees to secure improvements in conditions or advance-
ment in wages since the arrival in considerable numbers of southern
and eastern European wage-earners. As a general proposition, it
may be said that all improvement in conditions and increases in rates
of pay have been secured in spite of the presence of the recent immi-
grant. The recent immigrant, in other words, has not actively
opposed the movements toward better conditions of employment
and higher wages, but his availability and his general characteristics
and attitude have constituted a passive opposition \vhich has been
most effective.
EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS UPON THE ESTAB-
LISHMENT OF NEW INDUSTRIES.
The extensive employment of recent immigrant labor has not
resulted in the establishment of new industries of any importance.
As a result of the presence of southern and eastern European immi-
grants in American industrial communities small and unimportant
industries have been established to supply the peculiar demands of
the immigrant population in food products and similar articles. Very
few of the recent arrivals, however, had any training 'abroad which
qualified them for manufacturing or mining pursuits of any descrip-
tion. By way of contrast, it will be recalled that a large proportion
of the earlier immigrant laborers were originaUy induced to come to
this country to contribute their skih1 and experience toward the estab-
lishment of new industries, such as mining and textile, glass, and
iron and steel manufacturing, or after these industries had been devel-
country in search of better wages and working
On the other hand, the presence of the recent immigrant wage-
earner and his household has had a pronounced effect upon the dis-
tribution of certain industries. Cigar and tobacco factories, silk
mills, and men's and women's clothing manufacturing establishments
and other small industries have been located in iron and steel,
anthracite coal mining, and other localities, developed in connection
with some of the principal industries of the country. The reason for
this policy has been the availability of cheap woman and child labor
of the immigrant households the heads of which were employed in the
steel mills or furnaces, the coal mines, or some other basic industry.
One of the best illustrations of this tendency is seen in the localiza-
tion of the silk industry in the anthracite coal-producing area of
Pennsylvania. The erection and operation of large cigar and tobacco
factories in localities in which the primary industry consists in the
manufacture of iron and steel also furnishes another example of the
same tendency.
ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
RECENT IMMIGRANTS IN AGRICULTURE.
For the complete report on recent immigrants in agriculture see Reports
of the Immigration Commission, vols. 21 and 22.
543
CONTENTS,
Page.
Introductory:
Older immigrant race groups in agriculture 547
Scope and method of investigation :
Communities investigated, by races 551
Scope of investigation .' 553
Purpose of investigation 554
Method of investigation 555
General survey of the races studied:
Italians in agriculture 559
Italians in the southern States 566
Italians in New York State 572
Hebrew rural communities 575
Poles in agriculture 581
Bohemians and other races in agriculture 587
Seasonal agricultural laborers:
Introductory 593
Race composition 594
Sources whence recruited 595
Conditions of employment 596
Housing conditions 598
Standard of living 599
Americanization 600
General sociological survey of the immigrants in rural communities from whom
information was secured 601
LIST OP TABLES.
TABLE 1. Scope of investigation 554
2. Households studied and number of persons for whom information
was secured, by race of head of household 557
3. List of Italian rural communities in the United States investigated
by the Immigration Commission, 1909 560
4. List of Italian rural communities in the South investigated by the
Immigration Commission, 1909 566
5. North and South Italians admitted and departed during 1909 568
6. Hebrew farmers and farms occupied by Hebrews 576
7. List of Polish rural settlements visited in the investigation 583
8. Persons for whom detailed information was secured, by sex and
general nativity and race of individual 601
9. Per cent of persons within each age group, by sex and by general
nativity and race of head of household 602, 603
10. Per cent of foreign-born persons in the United States each specified
number of years, by race of individual 603
11. Number and per cent of heads of families who have been in locality
each specified number of years, by general nativity and race of
individual - - 604
12. Per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by sex and age
groups, and by general nativity and race of individual 605
13. Present political condition of foreign-born males who have been
in the United States five years or over and who were 21 years
of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual 606
14. Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-
born males who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming,
by race of individual ^ 607
15. Industrial condition before coining to the United States of foreign-
born females who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming,
by race of individual 607
545
546 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 16. Occupation before coining to the United States of foreign-born
males who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by
race of individual 607
17. Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born
females who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming,
by race of individual 608
18. Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak
English, by age at time of coming to the United States and race
of individual 609
19. Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak
English, by years in the United States and race of individual. . . 610
20. Per cent of persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by
sex and general nativity and race of individual 611
21. Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read
and per cent who read and write, by age at time of coming to
the United States and race of individual 612
22. Per cent of persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent
who read and write, by sex and general nativity and race of
individual 612
23. Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read
and per cent who read and write, by years in the United States
and race of individual 613
24. Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school,
and at work, by sex and general nativity and race of individual . 614
RECENT IMMIGRANTS IN AGRICULTURE,
INTRODUCTORY.
Only a few of the more recent immigrant races, and those which we
are accustomed to consider inclined to industrial rather than to
agricultural pursuits, are the subject of the Immigration Commission 's
inquiry into immigrants in agriculture. The immigrant farmer in
the United States, however, has a long history and traces his origin
to many racial stocks.
Statistics by races are not available, but in 1900 the federal census0
reported 21.7 per cent of all foreign-born male breadwinners in the
United States and more than one-fourth (25.9 per cent) of the native-
born white of foreign parentage to be engaged in agricultural pursuits.
In a general way, then, about one-fourth (22.9 per cent) of the first
and second generation males of foreign-born parents were farmers or
farm laborers. That is to say, of the 9,458,194 male breadwinners
on farms, three-fifths were native whites of native parents, one-sixth
were negroes, and the remainder were foreign-born and natives born
of foreign parents. Excluding the Chinese, Japanese, Indians, and
other colored persons, the males of foreign origin constituted 25.4
per cent of the white males in agricultural pursuits.
OLDER IMMIGRANT RACE GROUPS IN AGRICULTURE.
Of the 2,105,766 males of foreign origin in agriculture, about 30
per cent belonged to the English-speaking races — Canadian, English,
Irish, Scotch, and Welsh — nearly all of them comparatively early
immigrants who are scattered the country over, and are so thoroughly
Americanized, on the whole, that they have lost their racial charac-
teristics. These races and the German and French report a larger
number of second generation than of first generation males engaged
in agricultural pursuits.
GERMANS.
Numerically, the German is the most important foreign race in
agriculture, constituting in 1900 nearly three-eighths of the total
number of males of foreign origin on farms. The male agricultural
breadwinners of German parentage numbered 775,175, or more than
28 per cent of all male breadwinners of German parentage; of this
number, 348,265 belonged to the first generation and 426,910 to the
a See Occupations of the First and Second Generations of Immigrants in the
United States. Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 28. (S. Doc. No. 282,
61st Cong., 2d sess.)
547
548 The Immigration Commission.
second; about two-thirds (63.7 per cent) were farmers, and the
remainder were classified as agricultural laborers. a
The Germans, with some exceptions, assimilate readily with other
immigrants from northern Europe and with persons of native parent-
age. They have won their place in agriculture by thrift, industry,
and frugal living; they have prospered in almost every form of agri-
culture, and statistics point toward the persistence of the native-
born Germans in agriculture in the States where their parents settled.
In Texas, where colonies of them established themselves before 1850,
they have been long reputed as among the most intelligent and
prosperous farmers in the State.
NORWEGIANS.
More than 50 per cent of the male breadwinners of Norwegian
parentage are in agriculture, and practically 97 per cent of those in
agriculture are in the North Central States and the State of Wash-
ington. The total number engaged in agriculture is not quite 140,-
000, less than one-fifth of the number of Germans on farms, but the
percentage (54.2) in agriculture is greater than that of any other race
group. Sixty- three per cent of the Norwegians of the second gener-
ation live in rural communities.*
The first goals of immigration for the Norwegians seem to have
been Iowa, northern Illinois, and southern Wisconsin, and from the
firsj they have generally avoided industrial pursuits and chosen farm-
ing. They took up unbroken land, in many cases forested, and often
selected narrow valleys rather than the broader, forested valleys or
open prairies. Later Norwegian immigrants, however, have gone
direct to the prairies of Minnesota and the Dakotas, where they now
carry on a diversified agriculture — hay, grain, live stock, and dairv-
ing — emphasizing one or the other according to natural and economic
conditions.
SWEDES.
The rural Swedes, as a whole, have settled in the same States as
the Norwegians, but a larger percentage are in industries, and the
concentration by States is not quite so marked. Of the entire num-
ber of farmers and farm laborers almost exactly five-sixths were living
in the ten States that contain the largest numbers of Scandinavian
farmers. Minnesota reported very much the greatest percentage both
of the first and of the second generation, or about 30 per cent of all.
Slightly more than one-half (50.4 per cent) of the first-generation farm-
ers are in Minnesota, Nebraska, and Iowa. The percentage of agricul-
tural laborers in each of these States is less than the percentage of
farmers; in fact, this is true in every State but Illinois and North
Dakota. In Minnesota, Nebraska, and Iowa 42.6 per cent of the farm
laborers of the first generation were reported.
The American-born Swedes who operate farms constitute a little
more than one-third of the number of that generation working as farm
aSee Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 28, Occupations of the First
and Second Generations of Immigrants in the United States (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st
Cong., 2d sess.) and vols. ?1 and 22, Recent Immigrants in Agriculture (S. Doc. No.
633, pt. 24, 61st Cong., 2d sess.).
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 549
hands. The percentage of farmers in the second generation is per-
ceptibly greater than that of the first in Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois,
and Kansas, but less in Minnesota and in most of the ^ remaining
States. The entire number of second-generation farmers is so small,
however, that the fact may have very little significance-. It may
be significant that the percentage of farm laborers is greater in the
first than in the second generation in every State except Illinois
and North Dakota.0
DANES.
In addition to the Swedes and Norwegians the Danes belong to the
Scandinavian group of immigrants. There were but 105,749 males of
Danish parentage engaged in gainful occupations in 1900 ; 82,652 were
foreign and 23,097 were native-born. Of this number, not quite one-
half, 44 per cent, were engaged in agricultural occupations, a compara-
tively high percentage, ranking the Danes next to the Norwegians as
agricultural immigrants. The Danes are settled in the north central
prairie States also and, like all Scandinavians, have proved excellent
pioneers, efficient farmers and live-stock husbandmen, and very satis-
factory citizens. Of the agriculturists, 34,951 are foreign-born and
11,622 are native-born; distributed by occupations '28,286, including
both generations, are farmers and 16,117 are agricultural laborers.
SWISS.
Of the 95,142 males of Swiss parentage engaged in all gainful pur-
suits in 1900, about two-fifths (3 9. 3 per cent) were on the land. The larg-
est numbers of Swiss are found in Ohio, California, and Wisconsin, with
somewhat smaller numbers in Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Kansas, or
about three-fifths of all Swiss on farms, but they are scattered in small
groups over many States in all parts of the Union, there being no great
concentration. The greatest number in agricultural pursuits in any
State is 4,406. The farmers of the first generation numbered 14,267
and the native-born, 7,713. The 12,978 farm laborers were almost
equally divided between the first and second generations. In all,
37,428 Swiss were engaged in agricultural occupations in 1900. The
great majority of the Swiss agriculturists are farm owners, and many
of them are engaged in dairying or stock raising.
Perhaps the most notable of the Swiss settlements is that in Green
County, Wis., founded by former inhabitants of the canton of Glarus,
Switzerland, in 1845, and now the home of perhaps 8,000 persons of
Swiss lineage. The Swiss really originated the cheese industry in
Wisconsin about the year 1868-69, when grain raising began to
fail, and by 1880 the neighboring farmers in the State had begun to
take notice of their success and follow in their footsteps. From one
little village, New Glarus, nearly 3,000,000 pounds of cheese were
shipped during the year ending September 1, 1909. In 1907 there
\vere 180 cheese factories in Green County.
a For more detailed information see Reports of the Immigration Commission on
Occupations, vol. 28 (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong.-, 2d sess.) and on Agriculture, vols. 21
and 22 (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 24, 61st Cong., 2d sess.).
b By Swiss is meant natives of Switzerland; the Commission classified them racially
as German, French, or Italian; the census defines them by nationality, i. e., country
of birth.
550 The Immigration Commission.
Wherever they are found , the German-Swiss make excellent farm-
ers, and while the immigration from Switzerland has been insignifi-
cant in numbers, several new Swiss colonies composed of emigrants
from the older settlements have been established in northern Wiscon-
sin, Minnesota, Iowa, and the Dakotas, and are working a favorable
influence on agriculture at several points.
RUSSIANS.
In some respects the Russians, most of whom are Russian Hebrews,
are treated under the discussion of the Hebrew agricultural colonies.
But there are increasing numbers of Russian peasants from certain
Russian provinces who are engaging in agricultural pursuits chiefly
in the Central West between the Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains
and in western Canada. The census figures are not very satisfactory
and mean only that those enumerated gave Russia as their birthplace
or the birthplace of their parents, without regard to race. These are,
however, the only available statistics. a
The Russians are mostly grain farmers. They purchased cheap
land, settling in rather compact rural groups, and in general have been
fairly successful and prosperous. No purely Russian colonies other
than those of Russian Jews were investigated, but a number of
farmers of Russian nativity were met with, usually intermingled with
Poles and other Slavs.
OTHER RACE GROUPS.
All the other important races in rural settlements except the
French and Austrians are dealt with in general or in detail elsewhere
in this report and need not be summarized here. According to the
census of 1900, of the 106,583 male breadwinners of French paren-
tage, 24.6 per cent were in agricultural pursuits. The foreign-born
reported 11,355, or 22.1 per cent, in agriculture, 7,415 being farmers
and 2,356 farm laborers. The second generation had 14,845, or 26.9
per cent, in agriculture, 9,047 of whom were farmers and 5,145 farm
laborers. Of the 167,620 Austrians in gainful occupations, 9.6 per
cent were in agriculture, the foreign-born reporting 12,314, or 8 per
cent, and the native-born6 3,812, or 26.1 per cent. The foreign -born
had 8,016 farmers and 3,487 farm laborers, the native-born 1,071
farmers and 2,667 farm laborers. In the present study the Austrians
in part are treated under the head of Poles.
SCOPE AND METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.
The Immigration Commission's investigation of recent immigrants
in agriculture was planned to comprehend a study of all the important
agricultural groups of certain selected races east of the Mississippi
River and a general survey of Texas, Arkansas, and southern Mis-
souri.
o For detailed information see Reports of the Immigration Commission on Occu-
pations, vol. 28 (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) and on Agriculture, vols. 21
and 22 (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 24, 61st Cong., 2d sess.).
&As is the case with other races of recent immigration, the number of American-
born Austrians of breadwinning age is comparatively small.
\
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 551
Racially, the study includes only those races which come from
southern or eastern Europe, and the Japanese. Specifically, North and
South Italians, Hebrews, Poles, Slovaks, Bohemians, and other Slavs,
Portuguese, Japanese, and a few colonies of German-Swiss and
Belgians a were investigated. With a few exceptions, every impor-
tant immigrant rural settlement in the States east of the Mississippi
River was visited or taken into, consideration.
The study is for several reasons confined to the races mentioned.
First, most of these immigrants have been on the land a compara-
tively short time. Second, they belong to the class of immigrants
whose success in agriculture in the United States is not fully assured
or recognized. Third, so far as their previous occupations in the
United States are concerned, they are of the nonagricultural races,
although in Europe they belonged to the peasantry. The agri-
cultural fitness of the north European immigrants who migrated
early to the West is so well known, and their capacity for Ameri-
canization and assimilation has been so fully proved, that an investi-
gation of such rural settlements would resolve itself into a study
of farming conditions and American rural life rather than an inquiry
into immigration. Finally, the agricultural immigrant of the future
in all probability will be recruited from the above-mentioned and
kindred races from southern and eastern Europe.
In respect to occupations, the study logically divides itself into two
rather unequal parts: (a) Colonies, settlements, communities, and
rural groups, composed of farmers having a permanent abode in the
country; (6) seasonal agricultural laborers, usually having a per-
manent residence in cities or towns, who migrate to the country in
groups or gangs to supply the seasonal demand for farm laborers.
Of the seasonal laborers only a few of the many groups east of the
Mississippi were studied. " Black Portuguese" cranberry pickers in
the East, Polish and Indian cranberry pickers in Wisconsin, Italian
berry pickers in New Jersey, Italians and Poles engaged on farms and
in canning factories in New York State, and Japanese, Belgians, and
Bohemians in sugar-beet culture in Ohio and Wisconsin, are the
groups included under this inquiry.
COMMUNITIES INVESTIGATED, BY RACES.
ITALIANS.
The Italian rural groups considered include both North and South
Italians and were found in 13 States — 5 northern States, 5 southern
States east of the Mississippi, and Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas.
It is believed that practically every important colony or settlement
east of the Rocky Mountains was considered, and nearly all of them
were visited by the agents of the Commission. The report gives some-
what detailed accounts of 20 rural groups, and treats summarily of
23 others, chiefly in Texas. The majority cf the Italian settlements
are racial!}7 homogeneous, and their boundaries are rather well defined.
In the 43 groups6 there are approximately 4,142 families of Italian
origin, most of them exclusively engaged in agricultural pursuits.
« Data concerning the Belgians and German-Swiss have not been tabulated, by the
Commission.
& See p. 560.
552 The Immigration Commission.
HEBREWS.
An effort was made to take note of all the important Hebrew col-
onies in the States included in the inquiry. ^ Perhaps three-fourths or
more of all Hebrews engaged in agriculture in the United States were
reached. By far the greater number of Hebrew farmers are located
in New Jersey, New York, and southern New England, in well-defined
districts. Adopting the classification of the Jewish Agricultural and
Industrial Aid Society,0 the rural colonies visited numbered 25. The
approximate number of rural families in these colonies was 1,470, and
the total number of persons approximately 7,767. This report com-
bines these communities or colonies under seven titles, and deals
more or less in detail with each large group. There are no Hebrew
rural colonies of any significance in the South or Southwest, although
there are a few colonies in the Dakotas.
POLES.
The Poles have engaged in agriculture more extensively than any
other race studied except the Bohemians, and many Polish settlements
have been established too long to be called recent. Nevertheless, the
Poles are a new element in eastern agriculture, and the immigration
of Poles to the rural communities of the West and Southwest is steady,
if slow. No colonies of importance were found in the South east of
the Mississippi River, and but few in the North Atlantic States.
Except those in Michigan (which State was not visited), few large
Polish settlements in the North Central or North Atlantic States
were omitted from the inquiry. In Wisconsin, where Polish farmers
are comparatively numerous, four rather large settlements, typical
of different varieties of Polish agriculture, were studied.
The summarized account of Poles in the Southwest treats of 13
parishes in 3 States and includes only a Dart of the Polish fanners
there settled. In the North 34 Polish parishes in 6 States are repre-
sented in the report. In all, 47 rural (church) parishes, numbering
approximately 6,219 families, most of them on farms, were reached
by agents of the Commission.6
BOHEMIANS.
The principal farm colonies of Bohemians east of the Mississippi
are in Wisconsin. No attempt was made to study the very old col-
onies in Wisconsin, and except in the Southwest no investigation was
made west of the Mississippi. Detailed information was secured from
the colonies found in New England. A colony in the vicinity of
Petersburg, Va.; was not studied. In Texas a general survey was
made of 30 colonies or settlements visited by the Commission's agents
and one small rural group in Missouri was studied. The 30 groups
in Texas and the one in Missouri number approximately 3,344 farm
families and 16,905 persons. The Connecticut settlements number
about 60 families and 320 persons.
PORTUGUESE (WHITE).
East of California, practically all the rural Portuguese are in south-
eastern New England. Detailed information was secured from one
« See p. 576. & See p. 583.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 553
typical farm settlement of " white " Portuguese numbering about
60 families, engaged in potato growing in Rhode Island.
JAPANESE.
Almost every Japanese engaged in independent farming east of the
Rocky Mountains was interviewed. They number 28 families or house-
holds, aggregating approximately 223 persons ; the greater number are
in Texas and the remainder are in Florida. Detailed accounts appear
in the complete report. The condition of the few Japanese sugar-
beet laborers in Wisconsin is noted in the report on seasonal labor-
ers, but the most comprehensive account of Japanese is in the report
on Japanese and other immigrant races in the Pacific Coast and
Rocky Mountain States,a in which section nearly all the Japanese
immigrants are located.
OTHER RACES.
Only two Slovak or chiefly Slovak settlements, one in Arkansas
and one in Pennsylvania, could be found in the States visited, but
Slovaks, Lithuanians, Hungarians, Russians, or Austrians in small
numbers were discovered in six States, comprising in all about 164
families. The Commission secured representative data from two rural
settlements of Belgians — one the very old settlement near Green Bay,
Wis., including parts of three counties, and the other a small group
near Alexandria, La. — and data were also secured from the old and
very important settlement of German-Swiss in Green County, Wis.,
where farmers of the third generation, reckoning from the original
settlers, are now operating dairy farms. However, no separate
accounts of these colonies appear in the report.
SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION.
The table following shows the approximate number of persons of
specified racial origin in the different communities visited. The
approximations were made partly from town records, partly from
church registers, partly from published estimates or private censuses
made by interested persons, and partly from a canvass made by agents
of the Commission. The term " group" is elastic. In the case of
Poles it is synonymous with " parish;" the Hebrews employ a classifi-
cation of their own by towns or colonies; for the Italians, " commu-
nity," " colony, " or " settlement" might be substituted for "group."
The number of families is approximately correct, and refers, gen-
erally speaking, to farm families. The number of persons is probably
not far wrong in the aggregate, but is for many reasons unreliable
when considered by individual groups, since it was compiled from
many unofficial sources. It was not the purpose of the Commission
to take a census of the rural immigrants nor to make a quantitative
study.
"Japanese and Other Immigrant Races in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain
States. Reports of the Immigration Commission, vols. 23-25. (S. Doc. No. 633
pt. 25, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
72289°— VOL 1—11 36
554
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 1. — Scope of investigation.
[The Northern group includes Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Wisconsin, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The Southern group includes North Carolina, Ten-
nessee, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. "Texas and Southwest" includes Texas,
Arkansas, and Missouri.]
Race and geographical division.
Number
of States.
Number
of
"groups, "a
Approxi-
mate
number
of families.
Approxi-
mate
number
of persons.
All races:
States visited
19
163
15 812
93 725
Northern group . .
10
79
9 243
60 116
6
18
807
4 041
Texas and Southwest
3
66
5,762
29 568
Italians:
States visited
13
43
4,142
21,569
Northern group
5
12
2 440
12 970
Southern group
5
14
723
3,598
Texas and Southwest ...
3
17
979
5 001
Hebrews:
States visited
5
25
1,470
b 7, 767
Northern group
5
25
1 470
7 767
Poles:
States visited
Q
47
6,219
c 43 791
Northern group
6
34
4,856
36, 566
Texas and Southwest
3
13
1,363
7,225
Bohemians:
States visited
3
33
3.404
17, 225
Northern group
1
d 2
60
320
Texas and Southwest
2
31
3,344
16, 905
Other races:
States visited
11
15
577
3,373
Northern group
5
6
417
2,493
Southern group
4
4
84
443
Texas and Southwest
2
5
76
437
Other Slavs
6
6
164
930
Portuguese --
1
1
60
350
2
2
325
1,870
Japanese .
2
6
28
223
a Parishes, districts, colonies, or communities. Poles enumerated entirely by parishes*
b Estimate in part from reports of Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society.
c Estimate, 1901-1903. by Kruszka, Historya Polska w Ameryce, Vol. II.
d Somewhat scattered.
PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION.
Stated broadly, the object of the investigation is an inquiry into
the extent, the racial character, and the economic, social, and polit-
ical status of certain more or less recent immigrants in agriculture.
The extent of immigration to agricultural regions in the United
States is dealt with in a general way only. The racial character of the
immigrants includes an inquiry into the source and history of immi-
gration to the locality and the previous history of the settlers. In
general this is a " group" study. The determination of the economic
status includes an individual inquiry into past and present material
welfare, reasons for immigration, economic struggles after settlement,
acquisition of land and other property, present possessions, and
indebtedness. It includes an approximation of income from the
farm and from other sources and in some detail the character of the
agriculture and the products raised. The study aims also to make
inquiry into transportation, markets and marketing facilities, and
other matters touching the economics of agriculture, and to deter-
mine the material advancement of the immigrant since his settlement
on the land, as measured by his property, income, and standard of
living: — educational and economic.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 555
The social inquiry includes a study of the social institutions of the
foreign community — churches, schools, and social organizations, the
educational attainments and educational facilities of the foreigners,
as well as literacy, assimilation, and social progress.
The political inquiry treats of citizenship and political interest and
intelligence, and the effect of rural environment in developing each of
these characteristics. In a large way the investigation purposed a
study of the effect of the immigrant community on agriculture and
agricultural wealth, both qualitatively and quantitatively; on the
agricultural population ; on the community institutions ; on labor, the
labor supply, and wages of labor; and the counter effect of the
environing native rural population on the immigrants. Finally, to
compare the condition of the rural immigrants with their previous
condition abroad, with those of the same races in industries, and of
other foreigners in agriculture, and of Americans and others in the
same or neighboring communities, and to consider the progress, con-
dition, Americanization, and outlook of the second generation, are
the aims of the study. Not all of these purposes have been fulfilled
in every instance, but taken together some data on each of these
points are presented for every race considered.
METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.
STUDY BY RACE AND COMMUNITY GROUPS.
Unlike the plan pursued in the industrial studies, the agricultural
inquiry is based on a study of rural race groups of greater or less
extent, rather than a study by agricultural subindustries. The
reasons for this departure from the usual method are simple and suffi-
cient. The immigrants in agriculture in the East, South, and Middle
West are usually grouped in more or less homogeneous colonies or
settlements; frequently a community is composed entirely of one
foreign race and perhaps some American farmers. Where two or
more immigrant races are settled together, engaged in the same
specialized agricultural industry, comparisons and contrasts are made ;
but in general the colony or race settlement is considered a distinct
entity. The rural groups of foreigners are usually widely scattered,
and hence the conditions of soil, climate, agriculture, and settlement
are so different that a fair study by subindustry is impossible. The
number of immigrants studied in any industry — for example, dairy
farming — is so small compared with the' total number of persons
engaged in the industry that it is insignificant. Finally because,
given soil, climate, and market location, the farm community works
out its own form of agriculture, and because natural conditions are
so significant in the agricultural industry, the only satisfactory
method of study seemed to be by immigrant rural groups.
The study is one of communities rather than of individuals. The
individual farm was investigated, not primarily for its own sake, but as
a community type. The rural community as a whole — its prosperity,
progress, influence, institutions, tendencies — was the problem in
view.
A third principle of investigation, maintained throughout, is that
the study is not quantitative. It is a study of typical, representative
farm families only. The quality of the farming rather than the
556 The Immigration Commission.
number engaged in it, the average farm rather than the aggregate
acreage, the mean farm income rather than the total of produce in a
community, was the ideal aimed at.
A. FIELD WORK.
At the outset the Commission found that there was very little
available information regarding the location of immigrant colonies,
and special blanks were prepared asking for information con-
cerning the location, race, date of settlement, probable numerical
size, and form of agriculture of immigrant rural settlements. A
second blank called for similar information with regard to seasonal
laborers. These blanks were sent to state commissioners of immi-
gration, of agriculture, of labor, throughout the United States east
of the Rocky Mountains, and to other officials likely to be informed
on immigrant colonies. The returns were comparatively meager,
Library references to immigrant races in agriculture in magazines,
books, and official reports were sought out and verified, and govern-
ment agents were appealed to for information. By these means and
by a diligent searching of clues while in the field it is believed that a
fairly complete list of foreign rural settlements in the East/, the South,
and the Middle West was secured.
The number of colonies visited has been discussed. The field work
consisted of two parts: (1) The community study, or the gathering
of data with regard to the soil, conditions, and form of agriculture;
transportation and markets; institutions; property; standard of liv-
ing; citizenship; and history of the community. These data were
secured by observation, visitation, numerous interviews with public
officials, business men, foreigners, churchmen, teachers, and others,
and by the examination of official records, historical documents, tax
lists, assessment rolls, court records, school and church reports and regis-
ters, records of vital statistics and of boards of health, reports of social
and business organizations, freight shipments, and the like. (2) In
practically all cases in the North and Middle West, and frequently in
the South, a number of schedules of individual farm families were
secured by personal visits of agents of the Commission. The num-
ber of schedules secured in a locality varied from 5 to 60, depending
somewhat on the size of the community.0
The information secured by means of schedules is not altogether
accurate, especially on matters of farm income, indebtedness, and
accounts for supplies. Practically none of the farmers visited
kept adequate accounts of income or expenditures, and family
budgets showing cost of living were absolutely lacking. The data,
however, were secured by expert schedule agents.
In the southern States comparatively few schedules were taken,
and the reports are based largely on a general study of the com-
munities. Each of the communities was personally investigated,
however, and the material presented in the reports was collected from
original sources on the field. The number of schedules secured, by
race, is shown in the table following. In all, 163 rural colonies or
settlements, in 19 different States, representing 12 rather important
races, were visited. The number of heads of families from whom
schedules were secured and tabulated is 875. In these 875 house-
holds were 5,017 persons, or 5.73 persons per household; 1,650 males
and 1,337 females 14 years of age or over were enumerated.
a For schedule forms see Vol. II, pp. 653-667 and 680-681.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
557
TABLE 2. — Households studied and number of persons for whom information was secured,
of household.
by race of head o
Race of head of household.
Number
of house-
holds.
Total
number
of per-
sons.
Average
number
of persons
per house-
hold.
Number of persons 14 years of
age or over.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
3
9
1
15
10
14
50
9
107
53
4.67
5.56
9.00
7.13
5.30
4
17
1
26
17
5
16
1
24
14
9
33
2
50
31
German.
Italian. North
Polish
Belgian (race not specified) . . .
Total
38
233
6.13
65
60
125
Foreign-bom:
Bohemian and Moravian
35
1
11
25
115
117
205
21
23
10
1
219
20
25
4
5
180
5
61
134
662
689
1,221
118
120
49
5
1,238
112
140
15
35
5.14
5.00
5.55
5.36
5.76
5.89
5.96
5.62
5.22
4.90
5.00
5.65
5.60
5.60
3.75
7.00
62
2
20
38
202
243
386
97
37
14
2
393
24
41
6
18
51
2
19
36
209
187
315
14
30
12
1
324
21
38
5
13
113
4
39
74
411
430
701
111
67
26
3
717
45
79
11
31
Croatian
Flemish
German
Hebrew . •
Italian North
Italian, South.
Japanese
Lithuanian
Magyar
Norwegian . . .
Polish
Portuguese
Slovak . .
Swedish
Belgian (race not specified)
Total
837
4,784
5.72
1,585
1,650
1,277
2,862
Grand total
875
5,017
5.73
1,337
2,987
B. TABULATION OF DATA GATHERED.
Where sufficient farm schedules were obtained in one community
the data secured were tabulated in text tables and inserted in the
body of the reports. No general tables of the strictly agricultural
data were made, and no percentage tables. The principal reason
for the omission of general tables and percentages is the small num-
ber of schedules obtained in any community, and the impossibility of
securing arithmetical averages, by race, covering a sufficient number
of comparable instances to be of any real value; for the data were
gathered from farms operated under a very wide variety of condi-
tions, natural and social, and from almost every form of agriculture.
It is obviously impossible to present in figures the " average Italian
farm" as shown by a dozen market gardens in Rhode Island, 20
fruit farms in Connecticut, 100 truck and berry farms in New Jersey,
25 grain and stock farms in Wisconsin, the same number of cotton
farms, fruit plantations, and strawberry plots in the South. The
same is true of aggregates and other quantitative data.
Wherever possible a " typical family" table is presented showing
the actual economic biographies, present financial condition, and
farm incomes (the average of two years) of 6 to 12 farm families in
each immigrant rural group, as gleaned from the schedules. In
some instances certain large farm expenditures and the supplemen-
tary income of the farm family from outside sources are appended.
For some purposes the typical tables are the most valuable tables in
the report.
558 The Immigration Commission.
A number of tabulations of agricultural data gathered in the larger
communities, chiefly economic, were made. These tables include
a general financial summary; place of birth and race of immi-
grants; previous location abroad and in the United States; occu-
pation before coming to present location; occupation in locality
previous to purchase; value of property brought to the locality;
size of farm and condition of land first rented or purchased; sup-
plemental income until living could be made from the land; price
paid for first purchases; acreage, condition, and value of land now
owned or rented; net value of personal property and real estate; com-
parative table showing net property bought, property now owned
and years since first purchase; crops produced, acreage, and value
per farm; classified values of ^ products produced and sold; classifica-
tion of live stock on farm — kind, number, and value; farm expendi-
tures for labor, fertilizer, feed and forage, and rent, classified by
values, expended annually. All these tables are for a limited number
of families as nearly; typical of the agriculture of their respective
communities as possible, but too few upon which to base accurate
quantitative generalizations.
The most unsatisfactory data are those with regard to farm income.
All of the schedules contained inquiries concerning crops and other
products produced and sold. In some cases inquiry was made con-
cerning farm expenditures, especially for labor, fertilizer, and feed
for live stock. Because data with regard to expenditures were not
secured in all cases and because it was not possible to accurately
measure the amount of produce consumed on farms, no table of
surplus, deficit, or net annual income of any value whatever could
be made from the agricultural data secured in the East or South.
The table of crops produced in nearly all instances where the family
lived in whole or in large part from the produce of their farms is some-
what short of the mark. No adequate account of the milk, butter,
eggs, poultry, meat, and vegetables consumed by the farm family
during the year could be obtained without organizing a much more ex-
tensive form of inquiry and investigation than was possible. The indi-
vidual tables are discussed in the specific community accounts. The
recorded sales of commercial crops sold in bulk are approximately
correct, but small sales at odd times, produce bartered or exchanged
at country stores, and even sales of milk or poultry are frequently
estimates only.
Values of land, improvements, and equipment are subject to indi-
vidual correction. In a general way they are high for Hebrews,
rather low for the Poles, and partly high ancl partly too low in case of
the Itah'ans. By rather careful checking the agents were usuallv able
to secure approximations not very wide of the mark, but actual mar-
ket values probably were obtained in comparatively few instances.
In general, property values were checked with assessments and esti-
mates of real-estate men, and in a given community the errors probably
cancel. Individual valuations, however, are not all true.
The reports of individual communities are not of equal weight or
detail. This was inevitable under the limitations of the investiga-
tion. In some communities only a short time could be spent. This
was particularly true in some of the southern colonies. Some colonies
merited less attention than others and in some information was more
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 559
readily secured. Certain colonies are type colonies. Others differ
only in minor detail and deserve less attention.
Despite the lack of detail concerning certain settlements, the indi-
vidual reports give a much more accurate and illuminating character-
ization of the immigrants than any summarized tables could give,
and a number of them throw a good deal of light on immigrant farm-
ing in special subindustries. If any one fact more than another
has been impressed upon the investigating agents of the Commission,
it is the futility of endeavoring to interpret conditions as a whole, or
of making any far-reaching generalizations; hence a series of mono-
graphic studies, while falling short in finished simplicity, definition,
and extended analysis, are more sharp and truthful in detail, and if
somewhat confused, perhaps, are more significant and valuable than
any summarized account could be, and serve better to elucidate the
complexity of relations in which the immigrant stands to American
rural life.
GENERAL SURVEY OF THE RACES STUDIED.
ITALIANS IN AGRICULTURE.
Though the immigrants from Italy, since 1900, constitute a rela-
tively large and increasing percentage of all immigrants to the United
States, and though it is estimated that more than 60 per cent a of
them came from rural districts in Italy, comparatively few have
become farmers in the United Stages. According to the Twelfth
Census, a total of 293,424 male Italians over 10 ^ears of age of the
first and second generations were engaged in gainful occupations.
Of this number, only 18,227, or 6.2 per cent, were engaged in agri-
cultural pursuits. Agricultural laborers constituted 11,088 of this
number, or 3.8 per cent of the total, leaving 7,139, or 2.4 per cent,
farmers, planters, dairymen, truckers, overseers, florists, and other
agricultural operators.6
DISTRIBUTION OP THE ITALIAN SETTLEMENTS INVESTIGATED.
The table following gives the number and location of the principal
Italian rural settlements in the United States east of the Mississippi
River ^ and in Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Atten-
tion is here directed chiefly to the northern colonies. With a
few important exceptions the settlements listed in New England,
New York, New Jersey, and Wisconsin include most of the Italian
rural communities in the northern States east of the Mississippi River.
There are a few small groups of market gardeners near large cities in
the East — New York, New Haven, Hartford, Newark, Trenton — and
others in the outskirts of western cities. There are some truckers
on Long Island and one or two isolated groups in the western part
of New York State, but it is confidently believed that the list of
important settlements is practically complete.
a Prof. A. Pecoroni, Annals of the American Academy. Vol. 33 (1909), p. 382 et seq.
& For more detailed information see Reports of the Immigration Commission on
Occupations, vol. 28 (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) and on Agriculture,
vols. 21 and 22 (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 24, 61st Cong., 2d sess.).
560
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 3. — List of Italian rural communities in the United States investigated by the
Immigration Commission, 1909.
[This table includes both foreign-born Italians and native-born persons of Italian descent.]
State.
City or town.
Race.
Approxi-
mate
number
of house-
holds.
Approxi-
mate
number
of
persons.
North Atlantic States:
Rhode Island
Olney vllle
South Italian
42
225
Connecticut
South Glastonbury
North Italian
80
375
New York
Canastota .
South Italian.
50
500
Lvons and Clyde
do
100
1 000
Albion
.do
350
Port Byron
do
300
Geneva
. .do
1,500
Oneida
do
a 475
New Jersey ...
Hammonton and vicinity
...do
368
2,000
Vineland and vicinity
North and South
956
5,000
Southern States:
Alabama
Daphne. .
Italian.
North Italian . .
21
180
Lambert
do
15
60
Arkansas
Gracie
.do
19
100
Sunny side
do
127
576
Tontitown. .
.do....
70
400
Louisiana
Independence
South Italian
250
1 200
Kenner
.do
150
700
Millikens Bend
North Italian
7
28
Shreveport
South Italian
6
32
Mississippi
Delta Region
North and South
103
508
Gulfport
Italian.
South Italian
2
10
Long Beach
do
0
30
Bay St. Louis
do
10
50
North Italian
40
020
Marshfleld
do
6
30
North Carolina
St. Helena
do
38
180
Valdese
do
50
300
Tennessee .
Memphis
do
50
260
Paradise Ridge
do
15
60
Texas
Arcadia
South Italian
G
30
Alta Loma
do
125
Beaumont
do
25
125
Bryan
.do
350
1,700
Dickinson
do
125
750
Hitchcock
North Italian
20
100
Lamarque
South Italian
3
15
League City
North Italian
6
25
Little York...
South Italian....
75
350
Montague
North Italian
40
250
do
25
130
Victoria
do
17
75
North Central States:
Wisconsin
Genoa
do
44
245
Cumberland
South Italian..
200
1,000
a Farm laborers brought in for the season.
The Commission did not attempt an accurate census of these colo-
nies, and the figures for households and persons are in most cases
approximations only, based on tax lists, state census reports, or
enumerations by parish priests, private persons, or agents of the
Commission. They are believed to be fairly reliable. The specific
reports on the various settlements in the Commission's complete
report usually indicate the source of the statistical information and
its relative accuracy. Not all of these families are "farm families. "
The estimates in the table include, in almost every instance, some
families who live in hamlets or villages and who either own farm
land or have some agricultural interests or are retired farmers. The
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 561
number of actual farmers, either foreign or of foreign origin, in each
community studied is estimated in the specific reports. Since the
approximations include both the foreign-born and the native-born of
Italian origin, they are usually not comparable with either the United
States or the state census reports.
More than 40 Italian communities in thirteen States were visited
by agents of the Commission. Most of these were in the South, where
many incipient Italian settlements have sprung up recently. The
colonies in the South were not studied in as much detail as were
several colonies in New England, New York, and New Jersey. In
each of the colonies in the North a number of schedules were secured
from farm families, and in each settlement visited a study was made of
the community as a whole and of the several community institutions.
The largest and oldest colonies in the East are those in southeastern
New Jersey, on the Pine Barrens. Both North and South Italians are-
represented at Vineland, and Hammonton is one of the largest and
most promising South Italian farm colonies east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. In New England, South Italians engaged in market garden-
ing and truck farming near Providence, R. I., at least as early as
1844. Market gardening has increased in importance, and this settle-
ment has been augmented slowly by accretions from the industrial
population in the vicinity. North Italian farmers have established a
settlement near South Glastonbury, Conn., not far from Hartford.
The leading occupation there is fruit raising — peaches and apples.
This is a good type of foreign colony, established on comparatively
sterile, forest-covered New England soil. The principal farm settle-
ments of Italians in New York are in the western part of the State
in a rather well-defined area, most of them along the line of the Erie
Canal from Madison to Orleans counties. These are growing commu-
nities of South Italians, whose successful development the heavy
muck soil, adapted to vegetables but hard to clear, has made possible.
In Wisconsin two rural settlements were investigated, aggregating
somewhat less than 250 families. One of these is an old colony of
North Italians at Genoa, near the Mississippi River, just south of
La Crosse. It represents the type of colony that has practically
ceased to grow by additions from without and whose members are
as fully Americanized as their German and Scandinavian neighbors.
The South Italian colony at Cumberland, Wis., is a different type.
It is of recent origin, established on uncleared land, with great pine
and hard-wood stumps. The members are chiefly railroad laborers,
with whom agriculture is an incidental occupation until the land is
paid for. Paying for land with supplementary earnings from indus-
trial labor is not new, but there are few more pronounced -types of
this on a community scale than that presented by the Cumberland
colony. In certain aspects all the Italian settlements are similar.
The chapters following bring out the individual characteristics.
ORIGIN OP RURAL IMMIGRATION.
Considering the comparatively large number of Italian workers in
the States, mentioned on a previous page, it seems remarkable that not
7 per cent are engaged in agriculture. It has been noted and it may
be considered a safe generalization that more than one-half, perhaps
two-thirds, of the Sicilians and other South Italians and one-fourth
562 The Immigration Commission.
of the immigrants from northern Italy were farmers or farm laborers
abroad. One other point of significance in this connection is that the
proportion of North Italian immigrants who have engaged in agricul-
ture is much greater than the proportion of South Italians, although
a much larger percentage of South Italians were farmers or farm
laborers abrdad.
Of the Italians who are engaged in agriculture in the United States,
the investigations of the Commission indicate that the number who
entered agriculture immediately upon arriving on our shores and the
number who have engaged temporarily in some industrial occupation
are about equal. More North Italians than South Italians have
engaged at once in farming. There are a few rural colonies (of which
Cumberland is typical) made up largely of industrial workers, and in
the suburbs of great cities — Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Chi-
cago, and New Orleans — groups made up of day laborers and small
tradesmen or hucksters are beginning to raise vegetables on small
areas, often on vacant lots, chiefly for Italian customers. Almost all
of these groups are Sicilian or South Italian in origin. North Italian
groups are less likely to be established near large cities and are more
likely to originate in purposeful colonization.
Substantially all Italian immigrants are poor and come to the
United States to better their economic condition. The newcomer,
therefore, must at once engage in some occupation that will give him
immediate returns. He has no money to travel, and no capital; of
necessity, he becomes a wage-earner. Furthermore, the chances are
that he knows nothing about the opportunities in agriculture. A
friend or padrone or labor agent directs him to unskilled work
at wages that seem to him munificent, and he gladly accepts the
employment. Not only is it economically impossible for the newcomer
to buy land and engage in farming, but day labor in industry offers,
in addition to immediate wages, the comfort and companionship of
his fellows, usually a home among Italians, and the feeling of secu-
rity and confidence that comes to one only when he can make his
wants known in his own language. It is possible that many Italians,
after gaining their economic independence and accumulating a little
money, would become farmers if they knew where to buy small
parcels of cheap land. The deterrent influences are the isolation of
rural life, ignorance of the location of suitable farm lands for sale,
lack of experience in American farm methods, and the somewhat
tardy and uncertain returns from independent agriculture.
Unless settled in communities, the Italians have not proved suc-
cessful pioneer farmers; nor are the most of them engaged in
extensive agricultuse, where many acres and considerable equipment
are necessary. In almost every instance they seem to succeed best
when they live close together, cultivate small farms, and raise crops
that require hand labor rather than expensive, complicated machin-
ery. Their social instincts are strong, and these must be reckoned
with when the Italian is ready to buy a farm. It may be asserted
confidently that the primary reason for the Italian's choice of truck-
ing and vegetable gardening in preference to diversified farming is a
social one: he can have both land and neighbors. Sonie have said
that the Italian is a gardener here because he was a gardener in Italy.
Doubtless his early farm practice exerts some influence on his later
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 563
choice , but investigation has plainly shown that a compact group of
Italians can carry on successfully almost any system of farming and
that the isolation of a few families is likely to mean failure even in the
midst of favorable natural conditions.
The Italian has not the self-reliance, initiative, resourcefulness, nor
self-sufficing individualism that necessarily marks the pioneer farmer.
The South Italians, especially, run in groups and follow a leader.
The majority of ^hose who have succeeded in agriculture in the
United States were farmers or were interested in farming abroad.
Climate and physiography play a much smaller part in the ultimate
success of Italian colonies than is generally supposed. South Italian
colonies are found all the way from the pine lands of northern Wisconsin
to the cane fields of Louisiana. They are making fair livings on the
muck lands of New York, the sandy barrens of New Jersey, the
rock-strewn hills of New England, and the heavy cotton lands of
the Brazos "bottoms." While sentiment often has much to do with
the choice of a location, it can not be said that the success of the settle-
ment at Genoa, Wis., is due to the Alpine aspect of the topography
rather than to the excellence of the soil and the favorable markets ;
nor that the fine North Italian settlers of Valdese, N. C., would not
have made more progress in every way had they settled nearer markets
and on level land where there was more fertility and less Swiss
scenery.
EFFECT ON AGRICULTURE.
The Italians have introduced into agriculture little that is new, but
in the North, in every instance, their communities have enriched
and improved the land and increased the agricultural wealth of the
surrounding neighborhood. They seem to love the land and few
farms in the localities studied have retrograded under Italian man-
agement. Ownership is the almost universal form of tenure in north-
ern settlements of North Italians, and but few South Italians rent
the farms they operate. There never has been much tenancy in the
North, and to this fact much of the economic progress of foreign
farmers appears to be due. Most of the northern settlements were
established on uncleared areas purchased by the foreigners immedi-
ately on arrival in the locality. Having once purchased a piece- of
land on time the Italian works early and late to pay for it and make
it productive. In numerous instances he has, by an incredible ex-
penditure of labor, made productive land which native farmers con-
sidered worthless.
When the native farmers in the older colonies have suffered from
low prices and a general agricultural depression, Italians have been
ready to purchase abandoned or semi-abandoned farms, often sub-
dividing them and restoring their productiveness. This movement
has not assumed significant proportions, so far as Italians are con-
cerned, but in New Jersey the further extension of the settlements
seems likely to proceed by this means.
On the whole, the Italian farmer compares well with other foreign
farmers in his neighborhood in industry, thrift, careful attention to
details, crop yields, and surplus returns from his farm. His strength
lies in his patience, unflagging industry, and capacity for hard,
monotonous labor. The aspect of an Italian farming community is
564 The Immigration Commission.
nearly always pleasing; fields are well tilled and all the cleared land is
cultivated. It can not be said that any large number are reaping
great rewards, but nearly all are making a living and gradually
increasing their properties. It is impossible to ascertain accurately
the net annual returns measured by sales of crops, products consumed
on the farm, and increased value of plant from a sufficient number of
families to be of statistical value, without making a long-time study
of family budgets, receipts, expenditures, and annual inventories.
But most Italian farmers raise a large part of their food supply,
although the majority produce for the market. As with many farm-
ers, progress in material welfare is denoted by better houses, more
acres, greater improvements; the Italian's bank is his farm in most
instances.
THE EFFECT OF RURAL LIFE ON THE ITALIAN.
Ownership of the land he operates is one significant factor in the
social and civic progress of 'the rural Italian in New England, New
Jersey, and Wisconsin. The prestige incidental to landed proprietor-
ship, as well as the financial responsibility of an owner, sets the farmer
far above the day laborer. Not only is he independent, taking orders
from no one, but he is stimulated to industry, for his returns are in
a measure proportioned to his exertions. The variety of knowledge
of crops, fertilizers, markets, and public affairs, and the familiarity
with a number of occupations necessary to agricultural success, edu-
cate and develop the newcomer very rapidly. The contrast in inde-
pendence, resourcefulness, and general superiority, between the berry
pickers from the cities and the Hammonton Italian farmers, is very
marked.
Interest in taxation, good roads, public improvements, and ex-
penses for public schools is a stepping stone to wider civic interest.
The foreigner's first interest in suffrage is self-interest, but it is better
than no interest at all. On the other side, there is the deadening
effect of isolation by foreign groups, of segregation in the open country,
on both the community and the individual members. Where the
Italians are intermingled with an equal number of American farmers
they assimilate rather rapidly; where there is rural segregation of
large groups Americanization is a slower process than in the city.
It is difficult to measure the effect ol the country on standards
of iiving. In the country, food depends somewhat on climate and
products of the soil, partly on the food of the neighbors, partly
on the proximity to a market where Italian foodstuffs are sold. In
the eastern colonies much Italian food is imported. At Genoa, Wis.,
the farmers use almost none of this sort. Wine, macaroni, Italian
cheese and sausage, olives, peppers, and hard Italian bread are still
used in New Jersey, but there is abundance of other foodstuffs also.
It is certain that the settled farmers live better than the itinerant
seasonal Italian laborers. Farm labor keeps children out of school,
and lack of opportunity for intercourse with English-speaking people
explains the persistence of the Italian tongue, even to the second
generation in isolated districts. Language and church affiliations are
obstacles to intermingling and sometimes to intermarriage with Ameri-
cans, but there is more' social commingling with the better people in
the country than in the city, and more where the proportion of
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 565
Italians in the total rural population is small. Compared with the
progress made by north European immigrants on western farms, the
Italian's progress in Americanization has been slower; compared
with many rural Poles, his advance has been quite as rapid. In the
case of both races (Poles and South Italians) fusion appears to take
place in the third generation.
In the communities visited the rural Sicilian is ordinarily peaceable,
quiet, and law-abiding. Quick temper and indulgence in liquor are
at the root of most of the disorders that arise in established Sicilian
settlements. The North Italians seem to be fully as law-abiding as
other races.
Progress in citizenship is less rapid among the South Italians than
among those from the northern provinces of Italy, ordinarily, but
leadership and live local issues touching the property owners have
much to do with the number of naturalized citizens.
The rural Italian is still concerned with his material subsistence.
He has a cheap frame house because he is not able to pay for a better
one. Little about the house denotes leisure or higher living. Books,
papers, and music, rocking-chairs or hammocks or swings, find no
place until the Italian is materially prosperous. His buildings and
grounds do not compare favorably with those of his American
neighbors except in a few localities where the second generation are
operating the farms; but the dwellings are of fair size, there is no
overcrowding in the ordinary sense, and the houses, excepting
those of recent arrivals, are fairly clean and comfortable. In some
old localities living conditions are as good as in any homes in the
neighborhood. The features of the home surroundings of Italians in
the several communities are discussed in the monographs on these
settlements in the Commission's complete report on recent immi-
grants in agriculture.
All in all, the rural community has had a salutary effect on the
Italians, especially those from the southern provinces of Italy.
In many cases it has taken an ignorant, unskilled, dependent foreign
laborer and made of him a shrewd, self-respecting, independent
farmer and citizen. Their returns in material welfare ordinarily are
not great, but they live comfortably and usually accumulate a small
property. Where Italians have been established for some time in
comparatively large groups in the open country they suffer little in
comparison with other foreign farmers in the locality, and the farmers
of the second generation are frequently not less progressive than the
Americans.
SECOND GENERATION.
The second-generation Italians seem to be developing into good
citizens in most instances. A fairly large percentage of them are
likely to remain on the land. In most colonies the number of adult
native-born is small, of course, and it is difficult to predict the occu-
pational outcome. Children remain on the farms until of age or
work in neighboring industrial establishments and give their wages to
their parents. In the Vineland settlement there are a number of effi-
cient farmers of the second generation, and there the tendency seems
to be to remain on the soil.
566
The Immigration Commission.
ITALIANS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.
SCOPE OP INVESTIGATION.
During the Commission's investigation regarding immigrants
engaged in agriculture special agents visited rural colonies or set-
tlements in the following southern States : North Carolina, Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana. Texas, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas.
The large number of rural settlements of foreigners precluded
detailed investigations such as were made of some of the commu-
nities farther north. Much attention was given to rural settle-
ments of North and South Italians, and what may be termed recbn-
noissance surveys were made of 31 distinct colonies of these two
races from Italy, including cotton farmers, general farmers, small fruit
growers, and truckers. The 31 settlements included more than 1,500
farm families, numbering almost 8,600 persons of Italian origin.
Difficulty was experienced in ascertaining the location of some
of the many small rural groups, but probably every one of the
more important Italian settlements in the Gulf States, Arkansas,
Missouri, and Tennessee was visited. Some groups were located by
special correspondents and field agents of the Department of Agricul-
ture, who reported all colonies known to them in their respective
territories. State officials, commissioners of agriculture and immi-
gration, industrial agents of railroad lines, and private individuals
in the field contributed information, and the Commission feels rea-
sonably sure that few colonies of recent immigrants were overlooked,
although not all were studied. Information concerning the number
of foreign-born persons engaged in agriculture, by counties and races,
is not available for all States from either Federal or State census
reports, and some flourishing little settlements of Italians about
which no data seem to have been published were discovered.
TABLE 4. — List of Italian rural communities in the South investigated
tion Commission, 1909.
the Immigra-
State.
Number
of com-
munities.
Approx-
imate
number
of settlers.
State.
Number
of com-
munities.
Approx-
imate
number
of settlers.
Alabama
2
240
North Carolina
2
480
Arkansas
3
1.076
Tennessee
2
320
Louisiana
4
1 960
Texas
12
3,675
4
598
Missouri
2
250
Total
31
8,599
It is to be regretted that more detailed studies of many of these
communities could not be made, for the reports dealing with them
do not purport to be complete or intensive. They are cursory
descriptions that may be valuable as points of departure for
more detailed investigation. Moreover, in a large way, they are
valuable for purposes of comparison and generalization. It is believed
that they give true and unprejudiced accounts of the Italian on the
land. In practically all colonies visited some schedules were secured
from typical families, which in most instances have been incorporated
in the reports. Prominent men, both Italians and others, were inter-
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 567
viewed, public documents consulted, homes and farms visited, and
information concerning schools, churches, and other social institutions
was secured and checked to assure its reliability.
The investigation purposed to determine accurately the position of
the immigrant farmer in southern rural economy, his economic and
social status, his progress in Americanization, his effect upon the
community and the effect of the rural environment upon him.
ITALIANS IN THE RURAL SOUTH.
Italian immigration into the States studied is comparatively recent,
the greatest growth having been made during the past twenty years.
In Texas, at Bryan, in Brazos County, is located the largest Italian
agricultural colony in the South, numbering at leasxt 1,700 persons.
Its origin dates back to 1868. The Italian colony at Sunnyside, Ark.,
in the Yazoo delta region, established in 1895, is the largest colony
in the " black belt," from which several smaller farm colonies through-
out the delta and elsewhere can trace their origin.
Italian farming in the South covers a wide range of products, widely
diversified soils and climatic conditions, several forms of land tenure,
and various systems of culture. The North Italians among the moun-
tains of western North Carolina practice a self-sufficing, diversified
agriculture. In southeastern Louisiana and in the coastal plain belt of
Alabama the South Italian truckers and small fruit growers are doing
exceptionally well on the light sandy soils when they succeed in mar-
keting their products in a satisfactory manner. In the "delta," both
North and South Italian cotton tenants are showing the cotton grow-
ers of how much value careful cultivation, kitchen gardens, and small
store accounts may be to the cotton "share hand" and tenant. In the
Ozarks, Italians from the Sunnyside group have taken up new land,
planted orchards, and become successful apple and peach growers. At
Sunnyside all seem content to rent land and remain tenants indefinitely.
At Knobview and Tontitown it is the open ambition of every man to
become a landowner and an independent farmer. It is plain that the
Italian farmer has been profoundly influenced by his environment.
His farming has been directed and his agricultural methods and
form of land tenure have been taught him by his new neighbors.
SOURCES OF IMMIGRATION.
The great majority of Italian agriculturists in the South came from
rural communities in Italy. Most of them were farmers or farmers'
sons abroad. Some few owned land, but many were tenant farmers
or farm laborers before emigrating. Perhaps one-half of all inter-,
viewed came directly from Italy to rural districts in the southern
States, and were first employed either as farm laborers or lumbermen,
or were tenant farmers. Comparatively few were engaged in industrial
pursuits or as day laborers in Mobile, New Orleans, Galveston, or
other coast cities before becoming farmers. Immigration to the
South is not only recent, but numerically insignificant. The table
following shows that the total Italian immigration destined for south-
ern States in the fiscal year 1909 was 3,701 out of a total Italian immi-
gration of 190,398. During the same year 1 ,651 Italian emigrant aliens
departed from these States, leaving a net gam of approximately 2,050
persons.
568
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 5. — North and South Italians admitted and departed during the fiscal year 1909.
[Compiled from Annual Report of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1909.]
States.
Admitted.
Departed.
Net in-
crease (+)
or decrease
(-).
Alabama
198
88
+ 110
Arkansas
42
19
+ ^3
Florida
113
132
— 19
Georgia
46
38
4- 8
Louisiana
776
251
+ f)9")
Mississippi
86
46
+ 40
1,988
824
+ 1 164
North Carolina
45
12
+ 33
South Carolina
20
40
20
Tennessee
89
83
+ 6
Texas
298
118
4- 180
Total for States specified
3,701
1,651
+ 2 050
Total for United States
190 398
86 439
+ 103 959
The large percentage of Sicilians or South Italians in the South is
notable. Probably more than 80 per cent of the rural Italians in
Louisiana are Sicilians. The nearly 2,000 Italians at Bryan, Tex.,
are Sicilians, and several other settlements are peopled by immigrants
from southern Italy. This fact may account in part for the greater
percentage of Italian agricultural laborers in the South, and for the
slower rate of Americanization in certain districts.
Italian immigration to the South has been in part stimulated by
the cotton and sugar-cane planters, who, dissatisfied with negro labor,
alarmed at the increasing scarcity of every sort of farm labor, and
desirous of settling acceptable farmers on the immense tracts of unim-
proved land, have for years been striving to turn the tide of immigra-
tion southward. In the chapters following instances are cited of
plantation owners who advanced the passage money for the trans-
portation of groups of Italian families and settled them on their cotton
plantations. The total immigration induced in this way is not sig-
nificant, except as it formed nuclei around which gathered subse-
quent immigrants to the United States. Sunnyside colony, the
mother of several rural settlements, originated in the importation of
100 or more families from northern Italy some years ago.
A number of colonies, notably in Texas and Louisiana, seem to have
originated in the purchase of a few acres of land by some Italian farm
laborer, who, arriving practically without money at a southern port
of entry, sought employment on a neighboring plantation. A
number of the strawberry growers of Tangipahoa Parish, La., were
originally berry pickers who came out from New Orleans. Italian
truckers in Texas were urban day laborers who bought a few acres
near the city and let their families raise vegetables, first for home use
and later for the retail trade. Some few colonies have been pro-
moted either by Italian philanthropists or by land companies.
Not many Italians who were skilled workers in the trades or indus-
tries, here or abroad, have moved to farms, and comparatively few
who, upon landing, found permanent unskilled work in industries later
engaged in agricultural pursuits. But, notably in Texas, the building
of railroads has brought in a number of South Italians, chiefly Sicil-
ians, some few of whom have become either tenants or independent
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 569
proprietors of small market gardens or truck farms. It may be
asserted confidently that there has been no marked shift of Italians
from industrial pursuits or from city employments to farms in the
southern States. In Missouri and Arkansas, indeed, many Italian
farmers supplement their incomes by labor in the coal mines during
the winter; otherwise the colonies are purely agricultural.
There is, moreover, a somewhat definite movement from the cane
districts, where certain planters employ large numbers of Italians as
farm laborers, to the cotton fields and truck farms farther north.
THE ITALIANS AS FARMERS.
It is to be noted that nearly all the Italians are small farmers; that,
while they have engaged in diverse forms of agriculture, few ha/e
undertaken any agricultural enterprise that requires a large outlay
of capital, either for permanent improvements or for tools, machinery,
or live stock. There are no extensive rice growers, for example, and
no sugar-cane planters were found. Truck crops, cotton, and small
fruits require little capital equipment and a great deal of hand labor.
The necessary investment in land is small; one may become a cotton
" cropper" with practically no capital. Where the climate is healthful
the Italians have prospered; in fact, in many cases they have been
able to surpass their neighbors because they exercise extreme thrift
and indefatigable industry. They have been imitators, rather
than originators, of agricultural methods. Very few innovations,
either in crops, methods of culture, or improved machinery, can be
credited to the Italians. They have developed a highly specialized
agriculture at Independence, La., for example, where they are engaged
in strawberry culture, but almost entirely along lines originated by
the earlier American growers.
This specialization by communities is a noticeable economic feature.
Every family in the community raises the same commercial crop.
Instead of competition, this results in cooperation. Cooperatively
the Italians have an advantage over the natives: if class conscious-
ness has not been developed, there is at least a race consciousness
which forms a basis for community consciousness and commercial
cooperative endeavor. In Independence, where there was need, the
Italian growers united with commendable facility to market their
berries and to buy fertilizers and berry boxes. In certain northern
colonies it was found that the Italians cooperated readily and worked
together very successfully both in marketing produce and in buying
supplies and equipment. In establishing local cooperative business
enterprises they have been much more successful than their native
white neighbors.
In careful tillage, clean cultivation, and attention to details the
Italian almost invariably excels the negro and the old-time southern
farmer. He is not wasteful and he makes his farm supply his table as
far as possible. By living cheaply he soon accumulates some monev,
and, except in the cotton districts, probably invests in land. Ordi-
narily he makes a permanent addition to the agricultural population.
THE EFFECT OF THE ITALIAN ON THE RURAL SOUTH.
There are at present too few Italians engaged in agricultural pur-
suits to effect important changes in many rural communities. The
tendency of the Italians to congregate by race groups is very marked.
72289°— VOL 1—11 37
570 The Immigration Commission.
Where once a colony is started, the subsequent immigrants gather
about the first nucleus, purchasing the neighboring unimproved land
or the old farms of original owners. This grouping is not a charac-
teristic peculiar to Italians; Bohemians, Poles, Swiss, and other
non- Anglo-Saxon races are likely to settle in rather close groups.
The effect of this segregation on the price of land is very noticeable
in some districts, especially where the Italians have developed a
specialized form of agriculture. Land within the limits of Italian
occupation is frequently 50 per cent higher than land of the same
fertility situated a short distance outside of the boundary lines.
Segregation, too, has a tendency to perpetuate racial customs, tradi-
tions, and characteristics. This has been noted elsewhere, but in
some sections of the South the tendency is strengthened by the fact
that there are few American whites with whom Italians can asso-
ciate, and in no place does there seem to be any inclination to mingle
with the negroes more than is necessary.
There is a decided contrast between the attitude of certain North
Italian and most Sicilian colonies in the South with respect to segre-
gation. Where opportunity is afforded the North Italian seems to
desire to mingle with the Americans, to learn the English language,
to give his children an education, to become a citizen, and to exercise
the prerogatives of citizenship. In fewer instances is this true of the
Sicilian or South Italian. The result of this disinclination or lack
of opportunity to fuse with the older white population, added to a
feeling of superiority toward the foreigners on the part of the natives,
has been to retard the assimilation of the foreigners in the South.
Not only have they begun to occupy the farms of the native farmers,
who have moved out to give place to them, but they have been the
means of establishing Italian stores in the neighboring villages, where
most of the rural Italian foreigners do their buying and selling.
The displacement of negro farm labor by the Italian has not yet
assumed significant proportions, quantitatively. The reports on the
Sunnyside and the " delta" settlements make clear the Italian's
superiority over the negro, and the high regard in which he is held by
the cotton planter in almost every instance. Not many negroes have
been displaced, but the greater efficiency of the Italians assures them
places as share hands or renters as fast as they come to demand them.
Nowhere are the Italians held in higher esteem as farm laborers than
among the large cotton planters in the delta region. Here they are
raising successfully and profitably a crop of which they knew nothing
previous to emigrating and for which it can not be said they had
any natural aptitude. The influx to the cotton belt is slow, but this
sluggishness is not due to lack of encouragement on the part of the
planters. There is little doubt that the immigration will continue,
but at the present rate there is no immediate prospect of the Ital-
ian's forcing out the negro.
There is an increasingly large movement of Italians, mostly Sicilians,
into the sugar-cane region. New Orleans, which in 1900 had a larger
" proportion of natives of Italy" than any other city considered in the
United States,0 is situated in the midst of the sugar-cane parishes,
and many Italians find their way from the city to the sugar planta-
tions. They are excellent laborers and on some plantations have
all. S. Census, 1900, Population, Vol. I, p. CLXXX.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 571
taken the work away from their negro competitors. Near New
Orleans there are many Italians with small market gardens who retail
their produce from house to house, especially in the Italian quarter.
The Italians occupy a large section of the French market of the city.
This industry is capable of great development, and it seems likely
that many more Italians will take up vegetable growing as soon as
they accumulate sufficient capital to buy the necessary land.
It was not possible to visit nearly all the small colonies of Italians
nor all the plantations in Louisiana on which Italians are employed,
nor can any adequate approximation be made of the total number of
this race now engaged in agricultural pursuits in that State. Rural set-
tlements other than those mentioned in the reports are at Alexandria,
Houma, La Place, Lafayette, Lake End, Lutcher, and Thibodaux —
all of which towns, with the exception of Alexandria and Lake End,
are in the sugar-cane area of Louisiana.
THE ITALIAN CITIZEN.
Opinions differ regarding the desirability of the Italian as a per-
manent element in the southern population. Unfavorable comment
on Italian immigration is frequent and outspoken in many parts of
the South. There are several reasons for this criticism. The regret-
table Italian disorders and disturbances in New Orleans have done
much to create prejudice against Italians as a body. The uncom-
promising attitude adopted in many communities toward all persons
of foreign tongue has kept foreigners out of those districts. The
hostility of the country merchant, or supply man, is frankly based on
what he calls the " stinginess" of the Italian. The Italian is not a
lavish spender. His wants are few, his supply bill is short; his
farm and garden furnish most of his food. In contrast to the negro
he is not a good customer. There are many also who feel that the
Italian will not assimilate with the American population.
It is only fair to say that nearly all of these criticisms are modified
on longer and more intimate acquaintance with a farming colony
of Italians. The striking qualities the Italians exhibit are thrift,
industry, and peaceableness, and these qualities in many cases
have won the somewhat reluctant admiration of those who originally
assumed a hostile attitude.
Progress in citizenship is a matter of leadership and environment.
Where there is some one to urge the application for naturalization
papers or to set before the community the economic or social advan-
tages of citizenship and suffrage, the Italians are not slow to make
their' way to the polls. Where local issues are discussed by their
neighbors and a lively, wide-spread interest in suffrage is manifested,
the Italians take sides and qualify as voters. Unfortunately, in a
number of colonies the immigrant has not learned his political
worth. His tenant neighbors are politically apathetic. There is no
one to encourage citizenship or point the way. Where there is no
vision, no motive, there is no interest, and the proportion of adult
aliens is great. That the local native politicians discourage the
political aspirations of the immigrant is not clearly proved, but that
many colonists receive no local encouragement to take part in pub-
lic affairs is certainly well attested. Where the Italians have become
citizens they take great interest in local issues, vote rather solidly,
572 The Immigration Commission.
and in some instances elect Italian officers or at least hold the
balance of power.
In some regions there are few adequate school facilities of any
sort. The absence of compulsory education laws in the southern
States has placed the Italian at a disadvantage when compared with
others of his race who have settled in rural districts in the more
northern States. There are parents who take little interest in the
education of their children unless emphatically urged, and who keep
them at work on the farm from the time they are strong enough
to run errands until they leave home. This disregard of educational
advantages is particularly noticeable in the cane and cotton areas.
THE POSSIBLE PLACE OP THE ITALIAN IN SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE.
That the Italian has made a good pioneer farmer in a number of
places in the South there is no doubt, especially where he has engaged
in truck farming and small fruit growing on the sandy virgin coast
lands. These lands were purchased at low prices, and small acreages
have yielded a living from their occupation. It is probable that the
Italian has made a permanent place for himself as a vegetable grower
along the coast. Here he is a property owner and a settled element
in the agricultural economy of the community.
As a cotton grower he has been successful, especially where he has
been able (as at Bryan, Tex.) to begin as a share hand without capi-
tal and work his way up to independence or land ownership. Where
the purchase of land is not possible, because the plantation owners
desire to keep their plantations intact or because land in small par-
cels is too high, and the Italian must remain a tenant, the situation
is less favorable with respect to his future. It is doubtful whether
he will be content for long to remain in the tenant class.
The Italian is said to be a desirable agricultural laborer, but where
land is cheap and where opportunities for economic and social ad-
vancement are many the Italian rural laborer for wages will not
outlast the first generation. Certainly the second generation, and
probably many of the first, will become tenants or owners of land and
themselves employ newcomers. It is evident that the path of Italian
progress parallels that of other foreign races, and a study of the for-
eign-born, in rural Texas especially, shows that the farm laborer
very soon accumulates enough capital to buy a farm on time and
permanently leaves the farm labor class.
ITALIANS IN NEW YORK STATE.
According to the census of 1900 there were 1,203 Italians engaged
in agricultural pursuits in the State of New York. Of this number
965 were males and 238 females; 900 of the males were born in
Italy and 65 were of the second generation. Of the first genera-
tion 572, and of the second generation 47, were agricultural laborers,
while 328 of the first generation and 18 of the second generation
were farmers, planters, overseers, etc. Of the females engaged in
agriculture 213 were of the first and 25 of the second generation.
In the Commission's investigation of Italians in agriculture in the
State of New York, a study was made of those owning or renting
farms and depending entirely for a livelihood upon the income thus
derived, and also of those employed as farm laborers during the
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 573
agricultural season but engaged in other forms of labor for the re-
mainder of the year. The investigation covered approximately 4,425
persons depending entirely or in part on agriculture for an income.
It was found that the great majority of Italians engaged in farm-
ing or employed as farm laborers in the different Italian settlements
investigated were from southern Italy. Most of the farm owners
had been in the United States for a considerable period of time,
usually from ten to twenty years, while those who were renters or
who were engaged in seasonal occupations, such as general farm labor,
employment in canning factories, fruit picking, etc., showed a shorter
period of residence, many having been in this country less than five
years. The reason assigned for the fact that Italian farm owners
report a longer period of residence, as compared with farm laborers
and renters, is that few possess sufficient money to purchase a farm
at the time of landing in the United States, and it usually takes a
considerable length of time for a tenant or a farm or general laborer
to put aside sufficient capital to acquire a piece of property. Most of
the farms now owned have been paid for with money saved out of
the earnings of the owner since his arrival in this country.
There are two classes of Italian farm laborers: First, those who
live in agricultural localities and are employed more or less regularly
by their fellow-countrymen who are engaged in farming, or by
neighboring American farmers or by canning factories; second,
those who go to the country for the farming season, returning in the
fall to other occupations in the cities. Laborers of this second class
are generally employed by large canning companies, through pa-
drones, and the men are worked in gangs and are usually quartered
on the farm of the company.
PREFERENCE FOR AGRICULTURE.
The Italian farm owners, renters, and farm laborers investigated
had been in varied occupations in the United States prior to the time
of entering agricultural pursuits. The great majority, however, had
been general laborers, pick-and-shovel men, railroad section men, and
laborers on general construction work. A small number were reported
as skilled laborers or factory employees; a few had been employed in
textile manufacturing. Not any were formerly coal miners or iron
or steel workers. In Europe their occupations had been as diverse as
in the United States, but the majority were farmers or farm laborers.
The reasons given by Italians for entering agriculture were various.
Many of the farm owners or renters had been farmers or farm
laborers in Italy before coming to this country, and naturally were
anxious to return to their old pursuits; some became farmers
through the advice of friends who had attained success in agriculture ;
others came to agricultural settlements to be near friends or relatives
and took up farming as a means of livelihood; a few engaged in
farming thinking the outdoor life would be of benefit to the health
of the family. Farm laborers who reside in agricultural communi-
ties were actuated in entering agricultural pursuits by the same causes
as those mentioned above, and most of them are saving money with
the idea of eventually purchasing a farm. On the other hand,
Italians who are brought out from the cities for the farming season
are induced to work on the farms because the whole family can find
574 The Immigration Commission.
ready employment through the summer months, wages are fairly
good, and the cost of living is much lower than in the city. Though
anxious to come to the country for the summer as farm laborers, they
are really industrial workers and very few have any idea of eventually
becoming farmers.
ITALIAN RURAL COMMUNITIES.
At Albion, Oneida, and Geneva, N. Y., Italians were investigated
in seasonal occupations. In Albion and its vicinity there are about
350 Italians, including men, women, and children, who depend upon
agriculture for part of their yearly income, and 300 additional farm
laborers of this race are brought in each summer from Buffalo,
N. Y., for the canning season. About 475 come from the cities to
Oneida for the canning season, and in Geneva and its vicinity there are
about 1,500 Italians, including men, women, and children, who depend
on farm work for their livelihood during the agricultural season.
Most of these enumerated are engaged in some other form of labor
during the winter.
At Canastota there are about 50 families depending entirely upon
agriculture for their support. Of these, 20 own farms, the rest being
either tenants or farm laborers. In Lyons and Clyde and vicinity
there are approximately 100 families deriving an income from agri-
culture; 40 own farms, about 2G are renters, and about 40 live in
the towns and work on farms in the summer. In Port Byron and
its vicinity 35 Italian families are engaged in some form of agricul-
ture; 10 own farms, 10 are tenants, and 15 are farm laborers. .Near
almost all the larger cities in the State may be found Italians who
own or work in market gardens, and in one or two localities Italian
owners or laborers in orchards or vineyards are reported, there being
a considerable settlement thus engaged near Fredonia. Very few
Italians engaged in general farming or employed as general farm
laborers were observed.
AMERICANIZATION.
From a general study of the three classes of Italians in agriculture
it was found that those owning or renting farms are more nearly
Americanized than individuals of the other two classes. As a gen-
eral rule, they have been in the United States for a number of years,
and thus have had the opportunity to acquire the English language
and adopt American customs; and as property owners they naturally
show more civic interest. In all localities it was stated that the
proportion of Italian property owners who had taken out naturaliza-
tion papers was much greater than the proportion of tenants or
farm laborers who were naturalized. The interests of the Italian
farmer and his American neighbors are the same, and the community
of interest thus formed has done much to bring about the Americani-
zation of the race. The residence of the Italian farm laborer in the
agricultural community where he is employed offers advantages tend-
ing toward early Americanization which the Italian of the cities or of
industrial centers does not possess. In many cases the Italian farm
laborers are employed by the American farmer, and thus come into
daily contact with Americans and more readily learn the language and
customs of the country. Further, their associates are the Italian
farm owners of earlier immigration, and this association has an
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 575
Americanizing influence. It is noticeable that the Italian farm
laborers secured from the cities are much less intelligent, self-reliant,
and progressive than are farm owners, tenants, or general farm laborers
of their race residing in the country. In the cities whence they come,
the seasonal laborers live in Italian colonies, trade at Italian stores,
work in gangs of Italians on the railroads and on construction work,
and associate very little with Americans. On the farm they are
employed in gangs, usually under the immediate supervision of an
Italian. They are quartered together, and here, as in their winter
work, are surrounded by few Americanizing influences.
SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE.
Italians have engaged but little in general farming, most of them
confining themselves to the small crops. Only a few instances were
observed in which Italian farmers owned as much as 50 acres of land,
the usual farm being of from 5 to 15 acres, while many comprise but 1
to 5 acres. Practically none of the operators have had any previous
experience in general farming and almost all are ignorant of the
methods of raising the staple crops. Few know anything about the
care necessary in handling horses or live stock to insure the best results,
and as most of the tilling and planting on the Italian farms is done by
hand the farmer and his family are able to cultivate only a limited
acreage. The size of the farm generally depends upon the size of the
family, as the average Italian farmer is averse to employing farm
laborers. It was also observed that Italians generally confine them-
selves to one or two crops, such as onions, celery, etc., with which
they are uniformly very successful. The South Italians in New York
on large farms where wheat, oats, corn, hay, and staple crops are
raised have achieved no marked success, due to the causes mentioned
and to the lack of intelligent fertilization, crop rotation, and prepara-
tion of the soil. Their forte seems to be specialized commercial
agriculture.
The chief objection on the part of American farmers to Italian
farm laborers is that they require too much supervision and that few
show any initiative. On the other hand, South Italians have proved
very satisfactory on truck farms, nursery farms, and the farms of
canning companies. Here, where little machinery is used and most
of the work is done by hand, they are worked in gangs. Many
farmers prefer them to Americans, because, it is stated, the Italians
work more steadily, and are more reliable and more easily handled,
than American farm hands.
HEBREW RURAL COMMUNITIES.
INTRODUCTION.
The census returns for 1900 throw no light on the number of
Hebrews who were engaged in agricultural pursuits. In a measure
they are included in the nationality group '^Russian," but there are
large numbers of Russian farmers who are not Hebrews, and, on the
other hand, the variety of nativities which the Hebrews represent
precludes the possibility of classifying all Hebrew agriculturists under
'Russian." Allowing for certain probable errors, discussed later,
the most available authoritative source of information on the number
and distribution of Hebrew farmers in the United States is the Jewish
Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society of New York. In the capac-
576
The Immigration Commission.
ity of administrator of that part of the Baron de Hirsch fund set apart
for the aid of Hebrews engaged in agriculture, this society, by visits
to the various colonies for the purpose of investigating possible loans
and for other purposes, has come into touch with most of the Hebrew
rural settlements. In the report of the society for 1909 an enumera-
tion of the approximate number of farms occupied and of farmers or
farm families in the principal States is made from the best available
sources of information, by States and by colonies or settlements.0
Table 6, compiled from the figures presented by the Jewish
society, estimates approximately 3,040 Hebrew farmers in 36 States.
The geographical distribution is significant. More than 90 per cent
are in 10 States north of the thirty-ninth parallel; more than 75 per
cent are in New York, New Jersey, and New England; more are
reported in New York (27.9 per cent) than in any other State.
North Dakota is the only western State in which the Hebrew farm-
ers are numerically important.
The number of farms operated is but 2,701. The difference (339)
between the number of farms and the number of operators is in part
accounted for by farm partnerships, either of a farmer and his grown
son who operate the farm jointly, or by a partnership otherwise con-
stituted. It is probable that the actual number of partnership enter-
prises is greater than the number given. According to this estimate
there are at least 15,000 Hebrews settled in rural communities and
depending on the land, wholly or in part, for a livelihood.0
TABLE 6. — Hebrew farmers and farms occupied by Hebrews.
[Compiled from Annual Report of the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, 1909.]
States.
Number
of groups.
Number
of scat-
tered
farmers.
Farms occupied.
Farmers.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Number.
Per cent
distri-
bution.
Thirty-six States
2,701
100.0
3,040
100.0
States reporting defined groups
53
327
2,437
90.3
2,756
90.7
New York
10
15
9
8
3
2
3
1
1
1
85
61
47
17
47
19
16
19
3
13
718
639
490
210
167
64
69
33
25
22
26.6
23.7
18.1
7.8
6.2
2.4
2.6
1.2
.9
.8
847
703
575
216
183
75
73
33
27
24
27.9
23.1
18.9
7.1
C.O
2.5
2.4
1.1
.9
.8
New Jersey
nonnp.nt.ip.iit
North Dakota
Massachusetts
Ohio
Michigan
South Dakota
Wyoming.
Washington
States not reporting defined groups:
Illinois
17
23
22
17
45
32
108
.6
.9
.8
.6
1.7
1.2
4.0
20
23
23
23
51
32
112
.7
.8
.8
.8
1.7
1.1
3.7
Indiana
Iowa
Louisiana
Pennsylvania
Wisconsin
Other States
The table must be taken with a little caution. While the per-
centage of distribution by States, is sufficiently accurate for purposes
of discussion, rather careful checking with assessors' lists of taxpayers
in certain townships in New England shows that the estimates are, in
a Ann. Kept. Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, 1909, pp. 11, 12, 43, 44.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 577
instances, 33 per cent greater than the number of taxpaying farmers
listed on the tax roll. In New Jersey the tax lists and the estimates
in the table agree very closely in most instances, for here in some
counties a very careful count was made by the Hebrew authorities.
Liability to error by exaggeration in three particulars may be noted:
First, in the case of small and struggling settlements — wherever in-
vestigated, the number of actual farm operators in small settlements
was round to be much less than the estimates; second, in that of
sparsely populated settlements covering a rather wide area, as in
the eastern highland region of Connecticut or Sullivan and Ulster
counties, New York, especially when land changes hands frequently;
third, in the case of the " scattered ' ' Hebrews. These are hearsay esti-
mates, and invariably "common report" exaggerated the number of
foreigners in the groups that came under the investigators' notice.
The accounts of settlements presented in this report represent
perhaps 75 per cent of all Hebrews on farms in the United States and
present detailed studies of by far the most important groups. Most
of these are actual colonies, organized and promoted by external
stimulus; others are merely unorganized, undirected settlements
held together only by the ties of race and a common religion.
ORIGIN OF HEBREW COLONIES.
Hebrew rural communities in the United States are confined very
largely to Hebrews from Russia, Roumania, and Galicia; perhaps 85
per cent of the farmers interviewed are natives of these countries.
The reason is evident. Most Hebrew farmers were established on the
land directly or indirectly through the influence of an immigrant aid
society of some sort. Nearly all of these organizations were founded
for the purpose of assisting Russian Hebrews. The greatest of all
such organizations was the Baron de Hirsch Fund, incorporated in
1891 to administer the trust funds of the banker and philanthropist,
Baron de Hirsch, which he devoted to the amelioration of the eco-
nomic condition of Russian Hebrews. Other Hebrews have been
and are being aided, but the bulk of assistance has been given to
those from Russia.
The very first rural settlement of Hebrews of which the Commission
has information was a colony at Wawarsing, N. Y., founded in 1837
by a philanthropic Hebrew living in New York City. It lasted but
a short time, for it was merely a planted colony, artificially sustained
by outside support. There were no other attempts at Hebrew col-
onization, and very few Hebrews found their way to rural districts
until 1882, when, following the Russian persecutions culminating in
the "May law " of 1882, great numbers of Hebrews fled from Russia.
It was the period of westward immigration, and loyal philanthropic
Hebrews felt that the way upward for the refugees was by the same
path that thousands of hardy pioneers, as penniless as the Russians,
were climbing with success; hence, under the leadership of country-
men, from 1882 to 1886, a dozen or more rural colonies were planted
in Oregon, the Dakotas, Kansas, Louisiana, New Jersey, Michigan,
and elsewhere where land was cheap and procurable in large tracts.
All were given material aid and encouragement, all met with unfore-
seen obstacles and discouragements, and every one except the New
Jersey colonies dragged out a short, unhappy existence and finally
failed utterly.
578 The Immigration Commission.
SUCCESSFUL COLONIZATION.
These failures wrought discouragement and threw rural settlements
into disfavor with the Hebrews. It was about 1882 that the first
successful colony was established, in southern New Jersey. This col-
ony, at first founded on a communistic basis, located on most unprom-
ising, uncleared land in the pine barrens, was kept afloat from 1882
to 1890 only by the generosity and material assistance of fellow-
countrymen, and finally, just as the project seemed about to be aban-
doned, by the relief extended through the Baron de Hirsch Fund.
This colony, or group of colonies, presents Hebrew agriculture in
America at its best. Of the several colonies of Hebrews studied
none shows greater apparent material prosperity, a more general
dependence on agriculture for a livelihood, a more intelligent, resource-
ful husbandry, or a more wholesome community life, educationally,
socially, or politically, in a large sense. There is no doubt that a
great deal of material encouragement has been given, that many of
the social and educational enterprises were conceived, organized, and
supported by leaders without the community, and that cooperative
business associations and marketing facilities were promoted by
leaders who do not live in the settlements ; but once established the
colonists have entered into all these enterprises with some degree of
interest and are beginning to support them. To all appearances the
colonies near Vineland, N. J., are permanently established on the
basis of a commercial agriculture adapted to the soil, climate, and
demands of the market.
The 1,000 or more Hebrew farmers in New England and New York,
with a few exceptions noted elsewhere in this report, either speculate
in real estate, or provide a market for part of the fruits of their fields
by keeping summer boarders or lodgers, or depend to a greater or less
extent on some other outside enterprise — peddling, cattle trading, junk
buying, etc. — for a material part of their incomes.
The demand for summer boarding accommodations is increasing
more rapidly than the number of farms owned by Hebrews. The
reports show that this method of disposing of farm produce is satis-
factory as far as it goes, and " summer boarder agriculture " would be
a legitimate designation were it not that many, perhaps most, He-^
brews do not anticipate the demands created by the boarders and
find it necessary to ship in or buy from native farmers the vegetables,
poultry, and dairy products which a more thrifty spirit should have
prompted them to produce on their own farms. Nor have many
farmers made any attempt to make their farms attractive or to offer
any special inducements in the way of superior quarters, natural
attractions, or amusements. In certain favored places the Bohe-
mians have much more intelligently adapted their system of farming
to summer boarders. Nevertheless, half of the Hebrew farm families
in the eastern States have at some time or other made a practice of
taking at least a few boarders or lodgers for pay for part of the sum-
mer. Whether boarders and lodgers are economically profitable or
not, it is certain that their presence does much to enliven the monot-
onous life of the open country for two months in the year.
The almost inevitable failure of groups of nonagricultural Jews
artificially planted on cheap unimproved land has been recognized
by the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, which has
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 579
recently been making provision for giving instruction in farming on
their Long Island experimental farm to prospective rural colonists,
who after a year on the experimental area are likely to give up
farming entirely or to enter agriculture with their eyes open. Fur-
thermore, this society is purchasing for settlement improved farms
which will yield a living return during the first year of occupancy.
A study of the several settlements has emphasized these facts
at least : That the Hebrew is not adapted by training or tradition to
make a pioneer farmer; that to win success he should start with some
capital on improved land; that settlement in groups of sufficient
size to maintain a synagogue is almost essential; that those who are
likely to succeed are those who have been farmers abroad or have
had some successful experience in agriculture in 'the United States
previous to permanent settlement.
THE AGRICULTURE OP THE HEBREW.
This topic is discussed in detail in the Commission's complete
report and only a brief mention of it is made here. On the one
hand, the rural Hebrews as a whole have given little to American
agriculture either in the way of crops, culture, management, or
marketing. With a few notable exceptions the agriculture is but
mediocre or unsatisfactory. Crops, tillage, quality and quantity of
produce, show up rather more poorly than in most of the colonies
of several different races investigated. In a few instances progress
is shown and a growing interest in scientific agriculture and advanced
methods is manifested, giving evidence of the agricultural capacity of
the Hebrew when once his intelligent interest is aroused. Other-
wise, except for the acreage of wild land subdued and improved in
New Jersey, Jewish communities have not added greatly to the rural
wealth of their respective adopted States.
On the other hand, the reaction of country life on the Hebrew
appears to have been salutary. Country life and the ownership of
landed property have been of great benefit to the Jew as an individual.
It is characteristic of the Hebrew farms visited that the farmstead
receives less attention than the farm. Even where there is supe-
rior tillage the permanent improvements are likely to be in poor
condition. The best buildings reported are in Sullivan and Ulster
counties, where some of the farmers have built larger and better
houses for the accommodation of boarders, and in a few places in
Connecticut, where they have purchased fine old farmhouses with
the farms belonging to them.
Hebrew farm incomes are seldom large, but, all things considered,
do not suffer by comparison with those of other recent immigrant
farmers in the neighborhood. The largest gross incomes noted
were on the tobacco farms of the Ellington (Conn.) settlement, estab-
lished but a few years ; the largest net incomes are probably those of
the Vineland (N. J.) farmers. It is, however, very difficult to arrive at
net incomes and accurate estimates of property owned. An estimate
of income based on the general appearance of thrift and the evidences
of prosperity displayed on the farm and its surroundings is likely
to be more accurate than one based on reported sales of produce.
Judged by this standard, the average farmer in the New Jersey colonies
is doing better than the average farmer in almost any other community.
580 The Immigration Commission.
STANDARD OF LIVING IN RURAL COMMUNITIES.
It is impossible to arrive at anything definite with regard to cost
of living. Few Hebrew farmers keep any accounts of receipts and
expenditures, and there are no carefully kept family budgets. Part
of the household's living comes from the soil, part is furnished by
the market; absolute cost or close approximations of household
budgets are not obtainable.
At all events, the Hebrew farm family lives better in respect both
to- food and clothing than the Pole or the Italian who has been on the
land for the same length of time. Those who have been accustomed
to a high standard of living abroad (and this is the case of a number
of recent Hebrew recruits to agriculture) are living very well indeed —
as well as the majority of their American neighbors. Among the
earlier settlers, most of whom were virtually penniless, there are evi-
dences of a rising standard of comfort.
The most noticeable fact, as contrasted with other foreigners, is
the desire for the appurtenances of comfort and leisure. Rocking-
chairs, hammocks, books, and buggies are bought early in the career
of the farmer, usually long before his farm is paid for. The immi-
grant ordinarily purchases necessities first, pays for his land and
equipment next, and later makes his home comfortable. The
Hebrew agriculturist is a good consumer.
THE HEBREW FARMER CITIZEN.
In general, the Russian Hebrew has proved more apt in civic
relations and in commerce than in agriculture. He is likely to be-
come a citizen sooner than most east European immigrants and to
take a more intelligent interest in politics ; few are illiterate, and prac-
tically all of the American-born or the minors who have been in the
United States ten years can speak, read, and write English with more
or less fluency. The ownership of land and the proprietorship of a
farm enterprise have developed independence, self-reliance, and self-
respect. The objection of the Hebrew to rural life lies in the meager
returns for labor expended, the isolation, and the absence of social
conveniences. The social position of the farm owner is satisfactory.
The Hebrews have demanded better schools nearly everywhere they
have settled. Where they are segregated with sufficient compact-
ness, their leaders have originated social, educational, and recreative
enterprises for the benefit of the community. The few who are
really interested in farming realize the need of knowledge and train-
ing along agricultural lines; the others want their children to have
at least a good commercial education and some are striving to send
their children to college. Near Hartford there are a number of
exceptionally intelligent Hebrews who have taken up farms and are
engaged in dairying and market gardening. The two desires they
express most persistently are better educational facilities and more op-
portunities for fellowship of kind. They are not content with the
financial returns from the farms they occupy, but they are still less
content with their educational advantages.
Whatever may be said of his agriculture, the Hebrew farmer is a
thinking, protesting citizen. Assimilation or fusion with other races
is retarded by religious tradition and rural segregation. Americani-
zation in the sense of desire for representative government, demo-
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 581
cratic institutions, an educated electorate, equality of opportunity,
and the free agency of the individual, is developed rapidly in the
landowning Hebrew. The Hebrew on the land is peaceable and law-
abiding, but he does not tamely submit to what he believes to be
oppression and he has a highly developed sense of personal rights, civil
and economic. The rural Hebrew has shown his capacity for self-
government, and no colonies were visited whose members voted less
as a unit than those where rural Hebrews made up a material part
of the electorate.
POLES IN AGRICULTURE.
Statistical studies of Poles are peculiarly liable to error, since almost
all official enumerations have been made on a basis of nationality as
indicated by country of birth. German Poles are likely to be enu-
merated as "Germans," Austrian Poles as "Austrians," Russian
Poles as " Russians," and so on.0
The United States Census of 1900 reports 209,030 male bread-
winners whose parents were born in Poland; of these 183,055 were
foreign-born and 25,975 were of the second generation. Nearly
nine-tenths of the first generation and more than three-fourths of the
second generation were engaged in other than agricultural pursuits.
Foreign-born Poles report a larger percentage (29.1) of general labor-
ers than any other race group except the Italians. The percentage of
general laborers among the second generation is 15.7, which is larger
than the percentage of general laborers of the second generation of
any other race.
In agricultural pursuits 19,256 males of the first generation, more
than one-tenth of all foreign-born Polish breadwinners, were reported.
Of the second generation 6,236, or 24 per cent, were in agriculture.
The percentage of farm laborers of tne second generation is rela-
tively high, doubtless owing to the large number of Polish children
between 10 and 21 years of age on farms of their parents who were
enumerated as agricultural farm laborers. The number of farmers,
overseers, etc., of the second generation is 1,507 (5.8 per cent) as com-
pared with 11,461 (6.3 per cent) of the first generation. 6
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POLE IN AGRICULTUEE.
The Poles as enumerated by the census are not numerically impor-
tant in agriculture. The 25,492 males of Polish parentage in agri-
culture represented but little more than 1 per cent of all the males
of foreign parentage engaged in agricultural pursuits and but 12.2 per
cent of all male breadwinners of Polish parentage in 1900.
a Waclaw Kruszka estimates that, including both first and second generations, one-
fifth of all Poles in answer to the question "Where were you born?" answered
" Poland," and were enumerated by the census as Poles; two-fifths answered "Prus-
sia," "Germany," "Russia," "Austria," or "Galicia," and were recorded as Ger-
mans, etc.; two-fifths or more belong to the second generation and were recorded as
native-born, but with the same degree of error in regard to birthplace of father.
According to this authority the census returns of Poles must be multiplied by five to
arrive at a reasonable approximation. Whether this method of procedure' can be
relied on with reference to Poles in the aggregate it is impossible to say. In two
rural communities where the method was tested the results were approximately
correct. — See Historya Polska w Ameryce, Part I, Vol. I, Chapter IV.
b For more detailed information see Reports of the Immigration Commission on
Occupations, vol. 28 (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong., 2d sess.) and Agriculture, vols. 21
and 22 (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 24, 61st Cong., 2d sess.).
582 The Immigration Commission.
Some of the significant facts of the last decade with regard to Polish
farmers have been the increasing influx of Poles into the farming sec-
tions of the East, both as farmers and as farm laborers, the growth of
new settlements of Poles on the western prairies, and the movement
to farms, either as owners or tenants, of a large number of Poles of
the second generation whose parents have been living in rural districts.
That the Poles on farms are much more numerous than would
appear from the census returns is very evident when a study of par-
ticular rural settlements is attempted. a
•
SCOPE OF THE COMMISSION'S REPORT.
The investigation planned by the Commission covered a study of the
principal Polish rural settlements in a number of States where Poles
are a factor in agriculture. Three phases of settlement were to be
emphasized — the early, spontaneous settlements made by large
groups of immigrant Poles on new, wild, cheap western land; the
later settlements, originated and fostered by owners of large tracts of
land for the purpose of selling the land and developing it agricultur-
ally; and the recent rural immigration, particularly in the East, to
long-settled communities where the Poles are establishing themselves
on old, partly improved or semi abandoned farms, and taking the
place of American farmers. There is a fourth phase — the Pole in
seasonal agricultural occupations — touched upon in the reports on
the Poles in Orleans County, N. Y., and the cranberry pickers in
Wisconsin.
In the execution of this plan the principal Polish rural communities
in Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and
Texas, and a few scattered settlements in the Southwest, were visited.
The investigation did not include any of the large settlements in the
North Central States west of the Mississippi. In Minnesota, the
Dakotas, and Nebraska are some of the largest Polish rural parishes
in the United States.6
Community reports based on family schedules, on statistics gathered
in the field and on a first-hand investigation of conditions, are sub-
mitted. They cover eight different settlements in the northern States,
and represent 4,856 families of first and second generation Poles. The
investigation of the Polish colonies in Texas was not made in any
detail, and the report is very general, covering merely a few facts
concerning the numbers, the^founding and the present condition, of
several of the more important settlements.
The total Polish population reached in the North was compre-
hended in 9 c settlements or groups of settlements in the northern
States, including 34 parishes and 4,856 families. The figures are, in
the main, compiled from church records or from official tax lists or
poll lists. Where town tax lists were used the town officials were
relied on to determine the race when the name did not give evidence
of the descent. Both first and second generation Poles are included.
a In 1901 the estimate made by Kruszka is 900 colonies of Poles, of which 700 are
village or agricultural communities, averaging 100 families each. This would mean
at least 70,000 persons in agricultural pursuits, reckoning one breadwinner to a farm.
This estimate of farm families is probably too large. — See Historya Polska w Ameryce,
Vol. VIII, p. Ill, etc.
b Kruszka, Historya Polska w Ameryce, Vol. I, p. 90, etc.
cThe Commission has data gathered from one settlement not written up in this report.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
583
In Texas and the Southwest 13 parishes with about 1,363 families,
numbering at least 7,225 persons, were visited.
There are numerous other Polish farm settlements in the States
visited, but tfie reports cover only the largest and the most impor-
tant.
TABLE 7.— List of Polish rural settlements visited in the investigation.
State.
County.
Name of group.
Num-
ber of
par-
ishes.
Ap-
proxi-
mate
num-
ber of
fami-
lies.
Ap-
proxi-
mate
num-
ber of
per-
sons.
Date of
establish-
ment.
Northern States:
Wisconsin
Brown, Oconto, Shawano.
Sobieski and Pu-
6
665
« 4, 400
1883 to 1893
Portage Waushara
laski
Portage County
11
61,983
12,910
1858 to 1898
Xewaunee
Kewaunee
1
50
a 320
1878
Trempealeau
Independence
3
610
04,000
1864 to 1875
Illinois
Jefferson, Perry, Wash-
Radom :
5
716
o7;700
1875 to 1902
Indiana
ington.
Laporte, St. Joseph
New Carlisle
3
327
1,930
1892
New York
Orleans
Orleans
2
295
1,681
Berea
1
118
c3,000
1873
Sunderland
2
92
625
Total
34
4,856
36, 566
Southern States:
Karnes Wilson Falls
Texas
10
1,245
6,600
1855 to 1902
Grimes, Brazos, Robert-
son, Washington.
Pulaski
Marche
1
60
300
1884
Missouri
Washington and Gasco-
nade.
Clover Bottom
and Owensville.
2
58
325
1866 to 1873
Total
13
1,363
7,225
34
4,856
36,586
-- =
States.
13
1,363
7,225
States.
Grand total
47
6,219
43, 791
a Estimate (1901-1903) by Kruszka, Historya Polska w Ameryce, Vol. II.
b Including Stevens Point.
c Including entire parish. Kruszka, op. cit.
HISTORICAL.
Polish colonies have been known in rural United States since the
settlement of Panna Marya, Texas, by 300 Silesian peasants in 1855.
A few Polish immigrants had settled in rural districts previous to
1850, chiefly for political reasons, but what may be called the colo-
nization of Poles in America did not begin until the Panna Marya
colony. The first settlers on Wisconsin soil came by way of Canada
and Chicago to Portage County shortly after 1850 and in larger num-
bers after 1859. The records of the Roman Catholic Church show
that from 1854 to 1870, 16 Polish parishes, most of them rural
colonies, were established in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Texas.
Previous to 1860 the movement of Poles had been spontaneous, but
more or less sporadic. From 1860 to 1870, though checked some-
what by the civil war, immigration was still spontaneous, but began
to assume the character of a steady, ever-increasing influx. The
census records 7,298 natives of Poland in the United States in I860;
this number (including Polish Hebrew) had increased to 14,436 hi
584 The Immigration Commission.
1870. The immigration from 1850 to 1870 originated in hard eco-
nomic conditions in Europe. Polish peasants and skilled laborers
from the villages came as permanent settlers to rural America in the
hope of improving their material welfare. From 186$ to 1870 the
Austro-Prussian war and resulting conditions in Germany caused the
exodus of a comparatively large number of Poles from all ranks of
society, but for the most part the early arrivals were without means
and came to make homes nere.
It was after 1870, however, that the real immigration of Poles
began. During the decade from 1870 to 1880 the " natives of Poland "
in the United States increased by more than 34,000, the total number
of foreign-born Poles being 48,557 in 1880. While much of this
immigration found its way to the cities, there was also an important
movement westward to the free wild land, mostly in timbered regions,
where building materials, water, and fuel were easily obtained and
where it was possible to earn a good living by working in the lumber
camps and sawmills. The movement to the farms of Wisconsin, Michi-
gan, Indiana, and Illinois assumed large proportions during the decade.
The Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars and later the famous
"May laws" occasioned the departure of great numbers of peasant
Poles and others, who came in unorganized but rather close groups
and entered both agriculture and industry. In 1880 there were 16
Polish churches in Wisconsin, 17 in Texas, and 6 each in Michigan
and Missouri.
After 1885, when the stream of Slavic immigration had set in very
strongly and Polish rural colonies began to dot the prairies of Min-
nesota and the Dakotas as well as the Lake States, many of the
newer farm colonies presented a different economic aspect. A
smaller percentage of the immigrants were Polish peasants directly
from Europe, seeking homes for themselves, and more of them were
day laborers who had been engaged in mines, steel mills, quarries, or
other industrial pursuits in cities of the United States and had been
attracted to farms by advertisements in Polish newspapers published
here or by the solicitation of Polish land agents in the employ of some
real-estate firm or large landowner. They came in small groups ; their
location was directed; they brought more money usually than did
the first arrivals, since they had savings from their earnings in
industrial pursuits. Most of them had been farmers or farmers'
sons abroad; hence a very large percentage of them were promising
pioneers, and there were few desertions. In Wisconsin they purchased
cut-over timber land in the northern part of the State, previously
owned by speculators or lumbermen. In the Dakotas frequently they
settled on prairie land of the poorer sort, for the same reason that
they bought unproductive land in Illinois and Indiana — because it
was cheap.
The settlement of Poles on eastern abandoned farms is a more
recent movement, which has not yet assumed large proportions, but
one that in favored sections seems sure to increase. The significant
fact is that this movement to eastern farms originated with Poles direct
from their native land, who began as farm laborers, and that the
immigration is kept up by direct immigration rather than by recruits
from the ranks of New England's industrial laborers. Advertising by
te men is drawing some factory workers to the poorer hill
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 585
farms of New England, but only a few, and those very recently. The
number of Poles who leave industrial establishments and engage in
agriculture, either in the immediate vicinity of the industry or at a
distance, is small. The scattered colony at Berea, Ohio, represents
the comparatively small percentage of Poles who engage in farming
to supplement their earnings in industry.
THE CHARACTER OP POLISH AGRICULTURE.
The first Poles became farmers because they wished to be land-
owners rather than laborers. They migrated westward because land
was free or very cheap. Of necessity they engaged in a self-sufficirtg,
diversified, extensive form of agriculture. Those who came early
have changed the form of agriculture in response to changing eco-
nomic conditions, but somewhat more sjowly than the Americans
and, perhaps, the Germans. In certain sections dairying has taken
the place of grain raising. In Portage County, Wis., the potato
industry has developed to large proportions where ^the soil is pecul-
iarly adapted to the crop, but the Poles have in few instances
proved more skillful or resourceful than the native growers. The
later Polish settlers and settlements have followed along the lines of
agriculture previously introduced. In the western States wheat,
flax, barley, peas, hay, dairy products, live stock, or some other
special commercial crop is emphasized according to the market con-
ditions of the locality. It can not be said that the Poles excel in any
one line because of racial adaptability. That there are very few
vegetable or fruit growers of any race in the regions where the colonies
visited are located is perhaps the best explanation of the fact that few
Poles are truckers or orchardists. In Texas the distinctive feature
of a Polish cotton farm is that it is self-sustaining to a large degree.
In New England the Poles have engaged in highly specialized forms
of agriculture — onion and tobacco growing, crops requiring special
soils, intensive culture, and a high degree of technical skill and busi-
ness ability. They are succeeding remarkably well, but they are
learning by observing their neighbors, by working as farm hands on
tobacco and onion farms, and by questioning their countrymen who
have succeeded.
The Pole has been called a lover of land; usually the Polish peasant
hungers to possess landed property. He falls a little in his own
estimation when he leaves peasant life in Europe for day labor in
America. But the ability to acquire land for little or nothing has
been the prime factor in making the Pole an owner rather than a
tenant, so far as one may generalize from the colonies investigated.
In Texas, where tenancy or " cropping" predominates, there are
many Polish tenants. In Illinois and Indiana many were tenants
before they became owners. In the Connecticut Valley there are a
number who rent land on shares or at a high cash rental because
the land is too valuable for them to purchase. In Illinois and Indiana
an increasing number are renting high-priced land either for cash
or on shares, because purchase of a farm and equipment requires
more capital than the foreigner possesses. Not only is land more
valuable, but the capital equipment required on more valuable land
is much greater than that required on cheap land, where the culture is
crude and extensive.
72289°— VOL 1—11 38
586 The Immigration Commission.
In the seventies and early eighties, and even more recently, many
of the Poles in north central Wisconsin purchased land and began
to farm with less than $500, sometimes less than $300, capital.
There are now few places where a foreigner can make a satisfactory
beginning in agriculture with less than $1,500, and $5,000 or some-
what more is required where population is dense. In a few instances,
in old settlements, boys of the second or even of the third generation
are renting land from tlieir relatives or countrymen, because they have
not been able to save enough by " working out" to purchase improved
farms.
^ THE POLES AS FARMERS.
The Poles have made excellent pioneers. They have all of the
qualifications, excepting, perhaps, resourcefulness and a high degree
of initiative. They are independent and self-reliant, though clan-
nish. No Polish colony visited needed artificial stimulus or chari-
table aid to support it. Some individuals have increased their
incomes by working as farm laborers or as lumbermen when there
was little work on the farm, but in general the farm has been the
sole support almost from the first. Practically every Pole who owns
a farm is exclusively a farmer; the members of the Ohio colony are
the most notable exception.
They become more efficient husbandmen as time goes on. The
sons are outdoing the older generation and are growing more skill-
ful year by year. The contrast between the first and the third
generations is very noticeable in the careful tillage, well-constructed
houses and barns, fine herds of cattle, and the general evidences of
thrift and prosperity. Brick houses are common in some old set-
tlements that a few years ago contained but rude log huts or
unpainted frame dwellings. With hardly an exception the Polish
communities have shown material progress ; in some instances advance
has been slow.
The Poles studied are not students of agriculture; they work by
rule of thumb. Nevertheless the evidences of thrift, prosperity, and
rising standards of comfort displayed in some of the early colonies — for
example, at Radom, 111., or Independence, Wis. — are an agreeable sur-
prise. Here the second stage of agricultural development is getting
under way. The original owners, grown well-to-do through hard labor
and the increase in the value of landed property, are turning their
farms over to their sons, whose cooperation has been responsible for
much of the prosperity of the parents ; the sons rent the old farm and the
parents move into the neighboring village, or live in a separate house
on a few acres near the farm. In these communities large red barns,
numerous well-constructed outbuildings, and excellent frame or brick
farmhouses line the country roads. Land that twenty years ago
was heavy forest or unproductive swamp is now 80 to 90 per cent
in tillage, producing profitably.
.In many instances the Poles have bought up large tracts of poor
land, which American or German or Norwegian farmers had
avoided as impossible for agricultural purposes. It has taken a long
time to bring this land into cultivation and more years to make
agriculture profitable, facts that must be borne in mind when esti-
mating the progress of the Pole. Like the Italian, the Pole is a
steady, untiring day laborer, and in clearing land, ditching, draining,
and grubbing, he and his wife have succeeded as have few others.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 587
THE FUTURE OP POLISH RURAL IMMIGRATION.
The rural sections investigated showing the largest accretions of
Poles at the present time are the New England Polish settlements
and the newer colonies in Wisconsin, which are being stimulated by
immigrant agents and real-estate men. The influx in the latter case
seems to be from industrial centers rather than direct from abroad.
When the way is open, real-estate agents who sell, land on commission
readily induce small companies of mill workers, who were once
farmers and who have accumulated a little money, to visit the land
open for purchase. The land is sold at a rather high price, but on
very reasonable terms. The successful Polish farmers are pointed out
to the land seekers and many inducements to settlement are offered.
In a number of townships in northern Wisconsin small Polish col-
onies of this type have been founded. Most of them are progressing
slowly, and although some of the farmers are discouraged few are
giving up their farms. It is of interest that numerous small settle-
ments in Minnesota, the Dakotas, and northern Wisconsin, composed
of young men from the older Polish settlements, are growing up.
Land in the original locality is too high to purchase and the sons have
gone West.
In the East the influx is directly from abroad, and while the in-
crease in number of Polish farmers is not great, the movement to New
England farms seems steady and permanent. There is an increasing
number of Polish farm laborers in the North Atlantic States, partly
seasonal laborers and partly permanent farm hands. The Pole
usually does not care for employment that keeps him busy but two
or three months in the year, nor does he desire uncertain employ-
ment. Consequently, most of the Poles soon leave seasonal employ-
ment and become permanent farm laborers and later farmers for
themselves.
There has been no important stream of Polish immigration to the
South or Southwest. The Texas settlements are not growing rapidly
by accretions from without, but there are some new colonies forming.
BOHEMIANS AND OTHER RACES IN AGRICULTURE.
BOHEMIANS.
The largest body of Bohemian farmers is found in the prairie
States of the upper Mississippi Valley and in Nebraska and Texas,
where large and flourishing Bohemian settlements have been long
established. The Commission made no detailed study of any Bohe-
mian community except the small group of more or less scattered
families on the Connecticut Highland. Several old settlements in
Texas were visited, and a general summary o'f the Bohemian com-
munities in that State appears in the complete report of the Com-
mission.
The Twelfth Census figures on occupations showed 71,389 Bohe-
mian males of the first generation and 32,707 of the second engaged
in gainful occupations in 1900. Of this number 32 per cent of the first
generation and nearly 43 per cent of the second generation were
engaged in agriculture. These percentages are large and bear
witness to the distinctively agricultural character of the Bohemian
population; taken together, more than 35 per cent of all breadwin-
ners of Bohemian origin were agriculturists in 1900. The high per-
588 The Immigration Commission.
centage of farmers, 25.8 per cent of the first generation, is note-
worthy; only the Norwegians, with 38.3 per cent, the Danes, with
32.4 per cent, and the Swiss, with 27 per cent, showed higher pro-
portions of farmers. a
In 1909 agents of the Commission visited 30 Bohemian settlements
in 12 counties of Texas and estimated in the settlements visited 3, 269
Bohemian farm families.6 There are several other Bohemian rural
settlements in the State, but those visited contain the greater part of
the Bohemian farmers in the Southwest. The first settlements in
Texas were made in Fayette County early in the fifties, where there
are now 9 townships with groups of Bohemians on farms. The
establishment of colonies or settlements continued through the seven-
ties and up to 1885. In the counties visited only three settlements
of recent establishment were found — 1898, 1906, and 1909, respectively ;
all three are small communities, the largest having a population of
30 families, and all are in the most southerly counties, in the Browns-
ville trucking district.
None of the Texas colonies are large, the most populous being one of
some 400 families in McLennan County. In all of the colonies there
are farmers who came to Texas with their parents when small children;
there are also young farmers of the second generation. The settle-
ments are now growing from within, and so thoroughly American are
many of them that no one speaks of them as foreign or immigrant.
Since 1890 the influx of immigrants from abroad to the older settle-
ments has been small. There has been, however, an increased Bohe-
mian immigration to Texas since 1905. The breaking up of the large
cattle ranches has put many acres of good land on the market in
small tracts, and foreigners of several races have taken advantage of
the opportunity to buy unimproved land. Just how many Bohemians
have purchased land or become tenant farmers within the last decade
there is no ready means of ascertaining. The Bohemians now set-
tling, not only in Texas but in other States, are men with more
money than the arrivals of three decades or more ago. They have
more capital to start with and they are more immediately successful
than those who came when the Southwest was almost entirely wild
and untilled.
The Texas Bohemians have engaged in several lines of agriculture,
but nearly all have had something to do with cotton raising. In
contrast to the native Texans, the Bohemians, like the Germans and
, Poles, raise sufficient produce on their cotton farms to sustain their
families and their work stock, and by this means lessen their store
accounts. As is usual in cotton districts tenancy is common in almost
all settlements. Among the Bohemians three classes of farmers are
tenants on cotton farms: (1) The recent arrivals in the locality who
have not sufficient money to buy land; (2) the young men of the
second generation who either live at home with their parents and rent
small acreages of cotton land, or who are young farmers launching out
for themselves; (3) a number of apparently permanent tenants, or
perhaps "croppers" — marginal farmers who, because of lack of thrift,
skill, or ambition, do not rise to the owning class. The tenants are
« For more detailed information see the Reports of the Immigration Commission on
Occupations, vol. 28 (S. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong., 2dsess.), and on Agriculture, vols.
21 and 22 (S. Doc. No. 633, pt. 24, 61st Cong., 2d seas.).
& Including a few families who live in small rural villages.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 589
sometimes migratory, moving from one farm to another in the neighbor-
hood or from one neighborhood to another in the hope of finding better
land or securing more favorable terms ; these comprise a small percent-
age of the total farm operators. The two classes first described are
tenants temporarily only, and intend to purchase farms as soon as
sufficient money has been accumulated; if the crops are poor, cotton
low, or land high in price, it may be several years before the farmer
emerges from the tenant class.
In the Bohemian communities in rural Texas there is noticeable the
almost inevitable shift that takes place in the rural population when
old improved land, valued at high rates, is situated within migrating
distance of equally fertile wild land on sale at a low price. The
movement of Bohemians to lands in the northern, western, or south-
ern parts of Texas is a significant illustration of this population shift.
The old settlers are selling out at good prices and buying more land
elsewhere. Frequently the children move with them. Sometimes
they move in groups, sometimes singly, but they are likely to settle
in groups in the " Panhandle" or in western Texas and start a new
Bohemian town. These persons are usually well-to-do practical
farmers. They make progress much more rapidly than they did
when they came direct from Bohemia and settled on their first pur-
chases. The Bohemian is thoroughly respected as a farmer, and stands
very well commercially and as a citizen. That the second genera-
tion^ is assimilating rapidly is indicated by the intermarriages, which
are now becoming rather frequent occurrences, not only between the
Germans and Bohemians, but also between the Bohemians and native
Americans. The Bohemians are faithful supporters of schools and
churches; very few are illiterate; almost none of the second genera-
tion over 10 years of age are unable to read and write English. The
young women are teachers in the schools and the young men not on
farms engage largely in clerical pursuits, for except on farms there
are few Bohemian manual laborers.
The aspect of a Bohemian agricultural community is prepossess-
ing. Nearly all the land — and the Bohemians own some of the finest
black, waxy soil in Texas — is in cultivation; grain, hay, and pasture
fields are interspersed with cotton areas, many of the farms are
fenced, and the farmhouses and outbuildings look neat, well built,
and comfortable. In some places, where the boll weevil has ravaged
the cotton fields for years, there is discouragement, but the Bohemians
are among the first to substitute a still more diversified agriculture
for the one-crop cotton system, which they had already modified to
some extent. More than this, they are beginning to cpmbat the
weevil successfully with careful, early cultivation, and quick-matur-
ing plants. It is of interest that most of the Bohemians in Texas
have continued to be farmers. Some small towns have grown up in
the midst of the settlements, but the number of industries or com-
mercial enterprises in which Bohemians engage is few. The old
settlers remain farmers and the young are moving away much less
commonly than the native-born of most foreign rural communities.
The aggregate of incumbrances on the Bohemian farms visited is
not large. Probably a large majority of the farmers have been
put of debt for years. They have usually invested their savings
in additional land or improvements on the old farm. The state
banks, numerous throughout the black belt of Texas, have many
590 The Immigration Commission.
Bohemian depositors. Many, too, are lending money to their neigh-
bors, a practice common in prosperous western farm neighborhoods.
Financially the Bohemians have a good rating.
BOHEMIANS IN THE EAST.
The account of the Bohemians and Slovaks on the Connecticut
hills deals in some detail with the financial problems and the con-
ditions of agriculture on the worn-out ridges east of the Connecticut
River. Most of the Bohemians here typify the movement of for-
eigners from industrial establishments, where they have been able to
save a little capital, to the rural districts. If they have remained in
the cities long enough to get in touch with the currents of American
life and thought, to learn something of the English language, of busi-
ness and of industry, but not long enough to become so attached to
the life of the city that there will always be a harking back and a
longing for the urban comforts left behind, then the period of. indus-
trial labor which fills in the hiatus between the arrival of the immi-
grant in America and the comparative isolation on a farm is valuable;
otherwise, the term in industry is likely to disqualify the foreigner
for rural life. In any event, the Bohemians in Connecticut are doing
as well as can be expected on the infertile (worn-out) soil on which
they are settled. They are comparatively few in number, settled
through the instrumentality of advertisements in Bohemian papers
and the solicitation of real-estate agents. They have come singly or
.by twos and threes within a few years ; naturally the settlement of a
first farmer serves as a nucleus around which others gather. The
settlement of a few foreigners gives the real-estate dealer a talking
point, and he finds it easy to sell farms lying near the land owned by
the purchasers' countrymen. They can scarcely be called pioneers,
for they are buying old homesteads on traveled roads not far from
small villages, within easy communication with large cities, and but a
few miles from a railroad. The city resident buying a country estate
would select just such a location. But in respect to quality of land
and ability to develop a self-sufficing agriculture, the pioneer on
virgin soil is more favorably situated. The obstacles on the New
England farms are several — the necessity of feeding the soil before
it will produce, the small acreage adapted to cultivated crops, the
necessity of raising a specialized commercial crop in order to supply
ready capital, and the impossibility of raising and marketing such a
crop with profit, owing both to inadequacy of marketing facilities
and to lack of the requisite knowledge and skill necessary to produce
a specialized crop.
These Bohemians seemed to be unusually capable, but most of
them were credulous and knew little of land values except real-estate
prices in New York City. Many of them bought land from their own
countrymen and were unsuspicious of fraud. Most paid a large per-
centage of the purchase price in cash and moved at once, the "stock and
tools" procured with the farm being the incentive to an immediate
removal from the city to the farms. Few found it possible to make
a living at once, and many still supplement their incomes by indus-
trial earnings. The Bohemians sustain an excellent reputation both
as neighbors and as farmers. They are intelligent and, in general,
ambitious.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 591
All in all, few rural colonies were visited whose members appeared
more intelligent or more prosperous than some of the Bohemian
communities in Texas. In the Northwest — Wisconsin, for instance —
Bohemians are reputed to be on a par with the average farmers of
any race of the same generation farming under similar conditions.
The old settlements in Wisconsin have attained a high degree of
prosperity.
SLOVAKS.
There are a few Slovak farmers in New England, a very small num-
ber in Pennsylvania and Virginia, a colony of about 50 families in
Arkansas, and perhaps a few small scattered groups in other States,
but the aggregate is not large. Popular reports of the presence of
large numbers of Slovak farmers are apparently greatly exaggerated.
The Slovaks seem to be industrial laborers rather than farmers. In
a general way they differ little from the Polish rural settlers. The
account in the Commission's complete report of the 50 farm families
at Slovaktown, near Stuttgart, Ark., deals rather summarily with
the conditions of agriculture there, and is probably typical of Slovak
farming communities elsewhere.
There seems to be little movement of Slovaks to agriculture, either
directly from abroad or from industrial pursuits in the United States.
The Slovaks began their settlements in Connecticut very recently and
can not fairly be compared with other foreigners in that State. All of
those interviewed in Connecticut had been engaged in some form of
day labor immediately previous to settlement in the rural community.
A whole group of the Slovaks of Slovaktown, Ark. , was recruited by
a colonization company from the coal mines of Illinois and Penn-
sylvania. The colony is but fifteen years old, and while the settle-
ment is to all appearances successful, very few additions have been
made in recent years. The comparative isolation of the colony may
have had an adverse influence on its development. This is the only
colony of Slovaks of any importance in the States visited by the
Commission.
MAGYARS.
Only two groups of Magyar farmers were found — one settlement of
five or six families in New York, where they have just begun to
establish themselves, and a few families in Louisiana. Here and
there a Magyar farmer is found in a Polish settlement, and not infre-
quently a Lithuanian,' Slovak, or Russian moves into a farming sec-
tion with a group of Polish farmers. The few members of these
races soon become lost in the general mass of Poles, by which name
they are likely to be known. The Magyars are not engaging in
agriculture to any extent east of the Mississippi River.
JAPANESE.
The discussion of the Japanese in Texas comprehends practically
the entire number of that race engaged in agriculture in the State.
The Commission's report on Japanese and other immigrant races in
the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States a deals in detail with
a Japanese and other Immigrant Races in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain
States. Reports of the Immigration Commission, vols. 23-25. (S. Doc. No. 633,
pt. 25, 61st Cong., 2d sess.)
592 The Immigration Commission.
the character of their agriculture west of the Rocky Mountains, where
by far the greater number of Japanese in agriculture are reported.
East of the Rocky Mountains Japanese farmers are chiefly confined
to Texas and Florida, where perhaps 20 adult males have taken up
pineapple and truck raising with rather doubtful results; there are
some laborers in sugar-beet fields in Wisconsin, and perhaps a few in
Michigan. The significant facts of Japanese agriculture east of the
Rockies are discussed in the chapter dealing with Texas.
The Japanese in Florida are raising pineapples and vegetables,
while those in Texas are engaged in capitalistic or specialized agri-
culture— rice, fruit growing, trucking, nurseries. Most of the Jap-
anese in Texas have invested comparatively large amounts of capital
in their enterprises, from which they have not yet realized corre-
spondingly large net returns. The gross incomes reported may
lead to a false impression of their economic progress unless the
comparatively heavy capital investment and the expenses for labor
be taken into account. On the other side, the recency of their set-
tlement in Texas must be considered, and the fact that the land, the
cultivation of the crop, and the methods of marketing are in most
instances new to them, and that they are largely single men, or married
men whose wives are still in Japan. Some of the Japanese farm
proprietors are agricultural students and experts in particular lines
of agriculture or related subjects. A number have been business
men in Japan. They very soon learn the English language and
American methods; many have a knowledge of English before
emigrating.
PORTUGUESE.
The Portuguese farmers are discussed in the Commission's report
on Japanese and other immigrant races in the Pacific Coast and
Rocky Mountain States and in the Commission's complete report on
recent immigrants in agriculture, where a sketch of the history and
distribution of Portuguese in the United States is given in connection
with the report on the Portsmouth (R. I.) potato planters. The
greatest numbers of Portuguese farmers in the East are found in
Massachusetts and Rhode island in a very limited area, the Portu-
guese headquarters being New Bedford, Mass. The white Portuguese
immigration, which comes largely from the Azores, is not large, but
compared with the population of the islands is relatively important.
The total number of Portuguese admitted during the year ending
June 30, 1910, was 7,657,a this number including both the white Portu-
guese from the mainland and the Azores and the dark-skinned immi-
grants from the Cape Verde Islands. The islands whence they come
are agricultural and densely populated.
The dark-skinned Portuguese are either seasonal agricultural
laborers or dock hands. The white Portuguese become farm laborers,
general laborers, mill hands, and farmers. As farmers and farm
laborers the white Portuguese fill an important place in the agricul-
ture of southeastern New England. They make steady, reliable,
efficient farm hands and farmers. Just how many are engaged in
farming for themselves it was impossible to ascertain accurately,
but all along the "Cape," from Providence, R. I., to Provincetown,
Report of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1910.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 593
Mass., they are operating small farms which they have purchased
or rented.
The potato growers in Rhode Island are in part tenants and in
part owners of the land they operate. They are industrious and
energetic, but they are able to succeed better than their native New
England neighbors, chiefly because they have a lower standard of
living. They supply practicallv all the agricultural labor in this
vicinity, and by Duying or leasing the farms from native owners
they have been supplanting the original American farmers.
, SEASONAL AGRICULTURAL LABORERS.
INTRODUCTORY.
In a certain sense the large majority of farm hands are seasonal
laborers, since the average yearly period of farm labor is usually not
more than eight months, extending from March or April to Novem-
ber. The employment of farm laborers by the year is becoming more
customary where dairy farms or live-stock farms are common, but
in grain farming, vegetable growing, or fruit raising the seasonal
laborers far outnumber those employed by the year. In addition to
the men employed for the entire crop season, however, there is another
large body of laborers who are employed for specific tasks, sometimes
by the piece, sometimes by the day, their season of employment
ranging from four to six or eight weeks in the main.
This class of laborers in some sections of the United States is usu-
ally composed of foreign-born persons, who work in gangs and who
are recruited outside of the neighborhood in which they find employ-
ment. For these reasons their employment raises a number of ques-
tions, interesting from the point of view both of agriculture and of
immigration. There are thousands of such laborers employed yearly
in all parts of the United States where specialized crops, for whose
culture a relatively large amount of hand labor is essential, are pro-
duced. The present report deals only with seasonal laborers in a few
selected agricultural industries east of the Mississippi River.
The complete report of the Commission includes accounts of the
South Italian berry pickers in New Jersey, the South Italians and the
Poles on the farms of canning companies in the western part of New
York State, the black Portuguese cranberry pickers or Massachu-
setts, the Poles and Indians on the Wisconsin bogs, and the sugar-
beet laborers in Wisconsin and in northern Ohio. These groups were
selected as typical of much greater numbers all along the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts, in the trucking and berry districts, of great num-
bers in the canneries in Maryland, New Jersey, and elsewhere, of
sugar-beet employees wherever beets are grown extensively, and of
fruit pickers of all sorts. Many day laborers also are at work in
the market gardens near New York, Boston, and other large cities.
The methods employed by the Commission of gathering this infor-
mation differed a little from those adopted in settled rural communi-
ties of foreigners. No family schedules for the seasonal laborers were
secured. The information was obtained by visiting the different farms
on which gangs or groups of foreigners were employed, interviewing the
employer, the foreman of the gang (where a foreman was employed),
and some of the laborers, inspecting the housing conditions, the
594 The Immigration Commission.
conditions of labor, food, and sanitation, and collecting such out-
side information or opinions of observers or neighboring farmers as
could be gathered. Account was taken of the location and city home
surroundings of the laborers, of the conditions of living, of their
annual itinerary, of their seasons of labor, and their earnings. The
personal results — economic, social, educational, moral, and physical —
were considered and some attempt made to weigh them fairly. The
more obvious effects on agriculture, on the community, and on
society as a whole of these shifting bodies of laborers were looked into.
A few of the more salient findings are here summarized.
RACE COMPOSITION.
The races more usually engaging in seasonal farm labor are the
South Italians, the Poles, the black Portuguese on Cape Cod, an
increasing number of Greeks and Syrians, and, in sugar-beet
culture, Belgians, Bohemians, Finns, Poles, Hungarians, Japanese,
and Indians, among whom the first named are the most prominent.
In almost all cases the employees belong to a class of cheap labor-
ers, who engage in unskilled day labor when not working on
farms. In berry picking, and to some extent in beet cultivation, the
present supply of laborers has been but recently installed, having sup-
planted other foreigners or native Americans. The Poles, Finns, and
Italians have given away to the "Bravas" on the Massachusetts cran-
berry bogs, native Americans and Germans have left the berry fields
of New Jersey to the South Italians, and the Japanese and Belgians
appear about to monopolize the sugar-beet labor in some large
districts.
Near Geneva, N. Y., South Italians are beginning to feel the compe-
tition of Greeks, who have been entering upon farm labor since 1905.
In the vicinity of Oneida, N. Y., the Syrians and South Italians are
both engaged in seasonal farm labor. While the Syrians at present
number less than one-fourth of the whole, they are making a place
for themselves, and with their comparatively low standards of living
are proving no mean competitors for the South Italians. Picking
berries and hoeing and weeding beets and vegetables are very simple
operations, requiring little special skill, strength, or intelligence; con-
sequently the laborers are heterogeneous, belonging to the occupa-
tional group of day laborers or to the otherwise unoccupied class.
They have very low standards of living and receive comparatively
small and uncertain earnings.
A fact of importance is that much of the labor required is within
the comprehension and strength of the women and children under
14 years of age. This is particularly true of berry picking. In
vegetable cultivation, however, children can weed and gather the
product with as much facility as men or adult women. Since chil-
dren and women can work efficiently, the laborers, particularly the
South Italians, make the family the working unit. This means that
the whole family engages in farm labor or berry picking and the
earnings of all go into the family fund. Frequently only those mem-
bers engage in agriculture who have no other gainful occupation.
Husbands and children over 16 years old who can secure permanent
employment in other industries dp not go to the berry fields.
Another fact of economic significance is that work on farms is
prosecuted most vigorously at a season of year when the children
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 595
enjoy a vacation from school duties and some of the factories are
closed. Not that school duties would deter the children from engag-
ing in agricultural labor, but were there no berry picking vacation
would be a time of idleness in many households: consequently men,
women, and children engage in nearly all seasonal occupations. One
exception is sugar-beet culture, where fewer women and children and
more single men are found than in the other occupations studied.
This is partly because of the nature of the work, which is heavy,
monotonous labor considered as a seasonal employment. Certain
tasks are easy, but some of the hoeing, pulling, and topping can
not be performed by weak or immature persons, and the long hours
can not be endured by the women and younger children. Moreover,
sugar beets are grown in sections where a sufficient supply of float-
ing or semiunemployed laborers with families can not be recruited
from points near at hand.
SOURCES WHENCE RECRUITED.
The seven groups, studied a little more in detail, reveal some points
of likeness and numerous contrasts. The Hammonton, N. J., berry
pickers are typical of thousands of South Italians, Poles, " hoboes,"
and negroes from Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and some
other cities, who move with their families to the country early in
the season for the purpose of picking berries. They begin by picking
strawberries in Delaware or southern New Jersey sometime in May
and follow the berry crops northward to Hammonton and vicinity,
where they gather blackberries and raspberries. Practically all studied
in this group were South Italians from Philadelphia, largely family
units, who are in the habit of spending their summers in the berry
fields and cranberry bogs and their winters in Philadelphia. The
main season of employment extends from May 15 or 20 to the end of
July, with sometimes a month's work in the cranberry bogs in Sep-
tember and October. The interval between the blackberry harvest
and cranberry picking they occupy in gathering huckleberries on the
New Jersey wild lands. Practically all return to Philadelphia by
October 15.
The cranberry pickers of Massachusetts, on the larger bogs, at least,
are chiefly "Bravas," or black Portuguese. They are largely recruited
from the ranks of dock laborers near New Bedford and neighboring sea-
coast cities, and unless they are regular bog laborers they spend about
six weeks of the year on the bogs. Five-sixths of them are men or
boys, many of them single or without families in the United States.
They have succeeded in forcing out the Poles, Italians, and, to a large
degree, the Finns.
The cranberry pickers of central Wisconsin are Indians or Poles.
The Indians are often employed at occasional occupations in the
rural districts and are well adapted to berry picking. They are
transported by the growers from neighboring reservations and bring
their families with them to the bogs. Usually several families, ac-
companied by an Indian manager, boss, or foreman, come in one
company and find employment with the same cranberry grower.
The Poles employed in this work are small farmers who welcome the
opportunity to add something to the meager incomes from their
596 The Immigration Commission.
farms. They, too, come with wives and children from places as far
distant as 100 miles, and after cranberry harvest they return to their
farms for the remainder of the year.
The sugar-beet laborers are chiefly Belgians, but in Wisconsin
several races are represented. Nearly all are recruited from neighbor-
ing cities, where they make their headquarters. In Wisconsin the
Bohemians and Germans frequently bring their families with them;
the Belgians and Japanese are single men or men without families
in the United States. The beet fields furnish employment from May
1 to July 15, and from about September 25 to November 1. The six
weeks' interval takes many back to the cities, but some find employ-
ment on farms in the locality. In the winter they enter various occu-
pations— the Belgians become lumbermen in Michigan or employees
in the plow works or machine shops in Wisconsin, Indiana, or
Illinois ; the Japanese cut ice, work for farmers, or find employment
as section hands on the railroads. The Bohemians and Germans are
beginning to purchase tracts of wild land in some neighborhoods,
while others return to the St. Louis breweries whence they are
reeruited. Some of the beet hands are efficient laborers and earn fair
wages in industry. Others are typical unskilled day laborers and
earn very little in any occupation.
The farm laborers in western New York are of two types: First,
South Italians and Syrians, recruited from New York City, Buffalo, and
other cities and brought to the locality in family groups by pro-
ducers. Many of these remain the entire season, from June to Octo-
ber, at work either in the canning factories or on the farms of the
canning companies; second, South Italians and Poles, who may be
called settled agricultural laborers. These live near their places of
employment in small cities or towns, own some property in the vil-
lages, and work almost the entire spring and summer on farms in the
neighborhood. They are farm laborers and have practically no other
employment. The Poles are especially worthy of study in this regard,
and might well find a place in the division of this report devoted
to settled rural groups, except that they are engaged not in inde-
pendent agriculture but in seasonal farm labor.
CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT.
Wherever Italian laborers are recruited from cities at some dis-
tance from the place of employment, the padrone system is in opera-
tion. The padrone acts as a go-between for both laborer and em-
ployer. He receives an order from the employer for a gang of men,
solicits them in their city quarters, brings them out to the farm,
and acts as spokesman, general manager, and boss of the gang while
at work. He is held responsible for the good behavior of his group,
and the members of the group look to him to uphold their interests in
any contingency that may arise. The padrone usually receives a cer-
tain sum per capita for securing the laborers, which varies somewhat
according to conditions, and occasionally he collects a fee from both
laborer and employer. For his work as foreman he receives a stipu-
lated daily wage. In general the abuses found strictly attributable
to the padrone or the padrone system were few. Most of the laborers
know where employment can be obtained, and many are able to do
without the services of a padrone. Some farmers (most of them
Italians) do not engage help through such agents, and much less
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 597
money than formerly passes through the hands of professional
padrones.
The padrone, as a general rule, seems to be of very little assistance
to the members of his gang. The wages, hours, and conditions of
labor are well established and a gang leader can do little to
change them. The most complete account of tjie present padrone
system is found in the description of the Hammonton berry
pickers in the Commission's complete report. Labor agents or gang
foremen are also employed in securing Indian and Polish cranberry
pickers in Wisconsin. There no complaint was made by the pickers
concerning injustice or harsh treatment. Agents of the beet-sugar
companies recruit their laborers for the beet fields, and the cranberry
growers of Massachusetts seem to be able to get enough pickers with-
out solicitation. When additional cranberry pickers are wanted, the
bog owners apply to labor agencies in Boston, Providence, or New
Bedford.
The laborers in the sugar-beet fields are frequently handled in
small gangs of 4 to 10 men, one of whom is by courtesy called " fore-
man." He has no authority, but acts as spokesman and takes the'
orders for his gang from the farmer or the sugar company. In
cranberry picking, the gangs are larger, running up to about 40
pickers under one foreman. The foremen are experienced men,
employed by the growers, and are infrequently of the same race as
the laborers. Foremen or " bosses" are essential in the cranberry
industry when foreign, unskilled pickers are employed.
Wages and hours vary greatly, and earnings vary both with the
wages and with the length and character of the season. Piece wages
are the rule in berry picking and in the cultivation of sugar beets;
sugar-beet men are paid by the acre, either for the season or for one
or more operations. The sugar company guarantees the wages, which
are fixed by contract between grower and laborer. In Wisconsin the
wage is $20 an acre, and 10 acres are about as many as one laborer
can take care of, even by working long hours. The hours are as
long as the laborers wish to make them, and some ambitious beet
hands work literally night and day. The earnings are about the same
as in general agriculture, for though the daily wages may be greater
the season of actual labor is short.
In western New York, on both the general farms and those owned
by canning companies, wages for adult males range from $1.25 to
$1.75 per day of ten hours; for women and children, who are em-
ployed both on the farms and in the canning factory, the wages on
the farms are less, but their earnings at piece wages in the factory
practically equal those of the men. As a whole, wages are better
in western New York in the industries cited below than in other indus-
trial day labor; when the cost^of living is considered, the foreign
laborers who have their homes in the locality earn more than their
countrymen occupied in cities. The South Italian families of four
or five members who work from April to November on farms average
from $350 to $450 for the season. The Poles earn about $18 to $20
per month and board the year round when they work as general
farm laborers. Piece wages for men and women bring in $1.25 to
$1.75 a day during the summer. When weeding, gathering peas,
beans, or other vegetables, picking cherries, plums, or apples, the
women often earn as much as the men. Berries of all kinds are
598 The Immigration Commission.
picked by the women, and wages depend upon quickness and skill
quite as much as upon strength.
The length of day in blackberry gathering depends on the sched-
ules of freight trains, since all berries are shipped the day they are
picked; picking ceases for the day just Before the last afternoon
freight or express train is due. Blackberries may be gathered early
in the morning, and some padrones get their laborers into the field by
daylight. The grass and bushes are frequently damp enough to wet
the clothing of the pickers, but no bad results were reported either
by laborers or growers. Cranberries can not be gathered when there
is dew or dampness on the vines, hence the cranberry pickers' day
extends from late in the morning, 8 or 9 o'clock usually, until the
dew begins to gather. The laborers for the New York canning com-
panies work nine or ten hours when employed by the day, and the
regular cranberry bog hands and general farm laborers have a nine
and a ten hour day, respectively.
HOUSING CONDITIONS.
Three systems of housing, varying widely in detail, convenience,
and comfort, prevail:
(1) The permanent dwelling houses owned or rented the year
round by the laborers themselves. This condition exists where, as
in Geneva and in Orleans County, N. Y., many of the Poles and Ital-
ians live in small towns or cities near their place of employment and
return to their homes every evening. There the conditions do not
differ much from those surrounding the settled farmers of the race.
A few of the black Portuguese live in miserable huts not far from
the cranberry bogs on Cape Cod.
(2) The permanent quarters built by farmers or canning com-
panies to shelter gangs of laborers during the season, or, in some in-
stances, individual cottages or huts for the same purpose. The best
of these company houses or "barracks " inspected were those erected by
canning companies in western New York. They were well built, fairly
well ventilated, sanitary in arrangement, and carefully inspected and
cleansed at frequent intervals. The number of persons assigned to a
house varied, and frequently large numbers were " bunked " in one
building. The sexes were separated, however, and in but few instances
was there any marked congestion. The water supply was satisfac-
tory and the toilets (dry closets), at some distance from the build-
ings, were kept clean by the employers.
In Wisconsin the owners of the large cranberry bogs provided quar-
ters for Polish pickers, and on some of the more extensive Massachu-
setts bogs the company houses were similar. The provision made for
housing the berry pickers of New Jersey is less satisfactory. The
houses which the Italian growers and many natives furnish for hous-
ing laborers were not originally designed for the purpose and are
very inadequate. Barns, granaries, old outbuildings, stable lofts, and
one old scnoolhouse were some of the makeshifts utilized for the
purpose. The houses especially constructed for pickers were but
little better. Ventilation was not adequate. There was much con-
gestion at times; whole families were crowded into bunks about 6
feet square or 6 by 8 feet, and in a number of instances no provision
was made for separation of sexes except by a shawl or curtain thrown
over a cord. Most growers made little or no effort to maintain
sanitary quarters, and many of the houses and surroundings were
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 599
deplorably filthy. The chief defense made by the employer of the
houses he provides is that the pickers will not preserve sanitary
quarters even if provided; that the season is short, and better build-
ings are expensive when occupied but six weeks in a year; that
good quarters are neither desired nor appreciated by the pickers,
who are South Italians.
The houses occupied by the Bravas, where single families or where
two families live in one two-story dwelling, are somewhat more satis-
factory so far as ventilation and congestion are concerned, especially
when some effort is made by the owners to insist on cleanliness and
sanitary measures. In numerous instances where the Bravas are left
to live as they please there is much filth, impurity, and foul odor
about the miserable houses. The conviction forced itself, however,
after investigation of several localities, that sanitary and moral
conditions depended less on the race than on the interest, care, and
effort of the owner or manager to maintain wholesome conditions.
(3) The portable houses provided by the beet-sugar companies for
the use of their laborers. These are " shacks" on wheels, designed to
serve as cooking, sleeping, and living quarters for a gang of 4 to 10
men. Since the shanties do not remain long in one place, little refuse
or debris can gather around them; there is plenty of ventilation and,
except for the crowded condition of the sleeping quarters, they are
rather good houses to live in. When sufficiently well built to keep
out rain and give protection from the early frosts in the fall, little
complaint is made by the inmates. In fair weather the laborers
spend little time in them.
STANDARD OF LIVING.
In the communities where the Commission's investigations were
conducted the standard of living of seasonal migratory laborers
was lower than that of permanent, settled agricultural laborers of
the same race. There are exceptions, but the breaking up of
the home, moving here or there at short intervals, being neces-
sarily deprived of the accessories of a fixed abode, and living in an un-
conventional atmosphere, seem to make the laborers, especially those
with families, content to live very primitively. The South Italian
berry pickers live much more cheaply than their Sicilian employers.
The food of the Bravas, Italians, Greeks, Syrians, and Japanese
is largely vegetable, obtained very cheaply in the country in sum-
mer; the Belgians and Slavs eat more meat. The Sicilians and Cala-
brians, with their Italian bread, macaroni, and peppers, sometimes
get along on as little as 25 cents per week in New Jersey; on the New
York cannery farms they expend from 50 cents to $1 a week. The
Bravas live almost as cheaply, perhaps quite as cheaply, the first
year' of their residence in the United States; later their food im-
proves both in quantity, quality, and variety.
The Belgians while on the beet farms live on canned products,
vegetables, meat, and eggs. Generally one of the men in the gang
acts as cook one week, and another the next. The evening meal is the
only one of much importance, but the quantity of food is always
sufficient.
Poles live much as they do in settled rural districts. Their food
is simple, coarse, and abundant, with more meat, cabbage, and
potatoes than most other races use. Cost of living in one New
600 The Immigration Commission.
York settlement has been closely estimated at $12 per month for a
family of four or five when the family raise their own meat and
vegetables, and about $20 per month when all food has to be
purchased.
Earnings are low per individual, owing to the lost time, although
daily wages frequently run as high as $3. The earnings per family
are fairly good, since usually there is little or no rent to pay, fuel
costs nothing, vegetables are cheap, and there is little opportunity to
spend their earnings. The Poles, Bravas, Belgians, and most sugar-
beet laborers save some money. Many of the Italians do not seem
to make much progress in material welfare, although a small per-
centage are thrirty and lay up something. The thrifty are likely to
give up berry picking after a few years. The permanent pickers are
the least frugal and ambitious.
The Bravas are the best savers among those investigated. From
the beginning they hoard their earnings, usually in savings banks,
to take back with them to their island homes. The propensity to
save is one of the most striking characteristics of the Brava.
AMERICANIZATION.
Except the Bravas, all of the groups of seasonal laborers inter-
viewed expressed their intention to remain permanently in the
United States. Many are migratory, but their homes are in America.
The Brava has been in the habit of returning to his home in the
Cape Verde Islands after a few years of residence here, taking his
earnings with him. He does not become a citizen, cares nothing for
American institutions, and takes little thought for anything except
to save money for carrying away. -The Bravas constitute the only
adequate available source of supply of cranberry bog laborers, but
they rise to nothing higher, as a rule. They are efficient, faithful
under close supervision, but very illiterate, and neither resourceful
nor intelligent.
As a rule, there are fewer citizens among seasonal laborers than
among settled farmers of the same races. In the case of the Bohe-
mians, Germans, and to some extent the few Japanese interviewed
who are engaged in sugar-beet labor, the seasonal work is a stepping-
stone to the acquisition of property, and they content themselves
with this occupation for a few years only. With many of the South
Italians seasonal labor is apparently a permanent status.
The moral effect of the miscellaneous housing and the unconven-
tional life can not, to put it mildly, be very satisfactory. School au-
thorities assert that the itinerary breaks in on the school routine with
very detrimental results educationally. Certain medical and hygienic
authorities declare with conviction that the exposure to rain, cold,
and malarial atmospheres is provocative of fevers and tuberculosis
and that neither the water supply nor the unhygienic surrounding^
are conducive to physical well-being. These matters have been
made the objects or investigation by state and city organizations in
New Jersey. On the whole, the situation seems in almost every
respect to be more satisfactory than that surrounding contract gangs
of the same laborers on railroad and other construction work, but
the limited duration of the employment, except in a few occupations,
has prevented a great influx or foreigners into the agricultural indus-
tries. There is no organization among the seasonal laborers and no
unanimous demand for better conditions. Occasionally a gang strikes
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
601
for certain improvements, and nearly every betterment has come as
a result of such local strikes. When there is a scarcity of laborers
the demands are ordinarily granted and thereafter serve as prece-
dents for the community.
GENERAL SOCIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE IMMIGRANTS IN RURAL COM-
MUNITIES FROM WHOM INFORMATION WAS SECURED.
In the following tables data for the total number of immigrants
engaged in agriculture for whom detailed information was secured
are presented. The data from which these tables were compiled were
collected from a number of scattered groups of immigrants in widely
separated localities and engaged in various forms of agriculture. No
locality is represented by more than fifty households, and the tables
are therefore significant only of the racial tendencies of the immi-
grants who have entered agriculture and can not well be used as a
basis for fixed conclusions.
The table first submitted shows the number of persons for whom
detailed information was secured, by sex and general nativity and
race of individual:
TABLE 8. — Persons for whom detailed information was secured, by sex and general nativity
and race of individual.
Number. Per cent distribution.
Male
Female. Total.
Male. Female.
Total.
Native-born of native father, White . . !
*8 76 164
>5 49 104
213
L6 17 33
18 53 101
>9 137 1 266
F2 167 339
-4 302 676
145
JO 21 51
>0 10 30
3 3
>9 406 i 865
51 33 64
11 40 , 67
6 1 7
J4 20 44
54 36 90
1 1
3.2
2.0
1
L8
4.8
6.4
13.8
(a)
1.1
.7
.1
16.9
1.1
1.0
. 2
!9
2.0
.0
W.o
.4
.0
1.3
7.3
.0
7.1
10.7
3.7
1.4
.4
!9
1.2
.1
.2
3.3
2.1
2. 3
5.9
7.2
13.1
.2
.9
.4
.0
17.6
1.4
1.7
1.6
i
(a)'
1.3
8.7
W,s
10.2
.6
1.3
i!o
1.5
.2
.3
3.3
2.1
. 7
2.0
5.3
6.8
13.5
.1
1.0
.6
.1
17.2
1.3
1.3
.1
.9
1.8
8.0
10.5
2.3
1.4
i!o
1.4
.2
.2
Native born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian ,
Croatian
Flemish
German
Hebrew i;
Italian, North 1"
Italian, South 3'
Japanese . '
Lithuanian
Magyar ;
Norwegian
Polish 4,
Portuguese ,
Slovak ;
Swedish
Belgian (race not specified) '.
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian ,
Canadian (other thun French)
Croatian
1 1 2
1 1
English
Flemish ]
12 9 21
1 1
$4 29 63
)9 201 400
1 1
G 157 349
*9 236 525
X) 14 114
57 31 68
0 10 20
1 1 2
17 175 402
55 23 48
S3 35 68
4 4 8
5 6 11
French
German ;
Hebrew. . . i<
Irish
Italian, North... 1<
Italian, South '?}
Japanese K
Lithuanian ;
Magyar ]
Norwegian. . .
Polish vt
Portuguese
Slovak ;
Swedish
Belgian (race not specified)
Grand total. 2 7(
)8 2,309 ; 5,017 100.0
100. 0 100. 0
Total native-born of foreign father 1 3(
>7 1.261 2,658
»5 1,337 ! 2,822
3 976 2,195
51.6
54.8
45.2
54. 6 53. 0
57.9 50.2
42. 1 43. 8
Total native-born 1 4j
Total foreign-born jv " 1,2
>Less than 0.05 per cent.
72289 e— VOL 1—11 39
602
The Immigration Commission.
In the preceding table it is seen that data were obtained for 5,017
persons, 2,708 of whom were males and 2,309 females. Of the total
number 3.3 per cent were native-born of native father white, 53 per
cent were native-born of foreign father, and 43.8 per cent were foreign-
born. The higher percentages of the persons tabulated were of the
Italian, Polish, and Hebrew races, which aggregate 42.8 per cent of
the native-born of foreign father and 33.5 per cent of the foreign-
born, or 76.3 per cent of the total. Poles show the largest percentage
of native-born of foreign father, followed by South Italians, North
Italians, and Hebrews, in the order mentioned. Among the foreign-
born the same races lead, though in different order. Including
native-born of foreign father, Bohemians and Moravians constitute
3.9 per cent, Slovaks 2.7 per cent, Japanese 2.4 percent, and Portu-
guese 2. 3 per cent of the total. Foreign-born Japanese, Poles, andSouth
Italians show larger numbers of males than of females, while Hebrews
and Slovaks show slightly larger numbers of females than of males.
The table next submitted shows the number of persons within
each age group, by sex, and by general nativity and race of head of
household instead of individual.
TABLE 9. — Per cent of persons within each age group, by sex and by general nativity and
race of head of household.
[This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
MALE.
Number
Per cent
within
each spe
cified ag
e group
household.
complete
data.
Under
6.
6 to 13.
Hand
15.
16 to 19.
20 to 29.
30 to 44.
45 or
over.
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father, Polish
58
22 4
32 8
1 7
8 6
12 1
20 7
1 7
Foreign-born :
Bohemian and Moravian.
101
13 9
24 8
4 0
9 9
12 9
15 8
18 8
German..
65
12 3
29 2
1 5
10 8
6 2
30 8
9 2
Hebrew
327
14.1
24 2
5 2
10 4
10 4
16 5
19 3
Italian, North
365
11 0
22 5
4 9
11 8
15 9
17 0
17 0
Italian, South
669
17 9
24 4
5 1
11 7
10 5
12 9
17 6
Japanese
100
1 0
2 0
o
2 0
60 0
31 0
4 0
Lithuanian ....
67
29 9
14 9
3 0
4 5
10 4
26 9
10 4
Polish
670
15 1
26 3
6 7
9 7
11 6
10 4
20 1
Portuguese
56
35 7
21 4
5 4
o
14 3
21 4
1 8
Slovak .
64
20 3
15 6
1 6
14 1
9 4
18 8
20 3
Grand total
2 707
15 5
23 6
4 8
10 1
13 5
15 5
17 1
Total native-born of foreign father. .
Total foreign-born
127
2 580
19.7
15 3
29.1
23 3
2.4
5 0
8.7
10 2
12.6
13 5
17.3
15 4
10.2
17 4
FEMALE.
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father, Polish
49
347
16 3
8 2
8 2
12 2
14 3
fi 1
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian.
79
19 0
16 5
8 9
10 1
7 6
21 5
16 5
German
69
20 3
27 5
2 9
1 4
10 1
20 3
17 4
Hebrew
335
13 7
23 9
6 6
11 6
I9 8
15 5
15 8
Italian, North
324
18 8
23 5
5 6
9 3
13 0
15 1
14 8
Italian, South
551
17 8
25 0
6 7
8 7
11 6
13 8
16 3
Japanese
18
22.2
o
o
o
33 3
38 9
5 6
Lithuanian . .
53
18 9
24 5
1 9
1 9
17 0
22 6
13 2
Polish
568
16 5
26 4
5 g
10 6
10 6
13 0
17 3
Portuguese . . .
56
33.9
28 6
1 8
5 4
12 5
16 1
1 8
Slovak.
76
22 4
27 6
7 9
5 3
7 9
21 1
7 9
Grand total
2 309
17 9
24 2
5 9
9 1
11 9
15 6
ICO
Total native-born of foreign father. .
Total foreign-born
2,203
23.6
17 7
19.8
04 4
6.6
5 9
9.4
9 1
12.3
11 8
17.9
15 5
10.4
ICC
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
603
TABLE 9. — Per cent of persons within each age group, by sex and by general nativity
and race of head of household— Continued.
TOTAL.
General nativity and race of head
of household.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent within each specified age group.
Under
6.
6 to 13.
14 and
15.
16 to 19.
20 to 29.
30 to 44.
45 or
over.
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father, Polish
107
180
134
662
689
1,220
118
120
1,238
112
140
28.0
16.1
16.4
13.9
14.7
17.9
4.2
25.0
15.8
34.8
21.4
25.2
21.1
28.4
24.0
22.9
24.7
1.7
19.2
26.3
25.0
22.1
4.7
6.1
2.2
5.9
5.2
5.8
.0
2.5
6.2
3.6
5.0
8.4
10.0
6.0
11.0
10.6
10.3
1.7
3.3
10.1
2.7
9.3
12.1
10.6
8.2
11.6
14.5
11.0
55.9
13.3
11.1
13.4
8.6
17.8
18.3
25.4
16.0
16.1
13.3
32.2
25.0
11.6
18.8
20.0
3.7
17.8
13.4
17.5
Ki.O
17.0
4.2
11.7
18.8
1.8
13.6
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese
Slovak
Grand total
5,016
233~
4.783
16.6
23.8
24.9
23.8
5.3
9.6
12.7
15.6
16.3
Total native-born of foreign father. .
Total foreisrn-born . .
21.5
16.4
4.3
5.4
9.0
9.7
12.4
12.8
17.6
15.5
10.3
16.6
The foregoing table furnishes data for 5,016 persons, 16.6 per cent
of whom are under 6 years of age, 23.8 per cent from 6 to 13 years,
27.6 per cent from 14 to 29 years, and 31.9 per cent 30 years of
age or over. Approximately one-third of the Portuguese, one-fourth
of the Lithuanians, and one-fifth of the Slovaks are under 6 years of
age, while the Bohemians and Moravians, Hebrews, Italians, and
Poles exhibit the largest percentages who are 45 years of age or
over. Of the foreign-born the Portuguese show the smallest percent-
age 20 years of age or over, followed by South Italians, Poles, and
Slovaks; the Japanese report only 7.6 per cent under 20 years old,
more than 50 per cent of this race being 20 to 29 years of age.
Females show larger percentages than are shown by males in each
age period under 16 years and smaller proportions in each of the
following periods with the exception of 30 to 44 years of age.
The table following shows the per cent of foreign-born persons
in the United States each specified number of years, by race of indi-
vidual:
TABLE 10. — Per cent of foreign-born persons in the United States each specified number
of years, by race of individual.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. No deduction is
made for time spent abroad. This table includes only races with 20 or more persons reporting. The
total, however, is for all foreign-born.)
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent of persons in United States
each specified number'of years.
Under 5.
Under 10.
Under 20.
Bohemian and Moravian
87
21
63
400
349
525
112
68
20
402
48
68
5.7
14.3
4.8
, 29.8
25.8
6.7
83.9
23.5
5.0
4.0
16.7
19.1
31.0
14.3
23.8
52.0
46.4
22.1
99.1
66.2
25.0
14.4
70.8
45.6
63.2
23.8
71.4
78.8
73.6
62.1
100.0
95.6
60.0
31.8
85.4
79.4
Flemish
G erman
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South ....
Japanese
Lithuanian
Magyar ...
Polish
Portuguese
Slovak
Total
2,190
18.4
37.2
64.8
604
The Immigration Commission.
Data are presented in the preceding table for 2,190 persons, 18.4 per
cent of whom have been in the United States under five years, 37.2
per cent under ten years, and 64.8 per cent under twenty years.
With the exception of the Flemish, the Poles have had the longest
period of residence in the United States, 68.2 per cent having been
nere more than twenty years and only 4 per cent less than five years.
The Magyars, South Italians, Bohemians and Moravians, and Ger-
mans show fairly large percentages in this country twenty years or
over and small proportions here under five years. The largest pro-
portion in the United States ten years or over is shown by the Flem-
ish, with 85.7 per cent, followed by the Poles, South Italians, and
Germans in the order mentioned. The Japanese show the shortest
period of residence, only 0.9 per cent having been here ten years or
over, while 83.9 per cent have been here under five years.
The next table is interesting in this connection as showing the
number and per cent of heads of families who have been in the
locality each specified number of years, by general nativity and race
of individual.
TABLE 11. — Number and per cent of heads of families who have been in locality each
specified number of years, by general nativity and race of individual.
General nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number in locality each
specified number of
years.
Per cent in locality each
specified number of
years.
Under
5.
5 to
9.
10 to
19.
20 or
over.
Un-
der 5.
5 to
9.
10 to
19.
20 or
over.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
3
9
1
15
10
35
1
11
25
115
117
205
21
23
10
1
219
20
25
4
5
1
2
(a)
(a)
(a)
(0)
(0)
28.6
(°)
(a)
12.0
47.8
30.8
13.7
85.7
17.4
(0)
w
6.4
10.0
48.0
(a)
(a)
4
1
1
1
«
3
6
1
a)
a)
0)
a)
a)
5.7
a)
a)
6.0
8.3
7.9
7.6
4.3
9.1
a)
&
0.0
6.0
a)
a)
(0)
(°)
(a)
(a)
w
8.6
(a)
(0)
52.0
22.6
25.6
39.5
.0
34.8
(a)
(a)
26.5
20.0
36.0
(a)
(a)
n
(a)
11
17.1
(a)
(a)
20.0
11.3
25.6
29.3
.0
8.7
(a)
(a)
54.8
10.0
.0
(a)
(a)
German
1 9
1
7
10
6
1
6
5
13
30
60
Italian, North
Polish
1
2
5
Belgian (race not specified)
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
Croatian
10
16
3
Flemish
2
3
55
36
28
18
4
7
""4"
21
21
36
3
9
1
3
13
26
30
81
German
Hebrew
Italian North
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
8
2
I
2
Magyar
Norwegian .
Polish
14
2
12
27
12
4
4
58
4
9
120
2
Portuguese
Slovak
Swedish
Belgian (race not specified)
1
4
Grand total
875
38~
837
193
2~
191
162
4
158
244
5
239
276
27"
249
22.1
5.3
22.8
18.5
10.5
18.9
27.9
13.2
28.6
31.5
~~71.~1
29.7
Total native-born of foreign father
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The preceding table presents data for 875 heads of families, 837
of whom are foreigivborn and 38 native-born of foreign father. The
table shows that 22.8 per cent of the foreign-born have been in their
present locality under five years, 18.9 per cent five to nine years, 28.6
per cent ten to nineteen years, and 29.7 per cent twenty years or over.
Eighty-five and seven-tenths per cent of the Japanese have been in
their present locality under five years, compared with 48 per cent of
the Slovaks, 47.8 per cent of the Hebrews, and much smaller per-
centages of the other races. The table indicates a comparatively long
period in agriculture for the Germans, Poles, and South Italians, more
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
605
than two-thirds of the families of these races having resided in their
present locality ten years or over. The largest proportion in the locality
five to nine years is shown by the Portuguese, with 60 per cent.
The number and per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by
sex and age groups, and by general nativity and race of individual,
are shown in the table following.
TABLE 12. — Per cent of persons in each conjugal condition, by sex and age groups, and
by general nativity and race of individual.
[This table includes only races with 80 or more persons reporting.
MALE.
The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race
of individual.
20 to 29 years of
age.
30 to 44 years of > 45 years of age or ! 20 years of age or
age. over. over.
Number reporting
complete data.
Per cent
who are—
Number reporting
complete data.
Per cent
who are—
Number reporting
complete data.
Per cent
who are —
Number reporting
complete data.
Per cent
who are —
OJ
1
02
Married.
Widowed.
«5
I
33
Married.
Widowed.
2
1
So
Married.
Widowed.
o5
f
00
C3
3
Widowed.
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of father.
Polish
64
24
31
47
60
19
90.6
75.0
61.3
68.1
86.7
68.4
...
25.0
38.7
31.9
13.3
31.6
22.5
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
18
54
56
86
31
65
11.1
3.7
17.9
2.3
35.5
7.7
88.9
96.3
82.1
95.3
01.3
92.3
0.0
.0
.0
2.3
3.2
.0
82
141
151
251
95
219
73.2
14.2
19.9
13.9
66.3
8.2
26.6
68.4
68.7
18.6
26.8
84.4
75.5
84.1
32.6
85.8
0.0
1.4
4.6
2.0
1.1
5.9
3.0
2.1
2.0
3.1
Foreign-born:
Hebrew
63
64
118
4
135
0.0
1
Wo
2
96.8
87.5
90. 0
(a)
90.4
3.2
10.9
2.5
(a)
9.6
6.3
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese
Polish
Grand total
365
77.3
.3
419
10.7
87.6
1. 7 462
92.9
1,246
70.5
Total native-born of for-
eign father
143
150
215
85.3
85.3
71.6
14.7
14.7
27.9
.0
.0
.5
37
38
381
21.6
21.1
9.7
73.0
73.7
89.0
5.4
5.3
1.3
10
10
452
. 0|80. 0
.080.0
93.1
20.0
20.0
6.0
190
198
1,048
29.5
29.3
78.2
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
FEMALE.
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of father,
Polish
41
36
22
51
6
26
65.931.7
38. 9 61. 1
31.868.2
13.786.3
(a) (a)
3. 8 96. 2
2.4
.0
.0
.0
<•>«
32
51
1
50
3.1
.0
22.2
.0
(a)
.0
93.8
98.0
75.6
97.2
£>.
3.1
2.0
2.2
2.8
(a)
2.0
3
53
45
90
1
96
(a)
0.0
.0
1.1
(0)
.0
(a)
94.3
91.1
95.6
(a)
91.7
(a)
5.7
8.9
3.3
(a)
8.3
76
140
112
212
14
172
36.8
10.0
15.2
3.8
.0
.6
60.5
87.1
80.4
93.9
100.0
94.2
2.6
2.9
4.5
2.4
.0
5.2
Foreign-born:
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese . . .
Polish
Grand total.
274 36. 9 02. 8 . 4 361
4.7
93.4
1.9
1.8
1.6
2.0
354
9
9
345
1.1
(°)
(a)
1.2
91.0
(0)
&
7. 9 989
12.3
84.0
3.6
1.2
1.2
4.2
Total native-born of for-
eign father
9968.730.3 1.0
10168.330.7 1.0
17318.581.5 .0
57
62
299
8.8
8.1
4.0
89.5
90.3
94.0
(a)
(a)
8.1
165
172
817
44.2
43.0
5.9
54.5
55.8
90.0
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
TOTAL.
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of father,
Polish
105 81. 0
60 53. 3
53 49. 1
98 39. 8
6678.8
45[31. 1
18.1
46.7
50.9
60.2
21.2
68.9
,0
.0
.0
:S
.0
50 6.0
105 1.9
10119.8
1571 1.3
38 28. 9
115| 4.3
92.0
97.1
79.2
96.2
08.4
94.8
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.5
2.6
.9
3
116
109
208
5
231
(0)
0.0
.9
1.0
(a)
.0
(0)
95.7
89.0
90.2
(a)
90.9
(a)
4.3
10.1
2.9
(0)
9.1
158
281
263
463
109
391
55.7
12.1
17.9
9.3
57.8
4.9
43.0
85.8
77.6
88.6
41.3
89.5
1.3
2.1
4.6
2.2
.9
5.6
Foreign-born:
Hebrew
Italian, North..
Italian, South
Japanese . . .
.Polish...
Grand total
63959.9
39. 7j . 3
21.1 .4
21.1 .4
51. 8 . 3
780 7.9
94jl3.8
10013.0
680 7.2
90.3 1.8
816
1.0
;;!
92.0
89.5
89.5
92.1
7.0
10.5
10.5
6.9
2,235
20.3
76.5
3.3
1.7
1.6
3.6
Total native-born of for-
eign father
242178. 5
251 78. 5
388J47.9
83.0
84.0
91.2
3.2
3.0
1.6
19
19
797
355
370
1,865
57.2
56.8
13.0
41.1
41.6
83.4
Total native-born
Total foreign-born.
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
606
The Immigration Commission.
Statistics are presented in the foregoing table for 2,235 persons 20
years of age or over, 20.3 per cent of whom are single, 76.5 per cent
married, and 3.3 per cent widowed. The Japanese show a far higher
per cent of single persons than any other immigrant race. The largest
percentage married and the smallest percentage single are reported by
the Poles, followed by the South Italians and Hebrews in the order
mentioned. In the group 20 to 29 years of age, the Japanese have
the maximum of 78.8 per cent single and the Poles the minimum of
31.1 per cent. The Hebrews, South Italians, and Poles have about
the same proportion married in each of the two periods 30 to 44 and
45 years of age or over, the number exceeding 90 per cent in each
instance. The native-born show in each age group a smaller per-
centage married and, with the exception of those 45 years of age or
over, a larger percentage single than are shown by the foreign-born.
A comparison of males and females shows that 18.6 per cent of the
foreign-born males are single and 78.2 per cent married, while 5.9
per cent of the foreign-born females are single and 90 per cent* mar-
ried. With the native-born, however, the males show a larger pro-
portion single and a smaller proportion married than are shown by
the females.
The table next submitted shows the present political condition of
foreign-born males who have been in the United States five years or
over and who were 21 years of age or over at the time of coming, by
race of individual :
TABLE 13. — Present political condition of foreign-born males who have been in the United
States five years or over and who were 21 years of age or over at time of coming, by race
of individual.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number-
Per cent —
Fully nat-
uralized.
Having
first papers
only.
Fully nat-
uralized.
Having
first papers
only.
Bohemian and Moravian
24
80
82
147
24
128
21
14
43
40
68
2
81
5
1
26
15
23
1
20
2
58.3
53.8
48.8
46.3
8.3
63.3
23.8
4.2
32.5
18.3
15.6
4.2
15.6
9.5
Hebrew
Italian, North .
Italian South
Lithuanian
Polish
Slovak
Total
537
276
92
51.4
17.1
This table shows that of the 537 foreign-born males for whom
data were obtained, 51.4 per cent are fully naturalized and 17.1 per
cent have first papers, 31.5 per cent being aliens. Of those fully
naturalized the Poles rank first, with 63.3 per cent, followed by the
Bohemians and Moravians, with 58.3 per cent, and the Hebrews, with
53.8 per cent, the last named having the largest proportion, or 32.5
per cent, with first papers only. The Lithuanians, with 8.3 per
cent, show the smallest percentage fully naturalized, followed by
the Slovaks, with 23.8 per cent; these two races show the largest
proportions of aliens.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
607
The industrial condition before coming to the United States of for-
eign-born males and females who were 16 years of age or over at the
time of coming is shown by the following tables :
TABLE 14. — Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-born males
who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
[This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born ]
Race of individual.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Number-
Per cent —
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
with-
out
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
with-
out
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
Bohemian and Moravian. . . .
German
35
32
105
125
166
89
141
7
7
9
7
7
35
9
20
8
40
45
64
22
86
4
10
12
35
31
28
33
4
7
44
38
64
4
13
20.0
21.9
8.6
5.6
4.2
39.3
6.4
57.1
25.0
38.1
36.0
38.6
24.7
61.0
11.4
31.3
11.4
28.0
18.7
31.5
23.4
11.4
21.9
41.9
30.4
38.6
4.5
9.2
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian South
Japanese : .
Polish . .
Total
752
84
315
167
186
11.2
41.9 , 22.2
24.7
TABLE 15. — Industrial condition before coming to the United States of foreign-born
females who were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
[This table includes only races with 20 or more females reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Num-
.Nur
nber —
Per
sent—
Race of individual.
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
with-
out
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
With-
out oc-
cupa-
tion.
Work-
ing for
wages.
Work-
ing
with-
out
wages.
Work-
ing for
profit.
Bohemian and Moravian. . .
26
22
4
84.6
15 4
0 0
0 0
German
26
19
7
73 1
26 9
o
o
Hebrew
114
111
3
97.4
2 6
o
o
Italian North
90
87
3
96 7
3 3
o
Q
Italian, South
153
148
3
2
96.7
2 0
1 3
o
Polish
89
68
17
4
76 4
19 1
4 5
o
Total
569
519
43
6
1
91 2
7 6
1 i
9
TABLE 16. — Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born males who
were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
[This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race of individual.
Number reporting
complete data.
Per cent without oc-
cupation.
Per cent working for
wages.
Per cent
working
without
wages.
Per cent working
for profit.
£
P
£
"cS
So
C>S
«,2
O
oJ
1
si
j=
•a
£H
1
0
1
£
4
P
fc
O
*C3
1
cub
C3
£
<u
1
O
3
o
£H
Bohemian and Moravian
35
32
105
125
166
89
141
20.0
21.9
8.6
5.6
4.2
39.3
6.4
0.0
6.3
3.8
12.8
21.1
9.0
41.8
17.1
9.4
3.8
4.8
11.4
.0
10.6
17.1
3.1
15.2
8.0
4.2
1.1
4.3
5.7
.0
3.8
4.0
.0
.0
1.4
1.9
17.1
6.3
11.4
6.4
1.8
14.6
2.8
7.3
57.1
?5.0
38.1
36.0
38.6
24.7
61.0
11.4
31.3
8.6
28.0
17.5
23.6
21.3
0.0
.0
2.9
.0
1.2
7.9
2.1
2.0
11.4
31.3
11.4
28.0
18.7
31.5
23.4
8.6
18.8
16.2
29.6
36.7
4.5
9.2
20.1
2.9
3.1
15.2
.0
.6
.0
.0
0.0
.0
10.5
.8
1.2
.0
.0
2.0
11.4
21.9
41.9
30.4
38.6
4.5
9.2
German
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian. South. ..
Japanese
Polish
Total
752
11.2
\
18.2
7.4
7.0
41.9
20.2
22.2
2.7
24.7
608
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 17. — Occupation before coming to the United States of foreign-born females who
were 16 years of age or over at time of coming, by race of individual.
[Thistable includes only races with 20 or more females reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
bC
'•£ •
8
Per cent working for
wages.
Per cent
working
without
wages.
Percent
working for
profit.
Race of individual.
"I
*!
|I
!g'
h
P
II
9
1
1
3 lei
0 03
1
1
bp
1
1
3
*
ft
*
Q <*
EH
O
EH jfe
O
H
£
o
EH
Bohemian and Moravian ....
26
84.6
0.0
1R 4
0.0
0 0
15.4 0.0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
26
73.1
.0~7.7
3. 8 15. 4
26. 9 . 0
.0
.0
,0
.0
,0
Hebrew
114
97.4
0
.0 .0
2.6
0
,0
.0 .0
0
n
Italian Ncrth
09
o
2 2
1 1
0
3.3
n
o
.0' .0
0
o
Italian South
153
96 7
•> o
.0 n
n
2013
o
1.3 .0
n
n
Polish '
89
76.4
T> 4
6 7
0
.0
19.1 .0
4.5
4. 5 . 0
0
0
Total ...
91.2 2.5
2.6
1.2
1.2 7.6
.4
.2
-o
569
Information is given in these tables for 1,321 persons, including
752 males and 569 females. Eleven and two-tenths per cent of the
males were without occupation before coming to the United States,
41.9 per cent were working for wages, 22.2 per cent were working
without wages, and 24.7 per cent were working for profit. The
largest proportion of males without occupation is shown by the Japa-
nese, with 39.3 per cent, followed by the Germans with 21.9 per cent,
and the Bohemians and Moravians with 20 per cent. The South Ital-
ians have the smallest proportion, 4.2 per cent, without occupation.
Among the males working for wages the Poles rank highest with 61
per cent and the Japanese lowest with 24.7 per cent. The percentage
of males working without wages varies from 11.4 per cent of the
Bohemians and Moravians and the Hebrews to 31.5 per cent of the
Japanese, and the proportion working for profit varies from 4.5
per cent of the Japanese to 41.9 per cent of the Hebrews. Ninety-
one and two-tenths per cent of the females were without occupation
before coming to the United States, 7.6 per cent were working for
wages, 1.1 per cent were working without wages, and 0.2 per cent
were working for profit. The proportion without occupation varies
from 73.1 per cent of the Germans to 97.4 per cent of the Hebrews,
and the proportion working for wages from 2 per cent of the South
Italians to 26.9 per cent of the Germans. Poles and South Italians
alone were working without wages, the proportion so employed being
less than 5 per cent for each race, and none of the races specified
reports any females working for profit.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
609
The table next submitted shows the per cent of foreign-born per-
sons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by age at time of
coming to the United States and race of individual:
TABLE 18. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over who speak English,
by age at time of coming to the United States and race of individual.
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 40 or more persons reporting,
ever, is for all non-English-speaking races.]
The total, how-
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak
English, by age at
time of coming to
United States.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Bohemian and Moravian /
87
63
384
342
524
109
68
402
47
68
100.0
100.0
93.1
75.4
92.1
(0)
88?9
89.6
93.3
100.0
77.8
87.0
83.4
73.2
61.6
91.7
72.9
75.7
53.1
71.2
German .
Hebrew
Italian, North"
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese ..
Slovak
Total
2,159
88.2
74.4
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
In the preceding table the percentage speaking English among per-
sons under 14 years of age at time of coming to the United States is
larger for each race than such percentage among those 14 years of age
or over at time of coming, 88.2 per cent of the total under 14 showing
tliis ability, compared with 74.4 per cent of those 14 or over. Of
those under 14 at time of coming, the Bohemian and Moravian, Ger-
man, and Slovak races show 100 per cent each able to speak English,
compared with slightly less than 90 per cent of the Lithuanians
and Poles and 75.4 per cent of the North Italians. Of those 14 years
of age or over at the time of coming, the Japanese rank first with
91.7 per cent speaking English, followed by the Germans with 87
per cent and the Hebrews with 83.4 per cent, while the Portuguese
rank lowest in this group, only 53.1 per cent being able to speak
English.
The table on the following page shows the per cent of foreign-
born persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by years in
the United States and race of individual.
610
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 19. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 6 years of age or over ivho speak English, by
years in the United States and race of individual.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only non-English-speaking races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all non-
English-speaking races.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who speak English, by
years in the United States.
Under 5.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Bohemian and Moravian
87
63
384
342
524
109
68
402
47
68
60.0
100.0
76.4
53.6
14.7
90.1
62.5
25.0
57.1
38.5
81.8
91.7
88.4
70.4
66.7
94.1
79.3
81.0
65.4
88.9
86.7
87.5
91.7
84.5
75.8
100.0
78.3
80.5
71.4
86.5
German
Hebrew
Italian North
Italian South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese
Slovak
Total
2,159
64.4
77.9
81.9
Increased ability to speak English as length of residence in the
United States increases is clearly indicated in the above table. Of
the 2,159 persons represented the largest proportion speaking English
is exhibited by the group in the United States ten years or over, with
81.9 per cent able to speak English, compared with 77.9 per cent of
the persons in this country five to nine years, and 64.4 per cent of
those here under five years. Of those in the United States under five
years, the Germans with 100 per cent show the largest proportion
speaking English, followed by the Japanese with 90.1 per cent, and
the Hebrews with 76.4 per cent. The Japanese show the largest per-
centages speaking English in the second and third periods, followed
in the second period by the Germans and the Slovaks, and in the
third by the Hebrews and Germans. The Italians, Lithuanians,
Poles, and Portuguese exhibit relatively small proportions speaking
English in each period, the South Italians with 14.7 per cent rank-
ing lowest in the period under five years, while the Portuguese show
the smallest proportions, or 65.4 and 71.4 per cent, in the two fol-
lowing periods.
Some idea of the extent to which the rural immigrants have
acquired a knowledge of the English language may be obtained from
the table which follows, showing the per cent of persons 6 years of
age or over who speak English, by sex and general nativity and race
of individual.
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
611
TABLE 20. — Per cent of persons 6 years of age or over who speak English, by sex and
general nativity and race of individual.
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races with 40 or more persons reporting. The totals, how-
ever, are for all non-English-speaking races.]
General nativity and race of individual.
Number reporting complete
data.
Per cent who speak English.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
41
39
92
134
255
362
51
34
189
191
289
97
37
227
25
33
34
39
97
112
205
316
36
29
195
151
235
12
31
175
22
35
75
78
189
246
460
678
87
63
384
342
524
109
68
402
47
68
100.0
100.0
100.0
99.3
99.6
93.6
92.2
91.2
91.0
79.6
82.7
96.9
91.9
90.3
88.0
87.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
97.3
9S.5
91.5
72.2
86.2
82.6
66.9
55.3
41.7
54.8
62.9
40.9
68.6
100.0
100.0
100.0
98.4
99.1
92.6
83.9
88. 9
86.7
74.0
70.4
90.8
75.0
78.4
66.0
77.9
German
llebrew
Italian, North
Italian. South. . .
Polish...
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German.
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian, South
Japanese ...
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese
Slovak
Grand total
* 2,223
1,843
4,066
91.8
80.5
86.7
Total native-born of foreign father
1.017
1,206
890
953
1,907
2,159
97.1
87.3
95.6
66.3
96. 4
78.0
Total foreign-born
Ninety-one and eight-tenths per cent of the 2,223 males and 80.5
per cent of the 1,843 females represented in the above table speak
English. Ninety-six and four-tenths per cent of the total native-
born of foreign father speak English, compared with 78 per cent
of the foreign-born. One hundred per cent of the native-born of
Bohemian and Moravian, German, and Hebrew descent speak Eng-
lish, compared with slightly lower percentages of the native-born
of Italian parentage, and only 92.6 per cent of the native-born of
Polish lineage-. Each of the foreign-born races shows a larger per-
centage of males than of females able to speak English, the difference
being the greatest in the case of the Japanese, Portuguese, and Lith-
uanians. Comparing the totals for the foreign-born the Japanese
rank first in ability to speak English, followed by the Germans and
Hebrews with slightly smaller percentages, the smallest proportion
speaking English being shown by the Portuguese.
The table next presented shows the per cent of foreign-born per-
sons 10 years of age or over who read and the per cent who read
and write, by age at time of coming to the United States and pace
of individual.
612
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 21. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent
icho read and write, by age at time of coming to the United States and race of individual .
[This table includes only races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent who read, by
age at time of com-
ing to United States.
Per cent who read and
write, by age at time
of coming to United
States.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Bohemian and Moravian
85
62
356
323
515
108
64
400
45
64
95.5
87.5
99.0
77.2
63.4
96.8
96.3
91.7
73.4
39.4
99.1
59.3
81.8
31.3
76.9
95.5
87.5
99.0
76.2
59.2
96.8
96.3
90.5
71.6
37.3
99.1
42.4
75.4
21.9
71.2
German
Hebrew . .
Italian, North
Italian South
Lithuanian
100.0
93.3
61.5
83.3
60.0
77.3
53.8
83.3
Polish
Portuguese . .
Slovak.
Total...
2.089
80.7
73.0
76.3
69.7
The above table shows a greater degree of literacy in the case of
persons .under 14 years of age at the time of coming to the United
States than is exhibited by those 14 years of age or over at the time
of coming. Eighty and seven-tenths per cent of the persons under
14 at the time of coming to this country, compared with 73 per cent
of those 14 or over, are able to read, and 76.3 per cent of those under
14 at the time of coming, compared with 69.7 per cent of those 14 or
over, can read and write. The greatest degree of literacy is shown
by the Japanese, who report 99.1 per cent able to read and write,
followed by the Bohemians and Moravians with a slightly lower per-
centage, while the Portuguese show the greatest percentage of illiter-
ates, the South Italians ranking next to the Portuguese in this regard.
The table next submitted shows the per cent of persons 10 years
of age or over who read and the per cent who read and write, by sex
and general nativity and race of individual.
TABLE 22. — Per cent of persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent who read and
write, by sex and general nativity and race of individual.
[This table includes only races with 40 or more persons reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race
of individual..
Number reporting com-
plete data.
Per cent who read.
Per cent who read and
write.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-bora of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian.
German
31
23
71
97
167
333
49
33
171
177
285
96
35
225
24
33
28
27
67
88
135
248
36
29
185
146
230
12
29
175
21
31
59
50
138
185
302
581
85
62
356
323
515
108
64
400
45
64
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
91.0
79.0
95.9
90.9
96.5
80.2
54.0
100.0
74.3
87.1
50.0
90.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
90.4
96.8
97.2
100.0
91.4
67.8
36.1
91.7
48.3
80.0
28.6
64.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
90.7
86.6
96.5
95.2
93.8
74.6
46.0
99.1
62.5
84.0
40.0
78.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
87.4
77.8
95.9
90.9
96.5
79.7
50.5
100.0
60.0
80.9
37.5
84.8
96.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
89.6
96.4
97.2
100.0
89.7
65.1
34.3
91.7
24.1
69.1
23.8
61.3
98.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
88.4
85.7
96.5
95.2
93.0
73.1
43.3
99.1
43.8
75.8
31.1
73.4
Hebrew
Italian, North .
Italian, South
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian.
German
Hebrew
Italian, North...
Italian, South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese
Slovak
Grand total
1,970
786
809
1,161
1,596
3,566
1,440
1,477
2,089
83.2
88.2
88.1
79.8
80.3
96.6
96.7
68.5
81.9
80.9
86.6
86.7
76.8
77.4
95.9
95.7
64.3
79.3
Total native-born of foreign
father
654
668
928
92.0
92.0
74.8
90.8
90.7
71.3
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture.
613
Data are presented in the preceding table for 3,566 persons,
including 1,970 males and 1,596 females, and of the total number
81.9 per cent are able to read and 79.3 per cent to read and write.
Ninety-two per cent of the native-born of foreign father are able to
read and 90.18 per cent to read and write, compared with 74.8 per cent
of the foreign-born who read and 71.3 per cent who read ancl write.
One hundred per cent of the native-born of German, Hebrew, and
North Italian parentage and 98.3 per cent of the native-born of
Bohemian and Moravian parentage read and write, compared with
88.4 per cent of the native-born of South Italian and 85.7 per cent of
the native-born of Polish descent.
Comparing the foreign-born, it is seen that the Japanese show the
greatest degree of literacy, followed, by the Bohemians and Mora-
vians, Germans, and Hebrews, each of which shows more than 90 per
cent able to read and write. The Portuguese exhibit the larglest
percentage of illiterates, showing only 31.1 per cent who read and
write. The percentages able to read and to read and write are slightly
larger for the males than for the females, the greatest difference
between the sexes being shown by the Portuguese, Lithuanian,
Slovak, and South Italian races.
Further data on the literacy of immigrants engaged in agriculture
are presented in the table following, which sets forth the per cent of
foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and the per cent
who read and write, by years in the United States and race of
individual.
TABLE 23. — Per cent of foreign-born persons 10 years of age or over who read and per cent
who read and write, by years in the United States and race of individual.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. This table includes
only races with 40 or more persons reporting. The total, however, is for all foreign-born.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent
inl
Under 5.
who read, by years Per cent who read and write,
Jnited States. by years in United States.
5 to 9.
10 or over.
Under 5. 5 to 9.
10 or over.
Bohemian and Moravian
85
62
356
323
515
108
64
400
45
64
100.0
100.0
95.3
67.1
30.3
100.0
57.1
50.0
66.7
63.6
100.0
100.0
98.7
71.2
35.6
94.1
66.7
75.0
32.0
81.3
95.0
93.7
91.1
78.6
49.1
100.0
60.9
86.6
42.9
81.1
100.0
100.0
95.3
67.1
30.3
100.0
14.3
37.5
50.0
63.6
100.0
100.0
97.4
71.2
34.2
94.1
55.6
55.0
24.0
81.3
95.0
93.7
90.1
75.9
46.0
100.0
47.8
79.9
35.7
73.0
German ...
Hebrew
Italian, North
Italian South
Japanese
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese . . .
Slovak
Total
2,089
79.2
71.4
74.7
76.6
67.4
71.1
The Bohemians and Moravians exhibit the greatest degree of lit-
eracy in the preceding table and are closely followed by the Germans,
each of these races showing 100 per cent of those in the United States
under ten years and more than 90 per cent of those here ten years or
over able to read and write. Of those here five to nine years, the
greatest proportion of illiterates is shown by the Portuguese, with
only 24 per cent who read and write. The percentage of illiterates is
considerably larger among the Poles, Slovaks, and Lithuanians in the
United States under five years than among those here five years or over.
614
The Immigration Commission.
The table following shows the per cent of children 6 and under 1 6
years of age at home, at school, and at work, by sex and general
nativity and race of individual.
TABLE 24. — Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school, and at
work, by sex and general nativity and race of individual.
[This table includes only races with 40 or more children reporting.
MALE.
The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent—
At home. At school.
Native-born of native father, White 41 12.2 87.8
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian 25 12.0 88.0
German 21 23.8 76.2
Hebrew... 58 5.2 93.1
Italian, North 76 11.8 82.9
Italian, South 178 25.3 71.9
Polish 218 19.3 78.4
Foreign-born:
Hebrew 38 5.3 94.7
Italian, North 25 7G.O 24.0
Grandtotal 769 j 19.8 77.9
Total native-born of foreign father 628 18. 8 78. 7
Total native-born C69 j 18.4 79.2
Total foreign-born 100 29.0 69.0
FEMALE.
Native-born of native father, White 29 C.O 100.0
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian 21 14.3 85.7
German 21 9.5 85.7
Hebrew 69 11.6 88.4
Italian, North 69 18.8 81.2
Italian, South 164 22.0 76.8
Polish 179 20.1 79.9
Foreign-born:
Hebrew 33 18.2 81.8
Italian, North 24 37.5 58.3
Grandtotal 695 19.7 79.7
Total native-born of foreign father 583 19.7 79.8
Total native-born 612 18. 8 80. 7
Total foreign-born 83 26.5 72.3
TOTAL.
Native-born of native father, White 70 7. 1 92. 9
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian 46 13. 0 87. 0
German 42 16.7 81.0
Hebrew 127 8.7 90.6
Italian, North 145 15.2 82.1
Italian, South 342 23.7 74.3
Polish 397 19.6 79.1
Foreign-born:
Hebrew 71 11.3 33.7
Italian, North 49 57.1 40.3
Grandtotal 1,464 19.7 78.8
Total native-born of foreign father 1,211 19.2 79.2
Total native-born 1, 281 18 6 79 9
Total foreign-born 183 27.9 7Q.5
Recent Immigrants in Agriculture. 615
The preceding table presents data for 1,464 persons, and shows that
19.7 per cent are at home, 78.8 per cent at school, and 1.5 per cent at
work. Seven and one-tenth per cent of the native-born of native
father are at home, 92.9 per cent at school, and none at work, com-
pared with 19.2 per cent of the native-born of foreign father at
home, 79.2 per cent at school, and 1.6 per cent at work, and 27.9 per
cent of the foreign-born at home, 70.5 per cent at school, and 1.6 per
cent at work. The Hebrews exhibit the highest percentage at school
and the smallest percentage at home in the two groups of native-
born of foreign father and foreign-born, the South Italians showing the
largest percentage at home and the smallest percentage at school of
the native-born of foreign father, and the North Italians the largest
percentage at home and the smallest percentage at school of the
foreign-born. The proportion at work is less than 3 per cent for
each race, none of the Hebrews nor the native-born of Bohemian or
Moravian parentage being so engaged.
Comparing the males and females, it is seen that the former show
the larger percentages at home and at work and the latter the larger
percentage at school. The foreign-born North Italians, both male and
female, rank highest in the percentage at home and lowest in the per-
centage at school. Seventy-six per cent of the foreign-born North
Italian males are at home and 24 per cent at school, compared with
37.5 per cent of the females at home and 58.3 per cent at school.
ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
JAPANESE AND OTHER IMMIGRANT RACES
IN THE PACIFIC COAST AND ROCKY
MOUNTAIN STATES.
For the complete report on Japanese and other immigrant races in the
Pacific Coast and Ptocky Mountain States see Reports of the
I in migration Commission, vols. 23-25.
72289°— VOL 1 — 11 40 617
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introductory 621
Scope and method of investigation 625
European and Canadian immigrants 644
Chinese 654
Japanese 660
East Indians 676
Mexicans 682
Conclusions 691
LIST OF TABLES.
Table 1. Total population and number of foreign-born persons in continental
United States and in each specified State of the Western division,
by country of birth: 1900 623
2. Immigrants entering continental United States during the years 1901
to 1909, inclusive, by race 625
3. Total number of employees for whom information was secured, by
sex and general nativity and race and by industry 627-634
4. Number and per cent of employees of each race for whom information
was secured, by sex 635, 636
5. Per cent of foreign-born employees in the United States each specified
number of years, by sex and race 636, 637
6. Number of households studied in selected farming localities of the
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States, by general nativity and
race of head of household 639
7. Number of households studied, by general nativity and race of head
of household and by occupation 640
8. Total number of persons for whom information was secured, by sex and
general nativity and race of individual and by occupation of head
of household 641,642
9. Average wages per day earned by each specified number of farm
laborers in California, by race 670
619
JAPANESE AND 'OTHER IMMIGRANTS RACES IN THE PACIFIC COAST
AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES,
INTRODUCTORY.
The immigration problem of the West takes a form somewhat dif-
ferent from that of the eastern and middle States, principally because
of differences in location with reference to sources of immigration,
comparative sparsity of population, and extent of resources remaining
to be developed and exploited. The expense involved in direct immi-
gration to the West from Europe is so great that European immigrants
are secured chiefly as a part of the general westward movement.
On the other hand, the location and climate of New Mexico, Arizona,
and California are such as to cause them to share with Texas most
of the immigrants from Mexico, while the location of the three
Pacific coast States, California, Oregon, and Washington, is such as
to bring to them practically the whole of the eastern Asiatic immigra-
tion and the secondary movement from the Hawaiian Islands. The
Rocky Mountain States, save New Mexico and Arizona, are so placed
that they must compete with other States, since through other States
immigration from all sources save Canada must come.
Though the westward movement has been strong, as is indicated
by the fact that in 1900 more than one-half of the native-born had
come from States other than those in which they resided, the popu-
lation of most localities is still sparse. In 1900 the population of
the 11 States and Territories comprising the Western division was
only 4,091,349, or 5.37 per cent of the total for the continental
United States. Though the movement of population westward has
been very rapid since the census of 1900 was taken, the public lands,
the large holdings capable of being subdivided and more fully utilized,
the mines, smelters, lumber mills, fisheries, and general construction
work present a demand for a much larger population than any of
these States now has. One problem has been to settle the country
more fully and to meet the demand for labor. Another has been
presented by the immigration of certain races which have arrived
at Pacific coast ports. The importance of the one is indicated by
the activity of promotion committees at work in the Middle West
and East in an effort to induce a larger movement of population
west and the "recruiting" of laborers practiced by railway companies,
general contractors, beet-sugar companies, operators of mines and
smelters, and, in sporadic cases, by California fruit growers. The
importance of the other has made itself apparent in the general
insistence upon the exclusion of laborers of certain races, which is
already largely an accomplished fact.
621
622 The Immigration Commission.
In 1900, 846,321, or 20.7 per cent, of the 4,091,349 persons reported
by the census as living in the 11 States and Territories of the Western
division, were foreign-born. Two per cent of the population and
about one-tenth of the foreign-born had immigrated from Asia.
About one-eighth of the total population and more than three-fifths
of the foreign-born had immigrated from north European countries,
the Germans with 135,459, the English with 102,656, the Irish with
83,532, and the Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes with 116,175 being
the most conspicuous elements. Some 89,800 immigrants from
countries, forming 2.6 per cent of the population of the Western divi-
sion. Among the latter the Italians were the most numerous, fol-
lowed by the various races of Austria/, the Finns, and the Portuguese.
Finally, 29,579 Mexicans had found a place in the population, con-
stituting 0.7 per cent of the whole. The table which follows shows
the population of each State of the Western division, and of the
continental United States, in 1900, together with the total number
of foreign-born and the number of the same born in each specified
country, and the percentage of each nationality in the United States
residing in the Western division. The countries from which the
immigration has been small are not included in the table.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.
623
QO .-H cc co o e^ .-H to
(MOOM.-HCO
New
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o" oo" M'CO' T-T-^ o"co~ r-T c^^o^^iN1
eoY'T
S
od
^^
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is
•?5
II
II
13
££
624 The Immigration Commission.
The more important changes in the population since 1900 have
been incidental to —
(1) A rapid influx from 1900 to 1907 of Japanese (with a few
Koreans) from Japan or Hawaii, or both, until the number of that
race now residing in the Western division is in excess of 90,000, more
than one-half of whom are in California and one-sixth in Washington ;
(2) A diminishing number of Chinese, their decline being due to
the exclusion law and a tendency exhibited by the members of that
race to move to the eastern cities;
(3) An influx of Mexicans continued until the number in the
Western States has increased several fold;
(4) A continued influx of English, Scandinavians, and other north
Europeans, in part a direct immigration, in part a westward movement
of industrial workers before the increasing number of south and east
Europeans employed in industry in the East, and in part a westward
movement of families, generally to locate on farms;
(5) An influx of immigrants from southern and eastern European
countries, the smaller part of them, except in the case of the North
Italians, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dalmatians, coming directly from
their native land, much the larger number coming from the States
in the East to engage in common or semiskilled labor on the railways,
in the mines and smelters, and other industries in which much
unskilled labor is required and in which laborers are employed in
large numbers.
The percentage of the immigrants of each race, save the Japanese,
arriving in the United States between July 1, 1900, and June 30,
1909, who gave some State of the Western division as their desti-
nation, is presented in Table 2. The Japanese who arrived are not
fiven, for the reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration
o not include those who have come to the mainland from the Ha-
waiian Islands. More than 90 per cent of them have remained in the
Western division. The number of Chinese destined to the West-
ern division of States, as given in the table, is much too small, but
correct data in this regard are not available for the reason that during
the first three years of the period under consideration the Bureau of
Immigration did not record the destination of Chinese entering the
United States at the port of San Francisco. It should be added,
also, that the figure given for Mexicans is not complete, for the reason
that until 1908 the Bureau of Immigration did not record the number
of Mexican immigrants entering the United States overland. There-
fore, the number admitted and the number destined to the Western
division of States, during the period considered, are both too low.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.
625
TABLE 2. — Immigrants entering continental United States during the years 1901 to 1909,
inclusive, by race.
[Compiled from reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1901-1909.]
Race.
Total
number
entering
continental
United
States,
1901 to 1909.
Number
giving
Western
division as
destina-
tion.
Per cent
giving
Western
division as
destina-
tion.
Armenian
19,333
769
4.0
86, 132
1,454
1.7
Bulgarian Servian, and Montenegrin
81,958
4,206
5.1
Chinese
15, 149
8,804
58.1
Croatian and Slovenian
270, 157
16,908
6.3
Dalmatian Bosnian and Herzegovinian
25, 739
5,959
23.2
Dutch and Flemish
69, 934
4,190
6.0
East Indian
3,843
2,908
75.7
English ... .
332, 113
44, 179
13.3
Finnish
117,311
11,503
9.8
French . .
89,566
12,415
13.9
German
626, 256
35, 910
5.7
GreeV
171, 648
9,290
5.4
Hebrew
891,995
5,461
.6
Irish
333,335
15,234
4.6
Italian North
311,303
66,098
21.2
Italian, South
1,568,914
29,906
1.9
Lithuanian
135, 372
484
.4
Magyar
291,370
963
.3
Mexican
23,683
o4,492
19.0
Polish
745,306
2,990
.4
Portuguese
56,301
8,763
15.6
68 Oil
352
.5
Russian
63,257
4,390
6.9
Ruthenian
115,236
408
.4
Scandinavian
477, 860
51,818
10.8
Scotch
108,382
13, 456
12.4
Slovak
300, 027
1,976
.7
Spanish
36, 108
7,383
20 4
Syrian
43, 560
790
1.8
Turkish
11 433
195
1.7
Welsh . .
16, 376
1,655
10.1
a 17,486 Mexicans were recorded as destined to Texas during the period considered.
SCOPE AND METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.
The investigation conducted by the Commission in the West was
planned to include (1) a study of the industrial and social conditions
of immigrants in the more important industries, (2) a study of
selected immigrant races in some of the larger cities, (3) a special
study of agricultural laborers and of immigrant farmers, and (4) a
detailed examination of Japanese, Korean and East Indian immi-
gration in its various phases, the emphasis to be placed upon the
last named because it presents a problem peculiar to the Pacific coast
and with reference to which the fullest possible information was to
be desired. No special investigation of Chinese immigration was
planned. Most of the Chinese now in the United States have resided
here so long and have lived and worked under such conditions that an
investigation of them along the lines adopted for other races would
not show the effects of a free or of a restricted immigration, nor would
the data be comparable with those collected for other races. The
difficulties involved in the administration of the exclusion law have
been so great that the Chinese laborers were very suspicious of the
motives of the Commission's agents so that it was found difficult in
most places to secure any data of value from them. The slight
626 The Immigration Commission.
investigation made of Chinese immigration was, therefore, purely
incidental to the investigation of industries in which they are or have
been employed.
The most important industries of the West from the point of view
of the number of men and especially the number of immigrants
employed, are steam railroad transportation, with a probable total
of 75,000 employees; metalliferous mining and smelting, with a total
of between 125,000 and 150,000; coal mining, with a total of more than
36,000 in 1908; the lumber industry, with 57,657 in 1905; electric rail-
way transportation, with almost 20,000 in 1907; general construction
work, the growing of sugar beets and manufacture of beet sugar, and
hop, fruit, and vegetable growing, especially in California, with their
allied industries ; and the fishing industry of the Northwestern States
and Alaska. These industries, together with others of less importance
but which are of interest in connection with certain phases of the
problem, have been investigated. The investigation included the
collection of individual schedules from the employees of the selected
establishments ; the testimony of employers, foremen, and others with
reference to certain points ; and pay rolls in so far as such data would
supplement those obtained in other ways, and where the pay rolls
were in such form that they would be suitable for tabulation. a The
industries investigated, the total number of persons for whom sched-
ules were obtained, and the number of each race, by sex and nativity,
in each industry upon which a special report is submitted, as well as
the length of residence in the United States of employees, are shown
in the tables following.
a For schedule forms see Vol. II, pp. 653-662, 668-670, 674-677, and 680-681.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 62 7
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628
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 3.— Total number of employees for whom information was secured, by sex and general nativity and race and by industry— Continued.
MALE— Continued.
m
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630
The Immigration Commission.
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Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 631
<NQO .-H »-HCO.-
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The Immigration Commission.
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634
The Immigration Commission.
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Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.
635
TABLE 4. — Number and per cent of employees of each race for whom information was
secured, by sex.
General nativity and race.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
17, 701
352
101
12
131
32
19
1
645
8
67
2
192
1,545
14
179
2,007
3
2
1
2,266
188
1
1
1.523
20
54
4
20
18
4
19.224
372
155
16
151
50
23
1
686
13
67
2
214
1,612
14
• 218
2,240
3
2
1
2,514
414
1
1
1
291
49
214
1
2
263
65
572
29
324
136
9
242
6
3
3
1
172
160
81
126
182
1,432
670
1,488
6
672
447
123
395
3,376
11
804
29
404
2,385
2,573
3
18
15
298
8
3,213
4,887
2,318
3
8,441
216
86
23.3
.5
.1
(°>.2
(a\
(a\
!°!.9
W.l
W.3
2.0
(0).2
2.6
(o)
(o)
(a)
3.0
.2
(a)
(°>.o
.3
.1
.3
8.,
'.1
W.4
.2
(a)
W.3
(«)
8
<a).!
.2
.1
.2
.2
1.8
.9
2.0
W.9
.6
.2
.5
4.4
w»
w.5
2.7
3.4
ft
(°>.4
%i
5.9
2.7
(a)
11.0
.3
.1
31.2
.4
1.1
.1
.4
.4
.1
.0
.8
.1
.0
.0
.5
1.4
.0
.8
4.8
.0
.0
.0
5.1
4.6
.0
.0
W.6
.1
.3
.0
.0
2.5
.2
.5
.2
.3
.4
.0
.1
.1
.1
.0
(a)
.0
1.9
.1
(a)
.0
.1
.7
(0).i
(a)
W.3
.0
.0
1.2
.0
.0
(a)
1.1
6.2
.1
.0
<•>:,
(a)
.0
1.6
8.8
6.0
.0
2.3
<0).o
23.8
.5
.2
« .2
ft''
.9
«:,
W .3
2.0
W.3
2.8
(a)
(a)
(a)
3.1
8'1
W.4
.1
.3
(a)
(°>.3
.1
.7
W.4
.2
(a)
W.3
(a)
(a)
(a)
<".,
.2
.1
.2
.2
1.8
.8
1.8
W.s
.6
.2
.5
4.2
WL.
«..
3.0
2.9
(0)
(a)
(a)
(a) '
4.0
6.1
2.9
%L.
.3
.1
Negro
Indian
Native-born of foreign father, by country
of birth of father:
Australia
Austria-Hungary
Azores
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
41
5
Chili
China . . .
Cuba
Denmark
22
67
England
Finland
France
39
233
Germany
Greece
Hawaii
Iceland
Ireland
248
226
Italy
Korea ...
Madeira Islands
1
29
3
13
Mexico
262
46
201
1
2
141
53
546
21
308
116
1
4
239
3
3
2
1
81
156
79
126
177
1,398
669
1,484
5
670
434
123
395
3,319
11
804
27
348
2,084
2,570
3
16
12
296
8
3,136
4,459
2,027
3
8,327
214
86
Netherlands
Norway
Panama
Peru
Portugal
122
12
26
8
16
20
Russia
Scotland
Spain
Sweden . . .
Switzerland
Trinidad
Turkey
5
3
3
Wales . ...
West Indies (other than Cuba)
Africa (country not specified)
South America (country not specified).
Foreign-born, by race:
Arabian
1
Armenian
91
4
2
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French
5
34
1
4
1
2
13
Canadian, Other. . . .
Chinese
Croatian
Cuban
Dalmatian
Danish
Dutch
East Indian
English
57
Filipino. ...
Finnish
Flemish
2
56
301
3
French
German. . .
Greek
Hawaiian
Hebrew, Russian
2
3
2
Hebrew, Other.
Herzegovinian
Icelander
Irish..
77
428
291
Italian, North
Italian, South.
Italian (not specified)
Japanese
114
2
Korean
Lithuanian
Less than 0.05 per cent.
636
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 4. — Number and per cent of employees of each race for whom information was
secured, by sex— Continued.
General nativity and race.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Foreign-born, by race- Continued.
27
27
216
6,248
410
3
1,040
3
431
915
44
421
25
787
16
107
471
1,191
290
1,778
28
93
410
30
4
398
8
12
58
(«)
0.3
8.1
.5
(a)
1.4
(a)
.6
.8
.1
.5
(?)
1.0
(a)
!e
1.6
.4
2.3
(•)
.1
(a)'
(a)
(a)'
(0)
0.0
.1
1.9
.0
.0
.2
.0
(a)
6.8
.1
.9
.0
.6
(a)
.0
.1
.2
.4
.5
(a)
.0
.1
.3
.0
(a)
.0
.0
(a)
(a)
0.3
7.7
.5
wii
W.5
1.1
.1
.5
(a)
1.0
(a)
!e
1.5
.4
2.2
*.i
.5
(a)
W.5
(«)
«.,
Magyar
210
6,154
410
3
1,029
3
429
581
41
378
25
760
14
107
468
1,180
269
1,756
26
93
407
16
4
397
8
12
56
6
94
Mexican ....
Montenegrin
Norwegian
11
Persian
Polish
2
334
3
43
Portuguese
Roumanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Scotch
27
2
Scotch-Irish
Servian
Slovak.. . . .
3
11
21
22
2
Slovenian
S oanish...
Swedish
Syrian
Turkish
Welsh
3
14
.....
West Indian (other than Cuban)
Australian (race not specified)
Austrian (race not specified)
Belgian (race not specified)
South American (race not specified). . .
Swiss (race not specified)
2
Grand total ... .
75, 830
4,882
80, 712
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total native-born of foreign father
9,265
27,419
48,411
1,189
2,786
2,096
10, 454
30,205
50,507
12.2
36.2
63.8
24.4
57.1
42.9
13.0
37.4
62.6
Total native-born .
Total foreign-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
TABLE 5. — Per cent of foreign-born employees in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. No deduction is
made for time spent abroad. This table includes in each section only races with 80 or more reporting.
The totals, however, are for all races.]
MALE.
Race.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent in United States each specified number of years.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Armenian
80
156
126
175
1,388
628
1,484
670
433
122
394
3,304
803
347
2,081
2,558
294
3,125
4,451
2,025
8,314
214
86
11.3
2.6
1.6
1.1
1.9
.5
,1.6
1.3
.9
4.9
5.1
2.7
1.9
3.5
1.8
2.4
3.1
1.3
3.2
2.9
.9
.0
1.2
15.0
3.8
42.9
1.1
2.7
.6
5.2
10.3
2.3
4.9
26.4
5.9
2.4
6.3
5.0
17.8
12.2
3.4
10.0
8.7
5.3
.9
1.2
7.5
13.5
31.7
1.7
3.5
.6
11.9
26.9
4.8
11.5
47.7
8.7
7.7
6.1
6.2
29.4
24.1
6.7
18.8
16.5
12.9
9.3
3.5
10.0
17.9
7.9
.0
3.4
.0
13.1
15.2
3.5
7.4
18.8
5.7
7.1
5.2
3.7
19.5
23.1
4.8
13.3
12.7
22.9
35.5
8.1
12.5
7.1
4.0
1.1
1.8
.2
8.6
10.9
6.5
13.1
1.5
4.5
7.8
4.9
2.7
10.6
11.6
5.3
9.1
8.9
15.7
34.1
3.5
23.8
18.6
7.9
6.9
12.9
1.6
35.4
23.4
14.1
14.8
.0
12.1
30.3
22.8
14.4
18.9
20.1
15.1
25.9
29.7
33.4
19.2
40.7
15.0
9.0
2.4
10.3
11.7
2.4
11.1
5.4
6.7
10.7
.0
6.5
14.3
8.4
5.3
.8
3.4
10.9
7.9
9.2
7.7
.0
12 8
2.5
7.7
.8
17.7
12.2
3.2
8.0
2.7
16.4
9.8
.0
9.9
14.6
12.1
11.5
.2
1.0
10.0
5.7
6.8
1.0
.0
15 1
2.5
19.9
.8
60.0
49.9
90.9
5.1
3.9
44.8
23.0
.5
44.1
13.9
30.8
49.4
.4
1.4
42.4
6.1
4.6
.2
.9
I4.n
Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian
Canadian, French . . .
Canadian. Other
Chinese
Croatian
Dalmatian ..
Danish
Dutch
East Indian
English
Finnish
French ..
German
Greek
Herzegovinian
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South.. . ...
Japanese
Korean
Lithuanian...
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.
637
TABLE 5. — Per cent of foreign-born employees in the United States each specified number
of years, by sex and race — Continued.
MALE— Continued.
*
Number
Perce
ntint
Inited
States
eachs
)ecifie<
I num
jer of 3
'ears.
Race.
complete
data.
Under
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 to 9.
10 to
14.
15 to
19.
20 or
over.
Magyar . . .
210
1.9
6.2
9.5
14.3
10.5
33.8
8.6
8.6
6.7
Mexican
6,115
14.2
11.8
14.3
11.2
7.3
"24.3
8.2
4.4
4.3
Montenegrin
409
.7
6.6
30.1
31.5
13.4
16.4
.5
.5
.2
Norwegian
1,027
2.0
7.0
11.4
8.1
5.6
22.6
5.6
9.0
28.8
Polish
427
2.8
5.2
11.9
16.4
8.7
25.1
10.5
9.4
10.1
Portuguese
Russian
581
377
1.0
10.3
8.6
18.8
10.2
17.8
6.4
9.5
* 6.5
4.0
22.5
20.7
9.1
6.9
10.5
5.8
25.1
6.1
Scotch
757
2.9
4.4
8.2
4.5
3.7
12.2
5.2
8.3
50.7
Servian
106
1.9
8.5
22.6
11.3
7.5
33.0
5.7
7.5
1.9
Slovak.
467
1.7
6.4
9.9
4.7
4.7
25.5
13.5
10.7
22.9
Slovenian
1,180
3.2
3.5
13.2
10.9
9.2
31.0
12.7
9.3
6.9
Spanish
269
6.3
32.7
24.2
7.1
5.6
13.4
3.3
3.0
4.5
Swedish. . .
1,752
1.1
4.3
5.1
3.8
3.8
19.8
7.1
15.3
39.8
Turkish .
93
1.1
16.1
54.8
14.0
7.5
6.5
.0
.0
.0
Welsh ;
407
1.5
4.9
7.6
3.7
4.9
7.9
3.4
6.6
59.5
Total
48 2^9
3 6
7 8
13 5
12.2
8.3
22.9
7.6
6.4
17.8
FEMALE.
Armenian
91
14.3
7.7
4.4
12.1
8.8
37.4
12.1
2.2
1.1
German.
300
2.3
17.0
12.7
1.7
2.3
28.3
9.3
10.7
15.7
Italian North
426
7.3
15.5
11.0
9.2
6.3
26.1
8.0
7.3
9.4
Italian, South .
291
2.4
12.0
9.6
6.9
6.5
31.6
14.8
10.0
6.2
Japanese
114
15.8
7.9
16.7
29.8
14.0
9.6
3.5
1.8
.9
Mexican
93
1.1
1.1
8.6
7.5
6.5
41.9
11.8
9.7
11.8
Portuguese
334
1.5
10.5
13.5
12.3
9.3
25.4
6.0
8.4
13.2
Total....
2,086
5.1
11.4
10.9
8.7
6.5
25.3
8.8
9.0
14.3
TOTAL.
Armenian
Bohemian and Moravian
Bosnian
171
160
80
12.9
2.5
12.5
11.1
3.8
21.3
5.8
13.1
35.0
11.1
17.5
7.5
10.5
8.1
5.0
31.0
18.8
11.3
13.5
8.8
1.3
2.3
7.5
1.3
1.8
20.0
5.0
Bulgarian
126
1.6
42.9
31.7
7.9
4.0
7.9
2.4
.8
.8
Canadian, French '
Canadian, Other
180
1,421
1.1
1.9
1.1
2.8
1.7
3.4
.0
3.3
1.1
1.8
6.7
12.9
10.0
11.9
17.8
12.5
. 60.6
49.5
Chinese ... .
629
.5
.8
.6
.0
.2
1.6
2.4
3.2
90.8
Croatian
1,488
1.6
5.2
12.0
13.0
8.5
35.3
11.1
7.9
5.2
Dalmatian...
672
1.3
10.3
26.8
15.3
10.9
23.5
5.4
2.7
3.9
Danish
446
1.1
2.2
4.7
3.6
6.3
14.1
6.5
16.8
44.6
Dutch
122
4.9
4.9
11.5
7.4
13.1
14.8
10.7-
9.8
23.0
East Indian
394
5.1
26.4
47.7
18.8
1.5
.0
.0
.0
.5
English..
3,360
2.6
5.8
8.7
5.6
4.5
12.0
6.6
10.1
44.0
Finnish
803
1.9
2.4
7.7
7.1
7.8
30.3
14.3
14.6
13.9
French ..
403
3.5
6.5
8.2
5.5
5.5
22.1
8.9
11.4
28.5
German
2,381
1.9
6.5
7.1
3.5
2.6
16.1
5.8
11.4
45.1
Greek
2,561
2.4
17.8
29.4
19.4
10.5
18.9
.9
.2
.4
Herzegovinian . . .
296
3.0
12.2
24.0
23.0
11.5
20.3
3.4
1.0
1.7
Irish...
3,198
1.3
3.3
6.7
4.7
5.2
15.0
10.8
10.1
42.9
Italian, North
Italian, South
4,877
2,316
3.5
2.8
10.5
9.1
18.1
15.6
12.9
12.0
8.9
8.6
25.9
30.0
7.9
9.9
5.9
7.2
6.4
4.8
Japanese
8,428
1.1
5.3
12.9
23.0
15.7
33.1
7.7
1.0
.2
Korean
216
.0
.9
10.2
35.2
33.8
19.0
.0
.0
.9
Lithuanian
86
1.2
1.2
3.5
8.1
3.5
40.7
12.8
15.1
14.0
Magvar
' 216
2.3
6.0
9.7
13.9
10.6
33.8
8.8
8.3
6.5
Mexican
6,208
14.0
11.7
14.2
11.1
7.3
24.5
8.2
4.4
4.4
Montenegrin . .
409
.7
6.6
30.1
31.5
13.4
16.4
.5
.5
.2
Norwegian
1,038
2.0
6.9
11.3
8.0
5.5
22.7
5.5
9.1
29.0
Polish
429
2.8
5.4
11.9
16.3
8.6
24.9
10.5
9.3
10.3
Portuguese
915
1.2
9.3
11.4
8.5
7.5
23.6
8.0
9.7
20.8
Russian. .
420
10.0
19.8
17.9
11.2
4.5
19.3
6.2
5.7
5.5
Scotch
784
2.9
4.5
8.2
4.3
3.8
12.0
5.1
8.7
50.5
Servian
106
1.9
8.5
22.6
11.3
7.5
33.0
5.7
7.5
1.9
Slovak
470
1.7
6.8
9.8
4.7
4.7
25.3
13.4
10.6
23.0
Slovenian
1,191
3.2
3.7
13.2
11.1
9.1
31.1
12.6
9.2
6.9
Spanish
290
10.0
30.7
22.4
6.6
5.5
13.8
3.1
3.1
4.8
Swedish...
1,774
1.1
4.3
5.0
3.7
3.8
19.8
7.2
15.2
39.8
Turkish
93
1.1
16.1
54.8
14.0
7.5
6.5
.0
.0
.0
Welsh
410
1.5
5 1
7 6
3 7
4 9
8 0
3 7
6 6
59 0
Total
50 315
3 7
7 9
13 4
12 0
8 3
23 0
7 6
6 5
17 6
638 The Immigration Commission.
The investigation of agriculture as planned embraced a study of
farmers of different races in California, Oregon, Washington, Colo-
rado, and Utah, of Mexicans in Arizona and New Mexico, and of
agricultural labor in intensive farming. The investigation of agri-
cultural labor embraced a study of sugar-beet growing in all of the
Western States in which the industry finds a place, the growing of
hops in California and Oregon, and the growing of different lands of
fruits, vegetables, and grapes in California, together with the closely
allied packing, canning, and wine-making industries. In general, the
methods used were the same as in the investigation of the various
industries before mentioned except that it was necessary to place
more emphasis upon* the collection of data from other sources and less
upon the collection of personal schedules from laborers. However,
individual schedules were obtained from 9,846 agricultural laborers,
principally in California, while more detailed schedules were ob-
tained from 733 others. With the exception of beet sugar, no
effort was made to cover an industry in its entirety, but localities in
which the best opportunities for the study of immigration were
offered were selected for careful investigation.
The original plans of the Commission included a study of immi-
grant families in several cities in the Western division of States, but
the inquiry was finally limited to Los Angeles, and a report based
upon investigations in that city is submitted.
The investigation of immigrant farming was limited to the Japanese
and a few other races the members of which were farming in the same
communities and to some extent competing with the Japanese.
Schedules showing detailed information were secured from 856 house-
holds engaged in farming, and in addition data were gathered from
other sources in the community and presented in special reports made
by the field agents. The number of localities in which immigrant
farming was investigated and the number of schedules taken in each
are shown, by race of the farmer, in the table next presented.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.
639
TABLE
Coast
6. — Number of households studied in selected farming localities of the Pacific
and Rocky Mountain States, by general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity
and race of head
of household.
Total number of households.
California.
Northern Colorado.
Near Denver, Colo.
About Seattle and Tacoma, Wash.
O
Northern Utah.
1
o
£
Lower Sacramento and San
Joaquin rivers district.
Los Angeles County.
Florin district.
Newcastle district.
.2
"3
j
About Alviso and Agnew.
About Sacramento.
Sonoma County.
San Francisco County.
I
3
1
0
a
s
cc
San Luis Obispo County.
Anaheim, Orange County.
About San Leandro.
Native-born of
foreign f a -
ther,by race
of father:
Danish .
1
1
German
9
9
Italian, South.
Norwegian
1
1
1
1
Portuguese
1
1
' Swedish
0
Foreien-born:
Armenian
Danish .
17
17
26
14
4
3
German
46
32
14
German- Rus-
sian
31
88
26
490
11
17
14
Italian, North.
Italian. South.
Japanese
Norwegian
77
7
15
24
7
4
8
...
22
34
128
68
25
55
20
20
17
36
53
10
19
15
1
Portuguese..
?0
35
Swedish
31
4
21
6
Total
97
27
15
856
93
175
68
25
55
20
20
24
15
24
20
28
41
36
50
23
The investigation covered all of the industries in which Japanese
and East Indians have in an;y considerable number found employ-
ment. It included an investigation of Japanese farming in all of
the States in which many of that race are occupied and of Japanese
business in eleven cities. In investigating Japanese business, data
as to households and families were collected, together with informa-
tion regarding the business conducted, such as the amount of capital
employed, the approximate value of annual transactions, the rental
value of the property occupied, the number, occupations, races, and
" wages of employees, the provision made for boarding and lodging
employees, patronage by white and oriental races, and, if in mer-
cantile trade, the proportions of oriental and other products dealt in.
These schedules were collected in six cities where the number of Jap-
anese in business was sufficiently large to warrant it, and in collecting
schedules an effort was made to secure them from representative per-
sons. As much supplementary information as possible was obtained,
and the business inquiries were made of a few members of other races
engaged in branches of business in which Japanese competition had
been keenly felt. From 395 of the 3,000 or more East Indians indi-
vidual schedules were obtained, and 24 groups containing 79 laborers
of that race have been studied in detail. Of the 90,000 or more Jap-
anese, 8,442 laborers were studied by means of individual schedules;
family schedules were obtained for 360 groups of wage-earners in
cities and those engaged in independent business, for 530 households
640
The Immigration Commission.
of farmers, their partners, and farm laborers employed by them, and
for 45 groups of laborers working in coal mines or lumber mills, and
as section hands. In addition to this material, information from
individual and family schedules for 1,517 foreign-born Japanese, not
included in connection with other reports, was used in discussing
several features in the general summary of Japanese in the Western
States.
The number of individual schedules collected and tabulated in
connection with the various reports is shown in Table 3 (p. 627). The
number of household groups for which schedules were obtained,
together with the number of persons in these households, is shown in
the following tables:
TABLE 7. — Number of households studied, by general nativity and race of head of house-
hold and by occupation.
General nativity and race of head of household.
Total num-
ber of
households.
Number where head of
household is —
Farmer or
farm
laborer.
In business
for self or-
wage-earner
in city.
Native-bora of foreign father, by race of father:
Danish . ..
1
9
1
1
1
2
17
46
28
30
1
9
1
1
1
2
17
46
German
Italian South
Norwegian
Portuguese
Swedish.
Foreign-born:
Armenian
Danish
Finnish
28
30
1G3
French
German
209
31
175
209
125
890
37
11
87
27
28
31
46
31
German-Russian
Hebrew
175
117
66
360
37
Italian, North
92
59
530
Italian, South...
Japanese
Mexican
Norwegian
11
55
Portuguese
32
27
28
Russian
Slovenian
Swedish
31
Total
a 1, 990
933
1,063
a In addition to this number a study has been made of 24 groups of East Indian laborers in lumber mills
and rope factories, and of 45 groups of Japanese (5 groups of coal miners, 13 groups of railroad laborers, and
27 groups of laborers in lumber mills).
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.
641
'o
1
a
-""33I k">|^3 -SS-fc
1
1
THCOIN TH
1
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Female.
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-»«ssc s«ss«a -as s ^
1
5
• i-H i-l
1
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Oi
jaaS s«s8«s «a-a
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to
r-HCOr-l
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0
S
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^
g
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1
1
CO
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1
1-1
1
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i i i i i i i i! f*10 i i r i i i i i
3
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42
: : : : : *
eo
1
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1
Farmers.
Female.
8
38 $3 S3S S S S
g
i
g§- 5 |1
as
3 3
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CO
2S BSS S3S-S K S
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t^ O o3 Si
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otal num
Female
-8'S S*8~< =- "
"O
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EH
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5 ::::::::::::::: : : : : :
,C3
a |i !|ijlj||i1j1 MINI
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§ : : :
^ : : •
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Native-born of m
,0 . . . . . . . g . . £• -C . . . ......
6 « S § s c.S £ S feg.S-S-3 g«S S o g a § o §,g
>!^Q«Wf^ooW££fi£SfcpH|iHtfrara£w
i
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Ililii
g)E S 2^ c3
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642
The Immigration Commission.
IO>O
^-
t^i-Hooccr-i
N o o
o o
§13
518
§ %
lO CO
53
« i :||j
EH O
"Ha
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III
tn = s w -jj M
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 643
The results of the western investigation are submitted in a number
of reports, the titles of which are shown in the classified list presented
below. The most general of the results of the western investigation
are briefly stated in the following pages of this report.
JAPANESE AND EAST INDIANS.
Japanese.
PART I. THE JAPANESE IMMIGRANTS IN THE PACIFIC COAST AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN
STATES.
II. THE JAPANESE IN CITY EMPLOYMENTS AND BUSINESS IN THE PRINCIPAL CITIES
OP THE PACIFIC COAST AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES.
Introduction.
San Francisco, Cal.
Los Angeles, Cal.
Sacramento, Cal.
State of Washington (with special reference to Seattle).
Portland, Oreg.
Denver, Colo.
Salt Lake City and Ogden, Utah.
State of Idaho.
East Indians.
III. THE EAST INDIANS ON THE PACIFIC COAST.
AGRICULTURE.
PART I. IMMIGRANT LABOR IN AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES OF THE WEST-
ERN STATES.
Immigrant labor in California agricultural industries.
Immigrant labor in the beet-sugar industries in the Western States.
Immigrant labor in the hop industry of California and Oregon.
Immigrant labor in selected agricultural and allied industries in Cali-
fornia:
Immigrant labor in the deciduous-fruit industry in the Vaca Valley.
Immigrant labor in the garden and deciduous-fruit industries of
Santa Clara County.
Immigrant labor in the orchards about Suisun.
Immigrant labor in the citrus-fruit industry.
Immigrants in the Newcastle district.
The celery industry of Orange County.
Immigrants in the Imperial Valley.
Immigrant labor in fruit and vegetable canneries.
The wine-making industry.
II. IMMIGRANT FARMERS IN THE WESTERN STATES.
Introduction: Immigrant farmers in the Western States.
Immigrant farming in selected localities:
California —
Immigrant farming on the reclaimed lands of the Sacramento
and San Joaquin Rivers.
Japanese farmers of Los Angeles County.
Japanese tenant and landowning farmers of the Florin district.
Immigrants in the fruit industries of Newcastle district.
Japanese farmers in the Pajaro Valley.
Japanese berry growers and gardeners about Alviso and Agnews.
Japanese truck gardeners about Sacramento, with comparisons
with the Italians.
North Italian farmers of Sonoma County %
Italian vegetable gardeners of San Francisco County.
Scandinavian farmers in Santa Clara County.
Scandinavian farmers in San Luis Obispo County.
German and German- American farmers of Anaheim, Orange
County.
Portuguese farmers about San Leandro.
644 The Immigration Commission.
PART II. IMMIGRANT FARMERS IN THE WESTERN STATES— Continued.
Immigrant farming in selected localities — Continued.
Other localities —
Immigrant farming about Seattle and Tacoma, Wash.
Japanese and Italian farmers in Oregon.
Japanese and German-Russian farmers of northern Colorado.
South Italian truck gardeners near Denver, Colo.
Japanese farmers of northern Utah.
III. IMMIGRANTS IN FRESNO COUNTY, CAL.
DIVERSIFIED INDUSTRIES.
PART I. IMMIGRANT LABORERS EMPLOYED BY STEAM RAILWAY COMPANIES IN THE
PACIFIC COAST AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES.
II. IMMIGRANT LABORERS EMPLOYED BY STREET RAILWAY COMPANIES OPERAT-
ING IN THE CITIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES.
III. IMMIGRANT LABOR IN THE METALLIFEROUS MINING, SMELTING, AND REFINING
INDUSTRY OF THE WESTERN STATES.
IV. IMMIGRANT LABOR IN THE COAL AND COKE INDUSTRY OF THE WESTERN STATES.
V. IMMIGRANTS IN THE LUMBER AND SHINGLE INDUSTRIES OF OREGON AND
WASHINGTON.
VI. IMMIGRANT LABOR IN OTHER INDUSTRIES IN THE WESTERN STATES.
Immigrant labor in the manufacture of cement.
, Salmon canneries on the Columbia River and Puget Sound.
Immigrant laborers in the Alaskan fish canneries.
Immigrant labor in the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes in San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
Immigrant labor in the powder factories of California.
Immigrants in Los Angeles.
EUROPEAN AND CANADIAN IMMIGRANTS.
In their economic and social positions there is a more or less clearly
defined difference between the immigrants from the British Isles,
France, Germany, the Scandinavian countries, and Canada, on the
one hand, and those from the south and east European countries on
the other. The Mexicans, the Chinese, Koreans and Japanese, and
the East Indians constitute three distinct groups. The smaller
groups from western Asia also stand by themselves. It seems best
to deal first of all with European and Canadian immigration and
then with each of the Asiatic races and the Mexicans separately. By
so doing the immigrant races which are found almost entirely in the
Western division are segregated and may be given the emphasis
which the circumstances demand.
The difference between the north European ' and Canadian and
the south and east European groups is closely connected with the
fact that the former represents the older, the latter, with minor
exceptions, the newer, immigration. Many Germans, English, Irish,
Scotch, Welsh, and English Canadians, and a smaller number of
French and Scandinavians were among the earlier settlers of the
Western States. These settlers have been followed by others who
immigrated directly, and frequently as families, with the expectation
of becoming permanent residents, and by still others who have
migrated along with a larger number of natives from the eastern and
middle States. With the exception of the more recent non-English-
speaking immigrants who have come directly to the Western States
- very little and no essential difference is found between these north
European immigrants, their offspring, and the Americans born of
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 645
native father. Here and there colonies of Germans, of Swedes, and
of Danes are found. All of these races have their own societies; most
of them exhibit a strong tendency to progress in certain directions —
as the Scandinavians from industrial occupations to farm ownership,
and the races of the British Isles in industry and trade — but occupy
the same industrial and economic position as the native-born. They
and the natives constitute the great majority of the business and
salaried classes and as wage-earners occupy most of the skilled and
better remunerated positions in industry. The less capable and
steady and the newer immigrants without industrial training find a
place as unskilled laborers.
With the south and east Europeans, however, the situation is dif-
ferent, particularly where the majority of the representatives have
immigrated to the United States and the locality within recent years.
With minor exceptions, which are becoming more numerous, they
occupy lower industrial, economic, and social positions and stand
apart from the natives and Americanized north Europeans/ who
constitute the majority of the population.
In the industries investigated in the West it was found that the
Italians, Greeks, Slavs, Finns, and other less important south and
east European immigrants, together with the Mexicans and Asiatics,
constitute the great majority of those employed in general construc-
tion work, as section hands on the railways, common laborers in
railway shops and smelters, and a large percentage, when not a
majority, of the common laborers in lumber yards and mills, in the
underground work in coal and ore mines, and in salmon fisheries.
The inferior position occupied by them in the large industries has
been made evident in the industrial reports submitted by an occu-
pational tabulation of the employees.
A large number of Italians and of members of a few other south
or east European races have immigrated directly to the West dur-
ing recent years. A much larger number have gradually worked
their way west or have been " recruited" by employment agents and
" bosses'7 in cities of the Middle West or obtained by advertising from
places farther east.
With the exception of the Poles, a majority of all south and east
European races which were employed in large numbers in industries
investigated have been in the United States less than ten years,
and in the cases of the Dalmatians, Greeks, Herzegovinians, North
Italians, Montenegrins, and Russians more than half have been
here less than five years. More than a third of several other races
have resided in this country less than five years. A rather large
number of Italians, Slovaks, and Slovenians have been in the United
States as long as twenty ^ears, but the great majority of the south
and east European immigrants have been introduced into these
industries within the last fifteen years. In general, they have entered
the less desirable occupations which have been gradually vacated
by the natives and north Europeans as these races have found more
remunerative places in industry or have withdrawn to engage in
business or farming. They have supplied the demand for unskilled
labor at the prevailing or slowly advancing wages which were insuf-
ficient to retain the former employees. This gradual movement
during the last twelve or fifteen years has brought about a radical
change in the racial composition of the labor supply.
646 The Immigration Commission.
Few instances of race displacement by Europeans working at a
lower wage have been found. Indeed, with the rapid expansion of
industry, the immigrants introduced for construction work have at
times been paid more than those previously employed, the numbers of
the latter being insufficient to meet the increasing demand, but such
instances are unusual. In most cases when more men have been
needed they have been available from the more recent immigration at
the prevailing wage. Italians and Greeks have been employed as
section hands on the railroads, as laborers about mines, smelters, coke
ovens, and lumber mills at a lower wage than other white men,
including the Slavs, but to such a limited extent as to be unimportant.
Generally they have been paid the " white man's wage."
These south and east European races have on several occasions been
introduced as strike breakers, as, for example, in the coal mines of
Colorado, New Mexico, and Washington, and in the metalliferous
mines of Colorado. In such cases they have made possible the reten-
tion of the old scale of remuneration, because of the failure of the
strikes, and have discouraged the efforts of the trade unions. The
numbers introduced for such purposes have, however, been relatively
small, and their use in this connection is an exception to the general
conditions of their advent in western industry.
Although there has been little underbidding by them, the effect of
the introduction of the south and east European races into the indus-
tries has been important. The availability of such a supply of
unskilled laborers has, on the one hand, assisted greatly in the expan-
sion of industry, while, on the other, it has seriously retarded the
advance of wages in those occupations where such labor could be
advantageously used. A striking example of this retardation is found
in the rate of wages of section hands on the various steam railways,
which has varied little during the last fifteen years, while the wages
of others have materially increased. Japanese and Mexicans have
been largely employed at this work, but the recent European immi-
gration has also played an important part in the situation. Wages
of Japanese have advanced materially, but those of the south and
east European and Mexican races have increased only slightly.
The statement that the employment of immigrants has retarded
the advance of wages is further substantiated by the fact that in those
localities where south and east European immigrants are largely
employed the rate of wages is noticeably lower than in those where
natives and north European immigrants predominate in the labor
supply. An example of this is afforded by a comparison of the earn-
ings of street-railway employees in various communities. In one
locality in the State of Washington where natives and north Euro-
peans constituted the majority of those employed, wages for main-
tenance of way and construction laborers varied from $2.25 to $2.50
per day, while in another community near by, where Italians and
Greeks were largely employed, similar labor received a wage varying
from $1.75 to $2.25. In three California localities where the south
and east European element predominated in the construction and
maintenance of way "gangs." the prevailing wages ranged between
$1.75 and $2.25 per day, while in two localities where natives and
north Europeans were largely employed the rates varied between $2
and $2.50 and $2.25 and $3 per day, respectively. Other instances
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 647
of this retardation might be cited from the various industries, as, for
example, the wages earned by coal miners in northern Colorado and
the employees of ore mines and smelters in Montana, where the
natives and north Europeans are generally employed, which wages
are considerably higher than those paid for similar work in other
localities where a large percentage of south and east Europeans are
employed.
The influence of the trade unions in this connection should be noted,
however, for in both the Montana and the Colorado districts men-
tioned union organization is strong and has been chiefly responsible
for securing and maintaining the higher rates of wages which obtain
there. But the maintenance of higher rates has been accomplished
in a large measure by attracting skilled men of the older immigration
from nonunion districts and keeping out, by means of public sentiment,
and in some cases by other means, the cheaper immigrant labor from
south and east Europe. On the other hand, in exceptional instances
high wages have been secured by means of organization in localities
where the more recent immigrants predominate. A striking example
of this condition is found in the Wyoming coal fields, where 85.9 per
cent of the employees were foreign-born, and of these 39.9 per cent
south and east Europeans, and 20.6 per cent Orientals. In spite of
this preponderance of the last-mentioned races union rates obtain
similar to those in effect in northern Colorado, and the wages and
earnings of the miners are high. Conditions in Wyoming are, how-
ever, somewhat unusual. In general, it is true that the lack of
union organization and the prevalence of relatively low wages are
coextensive with the predominance of south and east Europeans in
the labor supply.
As noted above, the immigrants from south and east Europe have
found unskilled work in the expanding industries of the West. Tj^eir
influx and the gradual withdrawal of natives and north Europe'ans
from the less remunerative branches of work have developed rather
sharp occupational differences among the various races employed
and corresponding differences in their earnings. A comparatively
small percentage of the south and east Europeans are engaged in
skilled occupations in the large industries, and those who are so
employed are for the most part North Italians, Slovenians, and
Slovaks, who have been in this country somewhat longer than the
others of the same general group. The slight occupational progress of
the majority is largely traceable to recent immigration. They have not
the knowledge of American methods of industry and the familiarity
with the English language which are essential in skilled or super-
visory positions. These obstacles have been less easily overcome by
members of this race group because of their tendency to " colonize"
and their consequent treatment as separate groups by employers. In
fact, it is the avowed policy of many employers who use south and
east Europeans to a considerable extent to keep them segregated as
much as possible in order to avoid any display of race antipathy
and to* simplify supervision. The few members of these races who
occupy supervisory positions are in most cases foremen of "gangs"
of men of their own race, in which capacity they are very effective
because of their knowledge of the language and habits of the men
they oversee.
648 The Immigration Commission.
The progress of the various races employed in the industries of the
West toward assimilation is indicated in some measure by the pro-
portions who have learned to speak English. Comparing them on
the basis of length of residence in the United States, it is clear that a
fairly distinct line may be drawn between the north European races
on the one hand and the south and east Europeans on the other.
This difference is most marked among those immigrants who have
been in the United States less than five years. Approximately four-
fifths of the members of non-English-speaking north European races
who have resided in this country less than five years speak English,
as opposed to less than half of most of the races of the other group.
It should be noted, however, that of the south and east Europeans
the Finns, Dalmatians, and Croatians show the greatest progress,
while the least advance is noticeable among the Russians, Slovaks,
Herzegovinians, and North and South Italians.
Among those who have resided in the United States from five to nine
years there is not so marked a difference between the members of the
two race groups. Approximately nine-tenths of the north Europeans
speak English, while some four-fifths of the Russians, the Croatians,
the Herzegovinians, the Greeks, and the Montenegrins have gained
a command of our tongue. The proportions of the other south and
east European races who speak English are somewhat lower, only
about three-fifths of the North and South Italians having acquired
the language. Practically all of the north Europeans the length of
whose residence in this country has been ten years or over speak
English. Moreover, approximately nine-tenths of the members of
the most important south^ and east European races of similar length
of residence speak English. Among the older immigrants those
reporting the least progress are Poles, Portuguese, Slovaks, and South
Italians.
Thus it is evident that the wide difference as shown between the
north Europeans and the south and east Europeans during the first
four years of -residence in this country, tends to disappear in later
years and that the south and east Europeans are much handicapped
in the beginning is very clear. They are given the most unskilled and
disagreeable work, when first employed, and are usually placed in
"gangs" of their own race, under bosses who speak their native
language. Where this is not the case they are avoided by their
fellow-workmen of other races who speak English, while few of their
own race have been in the country long enough to become familiar
with our language. Thus they have little chance to associate with
English-speaking people at their work, and it is commonly true that
this segregation is carried into their home life. The single men, and
the married men whose wives are abroad, are often herded into
"bunk houses" in race groups, and boarded as race groups either by
private individuals or by the employers. Furthermore, the men
with families usually "colonize" and have little to do with other
races than their own. Such segregation is usually voluntary on their
part, but whatever its cause may be it is a serious hindrance to
assimilation. The races from south and east Europe speak lan-
guages more radically different from English than the Teutonic
speech of the north Europeans, who besides having the advantage of
a similarity in language associate freely among themselves and with
the natives, both at work and in their social life. Moreover, they
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 649
more frequently have families with them and have children at school.
English thus tends to become the language used in the home.
In general literacy, the north European races and the Finns show
as high a standard as that of the native-born laborers, practically
all being able to read and write, while other races have a large per-
centage of illiteracy. The races from south and east Europe, other
than the Finns, with the largest percentages of literates, are the
Slovenians, the North Italians, the Greeks, and the Montenegrins,
approximately nine-tenths of whom read and write, while those with
the largest percentage of illiterates among them are the South
Italians, the Portuguese, the Russians, and the Croatians, of whom
between one-third and two-fifths can not read and write.
Seasonal labor is demanded in several industries, notably railway
maintenance of way, lumbering, fishing, and some parts of coal and
ore mining. Recent immigrants who are unmarried, or whose wives
have not yet left their native lands, are mostly engaged in this work.
Most of these are drawn from south and east European races. Small
proportions of the Greeks, Montenegrins, Russians, and Dalmatians
so employed are married, and few of these have their wives with
them. However, those races whose members have been in the
United States for a comparatively long period of time show a
greater proportion of married men and a greater number of their
wives in the United States. Important among these are the Italians,
Slovaks, Slovenians, and Finns. Men of these races who have fami-
lies usually find their way into the more settled kinds of unskilled
labor, such as that ordinarily offered at coal or ore mines and in the
smelters. Of the few south and east Europeans who have risen to
skilled or supervisory positions, a majority are married and have
their wives in the United States. Their occupations are such as to
encourage marriage, and, moreover, they are early immigrants in
most cases and have thus had more time in which to bring their wives
from their native land, if they did not do so at the time of immigration.
The natives, north Europeans and English Canadians, on the other
hand, are found principally in the skilled and supervisory occupations
and in the more regular kinds of general labor, and are for the most
part men with families. Furthermore, practically all of the married
immigrants in this group have their wives in the United States.
With the exception of a few youths and a number of men of migratory
habits, members of these races who are employed in the industries
studied may be regarded as settled laborers from the point of view
of conjugal condition.
Not only are the north European and English Canadian immigrants
a more settled class of labor and superior in point of literacy, but they
show also a much greater civic interest than do the south and east
Europeans. Comparing only those who have been in the United
States for similar periods of time it is found that a much greater
proportion of the former group than of the latter have taken out first
papers, or have become fully naturalized. The difference is marked
among those whose period of residence is relatively long — showing
that the north Europeans develop civic interest much more generally
than do the south and east Europeans.
In general, similar classes of differences were found, though less
extreme, between these two groups in the cities in which investiga-
tions were made. With the exception of the Greeks, Italians, Slove-
72289°— VOL 1—11 42
650 The Immigration Commission.
mans, Dalmatians, Bohemians, and the Russian Hebrews, the great
majority of the south and east Europeans are laborers, while the occu-
pational distribution of the north Europeans and their offspring is not
essentially different from that of the native-born of native parents.
The Greeks and Italians are numerously represented in petty business,
and they and the Slovenians and Dalmatians are very conspicuous
in conducting restaurants and similar establishments. In San
Francisco, where the Italian colony is the largest on the Pacific coast,
the North Italians have become an important element in the larger
kinds of business and in the professions of the city. Most of the South
Italians, however, are fishermen and on the whole occupy a distinctly
inferior position. With the exception of the Greeks, all of the soutli
and east Europeans have a large percentage of their families with them ;
many of their representatives have resided here for years, some have
risen from the ranks of common labor, the great majority of them
speak English, and with few exceptions show a tendency to leave
the colonies of their own people for better residence districts. As a
rule the children differ little from those of American stock, unless
brought up in colonies such as those of the Russians in Los Angeles.
The most conspicuous feature perhaps is the extent to which these
various races have organized benevolent societies for the care of
those who meet with misfortune. While these societies are frequently
indicative of the fact that the race is far from being Americanized
and while they frequently retard the process of assimilation, they
encourage thrift and cause to rest upon the charitable institutions
of the communities a much smaller burden than that imposed by
the Irish and the native races.
According to the census of 1900,° 27. 31 percent of those gainfully
occupied in the Western division were engaged in agricultural pur-
suits. A large percentage of all of the north European races and their
native-born offspring, the Irish and French excepted, and the Cana-
dians, other than French, have exhibited a strong tendency to
acquire farms. Of those one or both of whose parents were born
in Great Britain, 25.64 per cent, in Ireland 15.07 per cent, in Canada
(English) 24.39 per cent, in Germany 23.05 per cent, and in Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark 28.3 per cent, were engaged in agriculture, the
majority of them as farmers on their own account. Those of British
descent constituted 39.4 per cent of all the farmers and overseers
in Utah, 15.9 per cent of those in Idaho, 13.3 per cent of those in
Wyoming, and 10.9 per cent of all in the Western division. The
Germans constituted 11.8 per cent of the class in Washington, 10.7
per cent in Oregon, 9.7 per cent in Colorado, 10 per cent in California,
and 8.7 per cent in the entire Western division. The Scandinavian
element constituted 20.9 per cent in Utah, 10.8 per cent in Idaho,
9.1 per cent in Washington, and 6.5 per cent of those in the entire
division. With the rapid migration of that race in more recent years,
the percentages given for the division as a whole, and for Washington
and Oregon particularly, have doubtless materially increased. The
Canadians, being fewer in number, the Irish, not exhibiting a tend-
ency to engage in farm work, and the French, being both few in num-
ber and not attracted to farm life, are not conspicuous as farmers.
a United States Census, 1900, Special Reports. Occupations. Tableg 31 and 41.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 651
The north European immigrants engaged in farming have in many
instances engaged in business or in industry as wage-earners in the
West, and then after accumulating some capital have taken up
government land (in Montana and Idaho) or have purchased farms.
A large number have moved from farms in the Central States along
with a large number of natives of native parentage to acquire new
homes in the West. This is especially true of the Scandinavians,
who in recent years have moved in large numbers from the Dakotas,
Minnesota, and Wisconsin to Washington and Oregon, or, to a less
extent, to other States of the Western division. Here and there
the Germans, Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes are colonized to a
certain degree. These cases are exceptional, however, and are almost
invariably connected with a colonization scheme which has been
adopted for disposing of large tracts of land. With the exceptions
stated, the farmers of these classes scattered throughout the com-
munities engage in very much the same kinds of farming as the
natives, and though, as a rule, married to persons of the same gen-
eral race group, are thoroughly Americanized. The only feature
requiring comment is the strong tendency of the Danes to engage
in dairy farming.
The only south Europeans engaged extensively in farming in the
West are the Italians and the Portuguese. North Italians acquired
land near San Francisco before 1870, and near Portland, Tacoma,
and Seattle somewhat later. They have been conspicuous as small
farmers in the vicinity of Denver for twenty years or more. In
this latter instance a large percentage are from the southern prov-
inces of Italy, and in comparatively recent years the same element
has settled to some extent on farms farther west. Yet the Italian
farmers are predominantly from the northern provinces. In all of
the cases mentioned these farmers are primarily growers of "green
vegetables." The gardeners supplying the San Francisco and Den-
ver markets are very largely Italian and they share chiefly with
the Asiatics the Sacramento, Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, and other
markets of less importance. In addition to these gardeners the
Italians are settled on the land in many localities in central California,
where they are closely identified with grape growing and wine
making, the production of such vegetables as beans, and, less exten-
sively, fruit growing. It is impossible to estimate the total number
of Italian farmers or the acreage controlled by them except in certain
communities. In 1900,a farmers, dairymen, gardeners, etc., of Ital-
ian parentage, numbered 2,599 in the West, more than two-thirds of
them in California, this number being 8.08 per cent of the entire num-
ber of Italians gainfully occupied in this division. If the agricultural
laborers are added, the percentage of the whole is 20.51. With the
rapid influx of the members of that race during the last ten years, the
number of those who have located upon the land has greatly increased,
for the Italians from the northern provinces have exhibited as strong
a desire to settle upon the land as any European race, excepting per-
haps the German-Russian, immigrating to the West.
The Italian farmers, except in a few California communities, are
closely colonized. This is partly due to the fact that in most places
they are engaged in market gardening. The areas suitable for that
a United States Census, 1900, Special Reports. Occupations. Table 41.
652 The Immigration Commission.
purpose are limited, and the necessary cooperation in marketing has
emphasized colony life. Clannishness, which exhibits itself in various
ways, has also had its effect. Most of the Italian gardens are con-
ducted as partnership enterprises, and generally the Italian farmers
have begun farming after a few years' employment as wage-laborers
by purchasing a share in a partnership already organized or by gain-
ing a partnership in process of formation for cultivating leased land.
In this way the majority of those who have engaged in truck farming
have been able to establish themselves upon the land in much less
time than the north European immigrants who oome without capital.
In other kinds of agriculture engaged in by Italians this cooperation
is only less marked. However, they usually purchase land in sever-
alty as soon as through extraordinary thrift they are able to accumu-
late a part of the purchase price.
Thus the Italians usually engage in intensive farming requiring
much hand labor rather than in diversified or general farming, and in
this, as well as in the frequency of colony life and the partnership
form of organization, differ from the native and north European
farmers. They also differ in that the wives and older Children do
much more or the work in the fields and in that because of their
thrift their housing is usually below the standard set by the commu-
nity and the premises and housekeeping are frequently neglected.
The Italians are good farmers. While in growing certain kinds of
vegetables they do not obtain as large crops as the Chinese, they have
developed their gardens to a great degree of fertility, and as vine-
yardists they take high rank. In Sonoma County, and less con-
spicuously in other counties of California, they have converted grazing
land and tracts previously used for general farming into productive
vineyards and orchards and contributed greatly to the wealth and
development of the community.
The Portuguese have immigrated to only a few sections of the
United States, among these being California, which in 1900 reported
12,068 of the total of 30,632 in the continental United States.® Por-
tuguese from the Azores have been immigrating to California in small
numbers for more than fifty years. The first settlers were largely of
the sailor class. Later these were followed by farmers immigrating
directly and still others coming to the mainland from the Hawaiian
Islands, where at different times a large number have been induced
to go to work on the sugar plantations. Still others in comparatively
recent years have moved west from settlements in the eastern States
to join friends or to find better opportunities for farming. Though
some of the newer arrivals have worked as common laborers and a
comparatively large number have been employed as stevedores, deck
hands on the "river boats," and in similar capacities, the Portuguese
men have engaged mainly in agricultural pursuits, usually as laborers
for their countrymen, then as tenant, and then as lando wiling farmers.
In some communities where land has been available at a low price the
second step indicated has been eliminated.
The Portuguese farmers have tended strongly to colonize in certain
localities, and the great majority are found in central California and
within 100 miles of San Francisco, where most of them have entered
the United States. A large number are engaged in dairy farming and
a United States Census, 1900. Population, part 1.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 653
many are occupied in growing potatoes and the coarser vegetables.
Such interests are usually combined with general farming, however.
The Portuguese are excellent farmers, and frequently, while
improving their land, obtain two or three crops from the same field
in the course of the year. In their thrift, investment of savings in
more land, in the character of their housing and standard of living,
they are very much like the Italians. In some instances, however,
their housing is of a distinctly better type. The one important differ-
ence between the two races, besides the kind of crops usually pro-
duced, is found in the fact that the Italians cooperate in leasing land,
while the Portuguese are very individualistic and seldom rent or own
land in partnership. Because of this circumstance and the fact that
the members of this race, unlike the Asiatics and German-Russians,
have not been induced to settle upon the land as a solution of the
labor problem, the Portuguese, in spite of their perseverance in their
efforts to establish themselves as independent farmers, have usually
made slower progress in this direction than the Italians, Japanese,
and German-Russians .
Few of the other south European immigrants are engaged in
agriculture. A few Greeks have become tenant farmers, but without
much success. About Watsonville, Cal., a. comparatively large num-
ber of Dalmatians have engaged in apple growing, but this instance
perhaps stands alone. In fact, immigrants from the south European
countries, and the east European as well, Italians and Portuguese
excepted, have come to the West too recently to have established
themselves. Moreover, in most cases the number of transient laborers
is large as compared to the number who have come to this country to
make their permanent home. The principal exception to this is found
in the German-Russians, an agricultural people, who have come to
this country to escape heavy taxation and military service and in
search of better land. Within some twenty years several thousand
have come to Fresno County, Cal., where they have worked at
unskilled labor to begin with, though a comparatively large number
have been able to establish themselves as farmers, which is the goal
practically all have in view. The acreage controlled by them is
roughly estimated at 5,000. In Colorado there are perhaps between
800 and 900 tenant and landowning farmers of this race, occupying
for the greater part holdings in excess of 60 acres and not infre-
quently much larger tracts. This farming has developed within the
last te.n years and has been incidental to the growth of the beet-
sugar industry. The sugar companies have brought large numbers
of families of this race from Nebraska to do the hand work involved
in growing sugar beets. From laborers doing the hand work on a
pie'ce basis they have rapidly advanced to tenant and to landowning
farmers. Their advance is in part to be ascribed to their great
industry, the labor of all members of the family except the smallest
children, to their very great thrift, to the liberal advances of capital
made by the sugar companies, and the credit extended to them
freely by the banks.
Not even the Japanese have made as rapid advance as the German-
Russians. A comparatively small number of German-Russians
are engaged in tenant farming in one locality in Idaho also. They,
too were brought to the community (from Portland) by the manu-
facturers of beet sugar, and settled upon the land. In their housing
654 The Immigration Commission.
and the labor of children the German-Russians rank lower than the
south European immigrant farmers, and in their thrift they are
perhaps equaled by none. Whether aside from their economic con-
tribution they will prove to be an asset to the communities in which
they live only the lapse of time will show.
Except in the case of the Italians and Portuguese few of the Euro-
pean immigrants become agricultural laborers in the West, and in
the case of the non-English-speaking those who are so employed
work very largely for their countrymen as "regular hands." Also,
in the case of the Italians and Portuguese, the opportunities for
acquiring land by lease or purchase have been so good that thus far
laborers of these races have been employed almost entirely by their
countrymen. The Portuguese farmers employ their own countrymen
largely, and, as a rule, at lower wages than those generally prevailing
in the community. This is still more characteristic of the Italians, of
whom few work for members of other races except when they are
employed in large numbers about dairies. Because of the strong
desire to live with their countrymen and be able to have the food and
wine to which they are accustomed, they are frequently found working
for $1 per day or twelve hours or more upon Italian farms in com-
munities where the current wage per day of ten or eleven hours for
the same work is $1.50.
CHINESE.
Though a few thousand Armenians are found in the West, most of
them in Fresno County, Cal., and perhaps a thousand Syrians in
Los Angeles, most of the Asiatic immigration has been from eastern
Asia — China, Japan, Korea, and India. For reasons already given, no
special investigation was made of the Chinese. Such data asw^ere
obtained were secured incidentally to the investigation of other races
and of industries in which Chinese are or have been employed.
A few points concerning their number, occupations, and related mat-
ters may be commented on briefly, however, chiefly for convenience
in discussing Japanese immigration, upon which most emphasis
was placed in the investigation made in the Western division.
According to the census, the number of Chinese in the continental
United States in 1900 was 93,283. Of these, 88,758 were males and
4,525 were females. In all probability the number of adult males was
somewhat larger than the ngure reported, as it is almost impossible
to enumerate all but a negligible percentage of the foreign-born males
living under such conditions as were at that time found among
the Chinese. It is impossible to estimate the number of persons of
that race now in the United States, as many have died or returned
to China since 1900, while others have returned from China to -this
country, and men, women, and children of the eligible classes to the
number of 19,182 have been admitted to the United States between
July 1, 1899, and June 30, 1909.° Moreover, it is acknowledged by
those familiar with the administration of the law that some foreign-
born have secured admission as " native sons " while others have been
smuggled across the Canadian or the Mexican boundary. However,
it has become evident from the investigation conducted by the Com-
mission that the number of Chinese in all of the cities of the West,
<* See reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1900 to
1909.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 655
and the number engaged in the different industries in which they have
found employment in the past, have materially decreased within the
last decade or so. It is unlikely that the migration from the Coast
States, mainly from California to the East, and the more general
distribution of Chinese throughout the country, explain entirely
the decreasing number of persons of that race, including the native-
born, found in the West.
The immigration of Chinese laborers to this country may be said
to date from the rush to California in search of gold sixty years ago.
Within ten years a relatively large number of* persons of that race,
more than 45,000 in fact, found a place in the population of that
State. Before the close of the decade of the sixties, they had engaged
in a variety of occupations, as the absence of cheap labor from any
other source, their industry and organization, and the rapid growth
of the country placed a premium upon their employment. The
largest number (some 20,000 in 1861) engaged in gold mining; sev-
eral thousand, many of them imported under contract, were employed
toward the end of the decade in the construction of the Central Pacific
Railroad, which was to form the first of the transcontinental railways
making possible an influx of laborers from the East. Other Chinese
engaged in gardening, laundering, domestic service, and hand labor
in the fields, while still others found employment in factories and
workshops or engaged in business for themselves. As domestic
servants in San Francisco, in 1870, they numbered 1,256 out of a total
of 6,800, their number being exceeded by that of the Irish only, of
whom 3,046 were reported. Chinese laundrymen numbered 1,333 in
a total of 2,069 reported. As laborers in domestic and personal
service they numbered 2,128 in a total of 8,457. According to the
census for 1870, they numbered 296 of 1,551 persons employed in
San Francisco in the manufacture of boots and shoes, 1,657 of the
1,811 employed in the manufacture of cigars, 253 of 393 employed
in the manufacture of woolens, and 110 of 1,223 employed in the
manufacture of clothing, a total of 2,316 of a grand total of 4,978
employed in these four industries.0 These were the chief branches
of manufacture in cities in which they found employment. With
the development of salmon canning in Oregon and Washington dur-
ing the eighties and still later with the development of the same
industry in Alaska, they were for many years employed almost
exclusively in canning, under contract, the fish caught by white
fishermen. They also constituted a large percentage, when not
a majority, of the " powder makers" and general laborers employed
in powder factories.
For twenty years, beginning in the late sixties, several thousand
found employment as construction laborers upon the new railways
constructed from time to time and as section hands upon those
already constructed. They also found employment as general
laborers, engine wipers and boiler washers, and in other occupations
calling for little skill in railroad shops. Of still greater importance,
however, was their employment, beginning previous to 1870, as
hand laborers in the orchards, fields, hopyards, and vineyards of
a United States Census, 1870, Population and Social Statistics, p. 799. These
figures may include small numbers of Japanese, of whom there were but 55 in this
country at that time.
656 The Immigration Commission.
California north of the Tehachepi, and in the canneries and other
establishments incidental to conserving and marketing the crops
produced. In 1870 they numbered 1,637 in a total of 16,231 farm
laborers reported by the census for California. Though the estimate
made by the California bureau of labor in 1886, that Chinese constituted
seven-eighths of the agricultural laborers of the State, was doubtless
a great exaggeration, they did most of the hand work, such as
hoeing, weeding, pruning, and harvesting, in all localities in the
central and northern part of the State in which intensive farming-
was carried on. TKeir presence and organization at a time when
cheap and reliable white laborers were difficult to obtain made pos-
sible the high degree of specialized farming which came to prevail
in several localities. They occupied a much less conspicuous place in
the harvest work involved in general farming. Being inefficient with
teams, and white men being available for such work in most localities,
they were practically limited to hand work. In other States than
California they found little place in agricultural work, the largest
number being employed in the hop industry of the Northwest. In
fact, until the eighties few of the Chinese resided outside of Cali-
fornia. This race never gained a place in coal mining except in
Wyoming, where they were employed in the mines developed after
the completion of the Union Pacific Railway.
The ease with which the Chinese found employment and the place
they came to occupy in the West is explained by several facts. First
of all, they were the cheapest laborers available for unskilled work.
The white population previous to the eighties was drawn almost
entirely from the eastern States and from north European coun-
tries, and, as in all rapidly developing communities, the number of
women and children was comparatively small. According to the
census of 1870, of 238,648 persons engaged in gainful occupations
in California, 46 per cent were native-born, 13 per cent were born in
Ireland, 8 per cent in Germany, 4.8 per cent in England and Wales,
2 per cent in France, and 1.4 per cent in Italy. The Chinese, with
14 per cent of the total, were more numerous than the Irish. The
Chinese worked for lower wages than the white men in the fields
and orchards, in the shoe factories, the cigar factories, the woolen mills,
and later in most of the other industries in which the two classes
were represented. As a result of this, a division of labor grew up in
which the Chinese were very generally employed in certain occupa-
tions while white persons were employed in other occupations requir-
ing skill, a knowledge of English, and other qualities not possessed
by the Asiatics, and sufficiently agreeable in character and surround-
ings to attract white persons of the type at that time found in the
population of the West. Upon occasion, too, the lower cost of pro-
duction with Chinese labor caused more of the work to fall into tneir
hands as they became well enough trained to do it. Instances of this
are found in the manufacture of cigars and shoes in San Francisco.
Chinese labor was well organized and readily available, for the cigar
makers, shoemakers, and tailors, as well as the launderers, were organ-
ized into trade guilds with an interpreter and agent or " bookman"
in each white establishment in which they were employed. Agri-
cultural laborers were secured through a "boss" and employed under
his supervision. The same organization was found in fish canneries,
where the work was done under contract at so much per case, also.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 657
in the fruit and vegetable canneries — in fact in all industries in which
more than a few men were employed. The hiring and supervision of
men in this way was convenient and of great advantage to the
employer in such industries as were seasonal in character. In agri-
culture, wThere several tunes as many men were wanted for a limited
period as during the remainder of the year, this organization of
labor placed a great premium upon the Chinese as employees.
In the manufacture of cigars, some manufacturers state that
Chinese were found to be much slower than women and youths,
while in the manufacture of boots and shoes they never attained to
highly skilled work. In other industries, however, they wTere very
generally regarded as efficient workers for all kinds of hand work.
This is especially true of fish, fruit, and vegetable canning and of all
kinds of hand work in orchards and vegetable gardens. Though
imp regressive and slow, they accomplished much work through
industry and long hours, and by the exercise of care the quality of
the work performed was of a high order.
Finally, to mention only the more important of the facts giving
rise to an effective preference for Chinese for such work as they were
employed to do, in canneries, on the ranches, and in other places
where the employees ordinarily could not live at home, they found
favor because they involved the least trouble and expense. They
provided their own subsistence where white men, if they did not live
close at hand, would ordinarily be provided with board. Lodgings
were easily provided for the Chinese, for whatever may be said con-
cerning their standard of living as a whole, they are gregarious and
are less dissatisfied when " bunked" in small quarters than is any
other race thus far employed in the West.
After much ineffective state and local legislation in California
the further immigration of Chinese of the laboring class was for-
bidden by the first of the federal exclusion laws enacted in 1882.a
There had been opposition to the Chinese in the mining camps
of California as early as 1852, this finally leading to the miners' license
tax collected from them alone, in the cigar trade in San Francisco as
early as 1862, and in other trades in which the Chinese were engaged
beginning somewhat later. For the opposition many reasons were
assigned, but the most important appears to have been race antipathy
based upon color, language, and race traits, which has frequently
found expression where numerous Chinese and white men of the
laboring classes have been brought into close contact. This feeling
found expression not only in San Francisco on numerous occasions,
but in many other ^ towns in California, in Tacoma, where Chinese
have not been permitted to reside, and in the riots at Rock Springs,
Wyo., in 1882. In public discussion many reasons were advanced
rightly or wrongly for excludhig the Chinese, but that the opposition
was more than a part of a labor movement is evidenced by the fact
that many ranchers who were employing Chinese at the time voted
11 against Chinese immigration" at the election held in California in
1879, at which time the matter of Chinese exclusion was submitted
to popular vote.
It has been estimated that the number of Chinese in the United
States at the time the first exclusion act went into effect (1882) was
« See Vol. II, pp. 785-788.
658 The Immigration Commission.
132.300.° The number of Chinese laborers did not dimmish percep-
tibly for several years after this. More recently, because of the
wider distribution of the Chinese among the States, the decreasing
number in the country, the large percentage who have grown old,
a strong sentiment against employing Asiatics in manufacture, and
the appearance of the Japanese, a change has taken place in the
occupations in which the Chinese engage.
During the nineties, with the growth of the fishing industry on the
Pacific coast, the number of Chinese engaged in cannery work has
grown, but owing to the increasing difficulty involved in securing
them and the higher wages which they have come to command since
1900, an increasing number of Japanese and, very recently, Filipinos,
have been employed.
During the year 1909 some 3,000 Chinese were employed in can-
neries in Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, most of them migrating
from San Francisco and Portland. The number of Japanese em-
ployed was approximately the same. Both races are employed in
the great majority of the establishments, a Chinese ordinarily naving
the contract for the work done, employing his countrymen for the
more skilled work, and Japanese, under a Japanese " boss," and other
persons for the less skilled occupations. The Chinese command much
higher wages than the Japanese. In fruit and vegetable canning in
California perhaps 1,000 or more Chinese are employed. Of 750 men
employed in six asparagus canneries on the Sacramento River, nearly
all are Chinese secured through one Chinese "boss." Most of the
others are employed in two canneries operated by Chinese companies.
In other canneries European immigrants of the newer type, chiefly
Italians, Greeks, and Portuguese, have been substituted for them.
In some instances where Chinese were formerly employed but were
discharged by their employers because of the feeling against the race
or because of public criticism, Asiatics are not now employed.
Few Chinese are now employed in railway work. As section hands
they had all but disappeared ten years or more ago, and the number
still employed in railway shops is small. As they grew old and their
numbers diminished so that they could not furnish a large percentage
of the laborers required their departure was hastened by the well-
organized Japanese, who took employment at the same wages (and
less than was paid to other races), though the Chinese are almost
universally regarded as better "help" than the Japanese except in
such occupations about the shops as require adaptability and pro-
gressiveness. The Chinese were in part replaced by other races before
Japanese became available, and where this was done it was generally
at a higher wage, except in the case of the Mexicans, than the Chinese
had received.
The Chinese engaged in agriculture Vere very largely replaced by
Japanese. The Chinese engaged in the growing of sugar beets were
underbid and displaced by the more progressive and quicker Japanese
and have all but absolutely disappeared from the industry. In the
hop industry the Japanese underbid the Chinese as the Chinese had
the white men. Because of this fact and the further fact that the
aCoolidge, Chinese Immigration, p. 498. The number reported by the census for
1880 was 105,465, of which number 75,132 were in California, 9,510 in Oregon, 5,416 in
Nevada, 3,379 in Idaho, 3,186 in Washington, and the remaining 8,842 in other States.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 659
Japanese had the same convenient organization and were more
numerous, the Chinese have come to occupy a comparatively unim-
portant place in that industry. The same is true in the deciduous-
fruit industry, though Chinese lease orchards and in almost every
locality are employed in comparatively large groups on some of the
older ranches. The largest amount of land is leased by them and
the largest number of them are employed for wages in the orchards and
on the large tracts devoted to the production of vegetables on the
Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. In a few localities they migrate
from place to place for seasonal work, but such instances have become
exceptional. Nearly all work in the same place throughout the year.
Moreover, as the Japanese have advanced the Chinese have leased
fewer orchards and withdrawn to grow vegetables or have gone to
the towns and cities. Though the number employed in agricultural
work is by no means small, they are no longer a dominant factor in
the labor supply, and especiaUy in that required for harvesting the
crops. The place once occupied by them has for several years been
occupied by the Japanese.
The number of Chinese engaged in mining has for many years been
small, some 40 in coal mining in Wyoming as against several hundred
formerly employed there, and several hundred as against many
thousand in gold mining in California.
Many Chinese are li ving in the small towns of the West, engaged in
laundry work, petty business, and gambling, or rather conducting
places for gambling. The laundries are patronized chiefly by white
people, the shops by Chinese, and the gambling places by Chinese
and Japanese. In pan Francisco they are much less conspicuously
employed in domestic service and manufacture than formerly. Most
of those engaged in domestic service are high-priced cooks in private
families and in saloons. They now have a scarcity value. The most
recently published estimate made by the assessor for the city and
county or San Francisco of the number of Chinese engaged in manu-
facture (in San Francisco) was, for 1903, 2,420, the branches of manu-
facture having more than 100 being cigar making, with 800 Chinese
in a total of 1,300; clothing, with 250 in a total of 1,050; shirt
making, with 300 in a total of 1,500, and shoemaking, with 250 in a
total of 950. Their numbers in all of these cases are smaUer than
formerly. In shoe and cigar making many were discharged during
the seventies and eighties because of public criticism or fear of boy-
cott. When white persons were substituted it was, in some cases at
least, at a higher wage and for a shorter work day. At present the
Chinese employed are among the low paid laborers in " white shops."
The same is true of those employed in powder factories, where the
number is much smaller than formerly.
The assessment roll for 1908 shows '20 cigar factories, 3 broom fac-
tories, 1 shoe factory, and 5 overall factories conducted by Chinese
in San Francisco. By far the largest number of Chinese, however,
some 1,000, are employed in the 100 Chinese laundries. The other
branches of business are of comparatively little importance save the
art and curio stores, which are conducted by business men from
China. Of the Chinese in other cities much the same may be said,
except that they occupy no important place in manufacture and that
they frequently conduct cheap restaurants, patronized largely by
660 The Immigration Commission.
workingmen. In Portland they also conduct numerous tailor shops.
On the whole, the Chinese have not shown the same progressiveness
and competitive ability either in industry or in business for them-
selves as the Japanese. They have, however, occupied a more impor-
tant place in manufacture, especially in San Francisco, where, until
within the last twenty years, little cheap labor has been available
from other sources.
JAPANESE.
The Japanese laborers have fallen heir to much of the work and the
occupational and social position of the Chinese, whose diminishing
numbers in the Western States since 1890 have been mentioned. The
history of the Japanese in this country can be understood in certain
respects only when connected with that of the Chinese whose immi-
gration was earlier and who, in decreasing numbers, have continued
to work along with the members of the newer race.
Until 1898 the number of Japanese immigrating to the continental
United States had never reached 2,000 in any one year. In 1900 the
total number in the continental United States, excluding Alaska, was
reported by the census as 24,326. From 1899-1900 to 1906-7 the
number arriving from Japan, Mexico, and Canada varied between
4,319 (in 1905) and 12,626 (in 1900), while between January 1, 1902,
and December 31, 1907, 37,000, attracted by the higher wages, better
conditions, and better opportunities to establish themselves as farm-
ers or as business men, came from the Hawaiian Islands to the main-
land. For the greater part of this time these immigrants had come
regardless of the avowed wishes of the Japanese Government, for the
great influx in 1900 gave rise to a demand that the Chinese exclusion
law should be amended so as to apply to Japanese and Koreans as
well. As emigration to the continental United States was discour-
aged, however, the Japanese subjects emigrated to Hawaii, where
their labor was desired on the sugar plantations, and then came in
large numbers to the mainland. During 1906 and 1907 there was a
similar movement from Mexico also, where several thousand laborers
had been sent by the emigration companies under contract to work
for corporations. A similar movement of less importance has also
taken place between British Columbia and the United States, prima-
rily because the latter presented better opportunities than the former.
The influx of Japanese laborers has been controlled and reduced to
small proportions during the last two years. This has been accom-
plished not by an exclusion law but by a series of measures which
permits the greater part of the administrative problem to rest with
the Japanese Government.
Since 1905 there has been a general and organized demand on the
Pacific coast, and particularly in California, for the exclusion of Jap-
anese laborers from the continental territory of the United States.
The separation of Japanese from white children in the public schools
of San Francisco, and other manifestations of anti-Japanese senti-
ment, together with a number of anti-Japanese measures under con-
sideration by the legislature of California, precipitated an acute
situation in 1906 and 1907. On the other hand it developed that
the Japanese Government had for some time looked with disfavor on
the emigration of its working population to distant countries,
and an understanding was therefore reached between the Jap-
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 661
anese and the United States Governments that the former should
thenceforth issue passports to only such members of the laboring class
as had been residents of this country and were returning here, were
parents, wives, or children of residents of this country, or had an
already possessed right to agricultural land.tt The granting of pass-
ports to "nonlaborers" remained as before. The immigration law
was amended by Congress so as to give the President power to order
that where a race was entering the continental United States from
any country to the "detriment of labor conditions" such immigra-
tion should not be permitted except upon passports for the United
States properly granted by the government to which the bearer owed
allegiance.6 The President exercised the authority vested in him and,
by order dated March 14, 1907, denied admission to "Japanese and
Korean laborers, skilled or unskilled, who have received passports to
go to Mexico, Canada, or Hawaii, and come therefrom" to the conti-
nental territory of the United States. More recently (1908) the num-
ber of passports to be granted in any one year to Japanese emigrating
to Canada has been limited to 400 by agreement between the Japanese
and Canadian Governments, while the Japanese Government has also
suspended the practice of the emigration companies of sending con-
tract laborers to Mexico. It should be added, also, that the Japanese
Government by its own initiative has applied the same regulations to
the issuing of passports to the Hawaiian Islands as to the mainland.
Thus, by agreement, it is understood that Japanese laborers, except
as above noted, shall not enter the territory of the United States, and
the Canadian and Mexican borders have been protected by practically
refusing to permit emigration to the neighboring countries. All of the
data gathered by the agents of the Commission show that since the
summer of 1907 very few Japanese have entered the Western States
except those who came directly from Japan and were regularly
admitted at the immigration stations.
During the year 1907-8 the number of Japanese who were admitted
to the continental United States was 9,544, and among them there
were many of the class not presumed under the agreement to receive
passports, but, as explained by the Commissioner-General of Immi-
gration, "the system did not begin to work smoothly in all of its
details until the last month of the fiscal year." c During the two
years which have since elapsed, however, the numbers admitted
have* been very much smaller — 2,432 and 1,552 for the two years,
respectively. Of the 2,432 admitted in 1908-9, 768 were former
residents, leaving 1,664 who came for the first time. A compara-
tively small number who were admitted came with passports to
which, according to the understanding of the Bureau of Immigra-
tion, they were not entitled, while some were admitted who did not
possess passports to this country properly made out. d The great
majority of the much-reduced number admitted, however, have been
of the nonlaboring class — 1,719 of the 2,432 admitted in 1908-9.
Though a large percentage of the nonlaborers take work as wage
laborers upon their arrival in this country, and the classes excluded
are not just the same as under the Chinese exclusion law, the regula-
a See Vol. II, p. 584.
& Section 1 of immigration act, approved February 20, 1907.
c Report for fiscal year ended June 30, 1908, p. 126.
^ See report of United States Commissioner-General of Immigration for fiscal year
ended June 30, 1909, p. 100.
662 The Immigration Commission.
tion is undoubtedly effective at present in preventing any " detriment
to labor conditions."
A large percentage of those who have come recently have been
the wives and children of Japanese already in this country. The
number of Japanese males of the laboring class departing from the
United States is in excess of the number who are admitted at the
ports.
The percentage of students who have come has been comparatively
large, but the great majority of these have accepted employment and
have not pursued a regular course of study, except, possibly, in English
in a night school. The primary motive behind the immigration to this
country has been economic — a desire to earn the highest wages they
could command and then to return to their native land with savings
which would place them in a better economic position, or, more recently,
upon the part of a rather small minority, a desire to establish them-
selves as farmers and business men and settle permanently in this coun-
try. The advantages offered by this country, as well as the unpleasant
features, have long been known through those who have returned
to Japan, through correspondence, and through numerous handbooks
and guides to "America which have been published in the Japanese
language. Moreover, the way has been smoothed and migration
made convenient, emigration for some years induced, and the stream
enlarged by the emigration companies. On this side, also, the con-
tractors, operating boarding houses or cooperating with boarding-
house keepers, and probably in some instances under agreement with
emigration companies, have found employment and smoothed the
way for the newly arrived immigrants. These are the more important
facts, which, together with the less attractive prospects for laborers
in Formosa, Korea, and Manchuria, have given rise to a strong desire
on the part of the Japanese of the agricultural, industrial, and small
shopkeeping classes to emigrate to the United States.
The number of Japanese, including the native-born, in the conti-
nental territory of the. United States in the summer of 1909 is roughly
estimated as between 95,000 and 100,000. Whatever the number
may be, at least five-sixths of them are in the 11 States and Territories
constituting the Western division. Though a large percentage of the
Japanese are migratory and the number in a State varies during the
year, it is safe to say that half or more than half of the Japanese in
the continental territory are in California and 16,000 or more in Wash-
ington, where the great majority have arrived, the next largest num-
bers being in Colorado and Oregon. It is in part the congestion thus
indicated which has given rise to the problem connected with the
immigration of Japanese laborers. Yet the number of Japanese
men in California in 1909 was perhaps between 6.5 and 7 per cent of
the total number of males 16 years of age or over, while in 1870 the
Chinese were 14 per cent and in 1880 a still larger percentage of all
persons employed in the State.
' Perhaps 7,000 of the 95,000 or 100,000 Japanese in the United
States are adult females, practically all of whom are married women,
many of them coming as ''picture brides "a or being married upon
arrival in this country. Most of the women have come to the United
States within the last five years, and inasmuch as the majority are
the wives of farmers and business men, their immigration marks the
progress of the Japanese from the position of migratory laborers to
«See Vol. II, p. 337.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 663
settled residents, usually farming or engaging in business for them-
selves. The number of children under 16 years of age is perhaps in
excess of 4,000, and the majority of these are native-born and of
immature years.
Like the earlier immigration of the Chinese and the present immi-
gration of most of the south and east European races, the majority
of the Japanese immigrants have been of the agricultural class —
small farmers, farmers' sons, and a few farm laborers. The number
of industrial wage-earners, clerks, professional men, and shopkeepers
has been much smaller, while the number of men coming with capital
has been very small indeed. Moreover, the majority have left their
native land for Hawaii or continental United States when young
men, say under 25, though the number who have been engaged 'in
farming" or in business on their own account and have reached maturer
years before emigrating is not small.
The great majority of the Japanese in this country have been
employed in railroad and general construction work, as agricultural
laborers, cannery hands, lumber-mill and logging-camp laborers,
in the various branches of domestic service and in business estab-
lishments conducted by their countrymen. Smaller numbers have
been employed in coal and ore mining, smelting, meat packing, and
salt making. In the building trades they have done little save in
making repairs and in doing cabinetwork for their countrymen.
They have found little place in manufacturing establishments in
cities. In contrast to the Chinese, they have found little employ-
ment in shoe, clothing, and cigar factories. That they have seldom
been considered for "inside" work of the kind in which the Chinese
were formerly extensively employed, is explained by a number of
facts. A hostile public sentiment, with the boycott in the back-
ground, was sufficient to cause many of the employers to discharge
their Chinese employees. This experience with Chinese labor has
caused most employers to look elsewhere than to the Japanese for
laborers needed in such industries. More important, perhaps, is the
fact that, coincident with the immigration of the Japanese, cheap
labor of other kinds has become available in the large number of
Italians, Russians, Porto Ricans, Spaniards, and others finding
E laces in the population of San Francisco, where most of the manu-
icturing is conducted. The labor of these classes, and especially
of the women and children, has been cheaper than that of the Japa-
nese for the making of cigars and work of that character. Finally,
in machine shops, foundries, and similar places, they have seldom
been given employment, for these trades are well organized and
there has been strong opposition by union men to the employment
of Asiatics as helpers or as common laborers.
Many Japanese laborers migrate from one locality and from one
industry to another during the year. However, the following state-
ment shows roughly the occupational distribution of those in the
West during the summer of 1909.
Approximately 10,000 were employed by the steam railway com-
E anies. Between 6,000 and 7,000 of these were employed as section
ands and members of "extra gangs," constituting between one-
seventh and one-sixth of the laborers in the main tenance-of- way
departments in the Western division. Most of the others were
employed as laborers and helpers in railway shops and about round-
664 The Immigration Commission.
houses and stations, though a few were employed in the department
of bridges and buildings in the Northwest. More than 2,200 were
employed in 67 of the 1,400 or 1,500 lumber mills of Oregon anc
Washington, which, altogether, employ something more than 35,OOC
men. Some 3,600 were employed in salmon canneries in Alaska,
Washington, and Oregon, where the number was larger than that
of any other race, while a few hundred engaged in fishing along the
coast of California. The number of Japanese employed in the
mines of Wyoming, Utah, southern Colorado, and northern New
Mexico was somewhat less than 2,000 in a total of some 27,000 to
30,000 employed in the four States. Somewhat less than 200 were
employed in three smelters in Utah and Nevada and an approxi-
mately equal number in an iron and steel plant at Pueblo, Colo.
Several hundred, all told, including those employed in constructing
irrigation ditches in the arid districts, were engaged in general con-
struction work. Perhaps during the summer months the number
engaged as farmers and farm laborers in agricultural pursuits in
Washington was 3,000. in Oregon 1,000, in Idaho 800, in Utah 1,025,
in Colorado possibly 3,000, in California 30,000, with smaller num-
bers in the other States and Territories of the Western division.
The numbers employed by street-railway companies in Los Angeles,
in two salt refineries near Sari Francisco, and otherwise outside of
towns and cities, were comparatively small, though amounting to
several hundred all told. As opposed to these, the number engaged
in city trades and business — in the West — may be estimated at from
22,000 to 26,000.
Any general statement concerning the employment of Japanese
is likely to prove misleading, because the circumstances have differed
from industry to industry and from one establishment to another.
Reserving agricultural pursuita for later comment, however, the
following general statements may be made as a result of the inves-
tigation of the several industries in which the members of this race
are employed:
(1) In a number of instances the first employment of the members
of this race has been to break strikes. This is true of coal mining
in southern Colorado and Utah, where they were first employed in
1903-4, of smelting in Utah, where they replaced Greeks striking for
replace Chinese or when employers were experiencing difficulty
in finding an adequate number of steady white men to work as com-
mon laborers and as helpers at the rate of wages which had obtained.
Seldom have other classes been discharged in large numbers to make
room for the Japanese; on the contrary, Japanese have usually
been employed to fill places vacated by others because of the more
remunerative or agreeable employment to be found elsewhere.
(2) A premium has been placed upon the substitution of Japanese
rather than of other immigrant races by the fact that they were made
easily available by the Japanese contractors, and that because of the
position of the contractors, their employment involved the least
inconvenience to the employers. Almost without exception the Jap-
anese employed in the industries of the West have been secured
through Japanese "bosses" who undertake to provide the number of
men required, and frequently keep the "time" of the men, and pay
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 665
•
them off, in return for an interpreter's fee of $1 per month (generally
collected), a commission on their earnings (usually 5 per cent but
sometimes less), and the privilege (generally exercised) of supplying
the men with such goods as they do not purchase at local stores.
These contractors have had a supply of labor available; other cheap
laborers must be "recruited," largely through employment agents in
the cities of the Middle West, which involves competition with the
industries more conveniently reached from these supply centers.
This organization of the Japanese laborers must be emphasized above
all other things in explaining the demand for them.
(3) The Japanese have usually worked for a lower wage than the
members of any other race save the Chinese and the Mexican. In
the salmon canneries the Chinese have been paid higher wages than
the Japanese engaged in the same occupations. In the lumber indus-
try all races, including the East Indian, have been paid higher wages
than the Japanese doing the same kind of work. As section hands
and laborers in railway shops they have been paid as much as or more
than the Chinese and more than the Mexicans, but as a rule less than
the white men of many races. In coal mining they have been
employed chiefly as miners and loaders and have worked at the com-
mon piece rate, but in Wyoming, where they have been employed
as " company men," they were paid less per day than the European
immigrants employed in large numbers until their acceptance as
members of the United Mine Workers in 1907 gave them the benefit
of the standard rate established by bargaining between the union and
the operators. As construction laborers they have usually, though
not invariably, been paid less than the other races employed except
the East Indians and the Mexicans. Competition among the races
engaged in unskilled work appears generally to have hinged upon the
rate of wages paid rather than the efficiency of the races employed.
(4) During the period when the Japanese were arriving in this
country in largest numbers, the question of differences in wages
between the white races and the Japanese began to solve itself
to such an extent that gradually the variation became trifling and
there were instances where there was no diversity in the wages paid
each. This is accounted for partly by the skillful bargaining of the
few large contractors who have supplied the great majority of the
laborers for work in canneries, on the railroads, in the lumber mills,
and for other industrial enterprises, partly by the fact that there
was an increasing demand for Japanese labor in other industries, which
one after the other had been opened to them.
(5) Though regarded as less desirable than the Chinese and the
Mexicans, roadmasters and section foremen usually prefer Japanese
to the Italians, Greeks, and Slavs, as section hands.
In the railway shops they are usually given higher rank than the
Mexicans and Greeks and sometimes the Italians as well. They are
versatile, adaptable, and ambitious, and are regarded as good laborers
and helpers. In salmon canning, on the other hand, they are univer-
sally regarded as much less desirable than the Chinese and are
inferior to the Filipinos who have recently engaged in the industry in
Alaska. Not only are the Japanese less experienced in the industry
than the Chinese, but they are considered less reliable in contractual
relations and do not have the highly developed instinct of workman-
ship which causes the Chinaman to be regarded as the most careful
72289°— VOL 1—11 43
666 The Immigration Commission.
and the most trustworthy laborer. The distinct preference for Chinese
is shown by the fact that some of the largest salmon packers stipulate
in the contracts made with Chinese contractors that the Japanese
employed shall not exceed a certain number, or that they shall not
exceed the number of Chinese. The industry almost from its inception
has been dependent upon Asiatic labor (for the work in the canneries)
and the numerous European races engaged in fishing have seldom been
tried as "cannery hands." In the lumber and other industries there
is greater difference of opinion. On the whole, however, the Japanese
have been regarded as satisfactory laborers at the wage paid. In salt
refineries and in some other places where the labor conditions are hard,
they find favor because they are willing to accept such conditions.
(6) Regardless of these considerations, however, in most branches
of industry the Japanese have found it difficult to make much advance.
In the lumber industry the great majority of employers have never
engaged them at all. In some instances this is explained by the race
antipathy of the employer, and more frequently by that of the white
employees, who object strongly to the employment of Japanese, save
possibly in the yards and along the streams where there is work other
men refuse to do. In several instances the members of the commu-
nity have exhibited their opposition to the employment of this race by
demanding their discharge and, upon occasions, threatening violence.
The same situation is found in most industries in which the Japanese
have been employed where large groups of men are brought together
at one place and the work is of such a character that the members of
different races must work in close association. While exceptions are
found in a few other industries, it is mainly in the salmon canneries
and in railway work that a hostile public opinion has had little effect
upon the employment of Japanese.
(7) Chiefly because of the attitude of other laborers and the fact
that many of the Japanese dp not understand English and must be set
at work in groups with an interpreter, the Japanese have generally
been engaged in unskilled work. In the lumber industry a few have
advanced to semiskilled positions, but they have not made the prog-
ress attained by the members of the same race in British Columbia,
where skilled white men have been more scarce. In fact, in Washing-
ton and Oregon few Japanese have been employed except in the
" yards." Nor have they found a place in catching fish for the can-
neries as they did in British Columbia, while in the canneries they are,
as a rule, employed to do the unskilled work during the busiest season,
while the Chinese are employed more regularly and fill the positions
requiring skill. The Japanese likewise occupy the lowest positions
in the fruit and vegetable canneries, and are engaged principally in
preparing fruit and vegetables for canning. In the coal mines, with
the exception of Wyoming, they are employed as miners and loaders —
occupations in which the great majority of the new immigrants are
employed, because the work is less regular and more disagreeable than
in the other occupations. Likewise in the three smelters where they
are employed they share the commonest labor with Greeks and other
recent immigrants from south and east European countries. The
Japanese have made greater progress in railway shops, perhaps, than
in any other nonagricultural employment. Though most of those
employed in shops are unskilled laborers, they have risen somewhat in
the scale of occupations and in several instances are found occupying
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 667
positions which, with their versatility and capacity, might serve
them as stepping-stones to skilled work.
These, in brief, are the more general facts relating to the employ-
ment of Japanese in nonagricultural industries. The Japanese who
found their first employment in the canneries and as section hands
and general construction laborers have shown a strong tendency to
leave such employment for agricultural work or for occupations in the
cities. The explanation of this movement is found partly in the
higher earnings which might be realized, in the better conditions of
living which might be found, and in a very evident tendency exhib-
ited by the Japanese to rise to the occupational and economic position
they had enjoyed in their native land. In this way the large number
who have engaged in agricultural pursuits or in city trades upon their
arrival have been added to by those who were leaving their employ-
ment in other industries. As a result of this movement the number
of Japanese engaged in railroad and general construction work, and
in coal mining in all of the States save Utah, has been decreasing,
especially since restrictions were placed upon the immigration of
laborers from Japan and Hawaii. Their places have been filled by an
increasing number of European immigrants, as a rule at higher wages.
Business having been in a more or less depressed condition throughout
the West since the end of 1907, the partial substitution involved has
not caused much difficulty. It may be said further that none of these
industries, save salmon canning, has been materially assisted by or
has become dependent upon Japanese labor. In the salmon can-
neries Chinese and laborers of other races than Japanese are desired.
With the beet-sugar industry in several States and certain other agri-
cultural industries in California it is different, for the farmers in many
localities have for years relied upon Asiatic labor until a situation has
developed in which the substitution of other races will involve incon-
venience and will require radical changes in order to make the neces-
sary readjustment.
In 1909 it is probable that not far from 30,000 Japanese were
engaged in agricultural pursuits in California during the summer
months. As laborers they occupy a dominant position in most of the
intensive, specialized agriculture which has come to prevail, and espe-
cially in that which involves much hand work and is seasonal in char-
acter. They occupy substantially the position held by the Chinese
twenty years ago in the same and similar industries, less important
then, but which now give rise to products representing possibly one-
half of the entire amount marketed. The Japanese do practically all
of the hand work in the berry patches, two- thirds of that in the sugar-
beet fields, perhaps one-half of that in the vineyards, and a somewhat
smaller part of that in the fields devoted to raising vegetables and in
the orchards. In the hop yards they do not generally predominate
except in the training and care of the vines and in picking in some
localities, while on general farms they find little employment. On
farms conducted by white men they do very little of the work with
teams and have as their share the smaller part of the hand work in
orchards and vineyards except during the busiest seasons, whether
during cultivation or harvest, when they occupy a much more con-
spicuous position, and their dominancy is in part due to this fact.
Because of differences in climate, elevation, and soil, much special-
ization in farming has developed where the problems of transportation
668 The Immigration Commission.
and labor could be solved. First the Chinese and then the Japanese
have been organized and easily moved from one community to
another, so that no great restriction has been placed upon a special-
ization which has called for many laborers at one time and relatively
few at another. Moreover, it has been possible, as in the beet-sugar
industry and in vegetable growing along the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Rivers, to engage extensively in agricultural enterprises in
advance of a settled population of any considerable dimensions. As
a consequence of these several facts, many California communities
have a degree of specialization in agriculture which makes it necessary
to induce many persons to come from other localities to assist for a
time in the farm work. The need is made all the greater by the fact
that in marketing the products frequently much additional labor is
required to "man" packing houses, canneries, or wineries. At Vaca-
ville 4,000 persons must come from other localities to assist in picking,
packing, and drying the fruit. At Watsonville 2,000 laborers are
required from other localities to assist with the strawberry and apple
harvests, which are separated by a period of many weeks. At Fresno
from 3,000 to 4,000 extra laborers are needed for three weeks in the
autumn to harvest the raisin grapes, while others are required in the
packing houses and wineries. About Oxnard for several weeks 2,000
extra men are needed. Numerous other instances might be given — •
for they are fairly general — of a specialization by communities which
requires for a time a labor force larger than that which is normally
supported by the community, involving the necessity of securing
" extra help" from other localities.
These facts are important, also, in connection with the problem of
lodging and board, which, in less extreme form, is met with wherever
"farm hands" are employed. In these specialized industries, where
a large number of men are required for a few weeks, the problem
becomes difficult and the necessary migration places a great emphasis
upon an organization which will give the farmer the number of men
desired at the time needed, without the inconvenience of keeping the
"time" of each man and paying him frequently and individually for
the work done. The problems thus indicated the Chinese and Jap-
anese have solved. They are accustomed to hand labor; have usually
been without family, and could easily migrate from one community
to another; have been provided with comparatively cheap lodgings
and have boarded themselves, when white men, as a rule, must be pro-
vided with board; and have been organized so that it was possible
for the grower to secure the number of men desired, and have them
supervised, and paid off and discharged, as a group.
The Japanese first engaged in California agriculture as fruit pickers
at Vacaville near the close of the eighties. By 1895 they had found
employment in which the Chinese had been engaged in every locality
in California as far south as Fresno. Since 1900 they have made their
appearance in southern California and since 1904 they have been
employed in most of the localities in that part of the State. In some
instances the Japanese have been employed where a new industry
was being introduced, as, for example, the growing of sugar beets in
certain sections of the State; in others they have taken the places
vacated by Chinese, who were diminishing in number; while in other
cases they have displaced the Chinese or white men by underbidding
or by their superior organization. In most of the localities in which
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 669
Chinese were employed at the time the Japanese came to the com-
munity— as about Vacaville, Fresno, and on the Sacramento River —
they were soon extensively displaced by the Japanese, who had the
same organization, were younger, more adaptable, and more agree-
able, and who, when they did not work for a lower wage, did more
work. In a few instances where white men had been employed to
replace the Chinese, who became scarce and difficult to secure, the
white men were displaced also by Japanese. The citrus-fruit industry
of southern California is an excellent example of one in the develop-
ment of which Asiatic labor had taken little part, but in which within
the last six years so many Japanese have found employment that
they now do perhaps one-half of the picking and by no means a small
percentage of the packing. Their wage per hour has been less than
that paid to white men, and generally to Mexicans, and frequently
when picking at piece rates they have been paid less than pickers of
other races. Moreover, they have been easily obtained from " camps "
maintained by " contractors/' who are paid upon the completion of
the work or later for such work as the men under their control do.
The lower wage, the ease in providing living accommodations, and
this convenient organization, together with a tendency for white per-
sons who have followed this occupation to leave when work may be
obtained elsewhere, explain the rapid advance the Japanese have
made. Though it is probable that there has been little or no net dis-
placement of white persons in the industry, they have been displaced
very extensively in certain localities. Thus the dominant position of
the Japanese has been gained as a result of the decreasing number of
Chinese, and because of the fact that they have been well fitted to
maintain and to extend the scheme of things developed through the
employment of the Chinese, and because they were cheap laborers.
The emphasis, however, must be placed upon the first facts rather
than upon the fact that the Japanese have been cheaper laborers than
the other races available for employment in most parts of the State.
The wages of Japanese laborers in California have advanced rapidly
since their first employment. Indeed, their wages increased rapidly
between 1900 and 1906, when the largest numbers were being added to
the labor supply. The agricultural industries of the State, and of
the other States of the West producing beet sugar, were rapidly
expanding and giving rise to an increasing demand for such labor
as the Japanese could furnish. They have also found employment
in other industries, which, beginning about 1898, made effective com-
petition for Japanese engaged in California agriculture. Further-
more, the Japanese have been quick to take advantage of oppor-
tunities offered to secure an increase of wages, and in this tneir
organization under contractors has been of material assistance,
especially in recent years when much complaint has been made of
the increasing wages and uncertainty of the supply of seasonal labor
on account of the attitude of the Japanese. As a result of this raj)id
increase of Japanese wages and the slow increase in the wages of white
men, the difference in the wages the classes have been paid has dimin-
ished until now the variation is trifling. In fact, since the restriction
of Japanese immigration, they are occasionally paid higher wages than
white men doing the same work. These cases are very exceptional,
however. For regular work in most communities the Japanese were
found in 1909 to receive less pay 'than white men, or, if they were paid
670
The Immigration Commission.
as much on a day basis, they worked longer hours or the work was
especially irksome. In many districts the Japanese received less pay
for harvest work than did white men, but in other communities all
races received the same wages for similar work. Frequently, how-
ever, their earnings are very much larger than those of the other races,
because of the piece-rate system which prevails in the cultivation and
harvest of sugar beets, in the picking of grapes, in training the vines
and in picking hops, and in much of the other agricultural work. On
piece rates they work much more rapidly than most other races and
usually work longer hours as well, with the result that their earnings
in the hop yards, sugar-beet fields, and vineyards have been found to
average considerably more than those of any other race. This bears
upon the subject only in so far as it explains the large number of Jap-
anese who have sought such employment. In explaining the results of
their competition with other races, pertaining to wages, the day wages
and the piece rates alone should be compared. Nor do averages
based upon figures collected from different communities have any
particular significance in connection with this matter. They are of
importance, however, in showing the general level of wages which
prevails in agricultural as compared to that which prevails in other
employments. The averages earned by unskilled laborers, with and
without board, are shown in the following table. It should be added
that board for white ranch hands is commonly reckoned at either 50
or 75 cents, and for Japanese at from 23 to 30 cents per day.
TABLE 9. — Average wages per day earned by each specified number of farm laborers in
California, by race.
Race.
Farm laborers employed regularly.
Farm laborers employed temporarily.
With board.
Without board.
With board.
Without board.
Number.
Average
wage per
day.
Number.
Average
wage per
day.
Number.
Average
wage per
day.
Number.
Average
wage per
day.
Chinese
108
$1.406
26
66
22
863
85
199
$1. 559
1.534
1.667
1.623
1.422
1.889
35
$1.454
99
253
$1. 743
1.441
East Indian
Italian
101
93
1.108
1.396
181
40
1.121
1.421
Japanese
2.654
82
286
1.615
1.721
1.855
Mexican
Miscellaneous white. .
411
i.3ii
53
1.286
The Japanese agricultural laborers were at first almost all of the
migratory class engaged in seasonal work only. Gradually, however,
like the Chinese and other races beginning in the same way, an
increasing percentage of them have found employment in the same
locality throughout the year. A small percentage, also, as among the
Chinese, have come to engage in occupations requiring work with
teams. Most of these, however, are farming for themselves or
employees of farmers, for among the Japanese as well as Chinese,
Italians, and Portuguese, there is a strong tendency to employ only
persons of their own race to fill all positions.
Within ten years the Japanese have become conspicuous as farmers.
In California, according to the returns made by the secretaries of
Japanese associations, which, where( checked, have been found to be
approximately correct, the members of this race in 1909 owned
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 671
16,449J acres of agricultural land and leased 137,233J acres more,
80,232 acres of it for cash and 57, 001 J for a share of the crop. The
corresponding figures for 1904 were 2,442 acres owned and 54,831
leased, 35,258J for cash and 19,572J for a share of the crop. This
does not include so-called " contract leases," where a part of the work
involved is covered by a contract for the season or a period of years.
The amount of land controlled by Japanese in several other States in
the West was in 1909 approximately as follows: Colorado, 20,000
acres; Idaho, 7,072; Utah, 6,000; Washington, 7,000; Oregon, 3,500;
more than 90 per cent of it being under cash or share lease. In
Colorado most of this land is used for the growing of sugar beets and
potatoes; in Utah, sugar beets and vegetables; in Idaho, sugar beets;
in Washington and Oregon, vegetables and berries; in California,
vegetables, berries, deciduous fruits, grapes, celery, melons, hops,
and other crops requiring much hand labor and usually intensive
cultivation.
The investigation shows that the farms tend to fall under the control
of any capable race which controls the supply of labor where much
labor is essential, as it is in the growing of sugar beets, berries, vege-
tables, and fruit of different kinds. A large part of the leasing by
Japanese, like the less extensive leasing by the less progressive Chinese
before them, has been incidental to their dominant position in the
labor supply. This explains nearly all of the leasing . of lands in
'ft;
Colorado, Utah, and Idaho, where it has been chiefly incidental to
the growing of sugar beets, the Japanese, like the German-Russians,
advancing rapidly from contract labor for the hand work to a share
of the crop in return for the hand work; from a fairly independent
share lease to an independent cash lease. Much of the leasing in
California is explained in the same way. This is true of the growing
of deciduous fruits and vegetables, where in several instances the
majority of the orchards and farms have been leased by Japanese —
in general, the same evolution in the form of tenure taking place as
noted above. In other cases, however, the leasing and the ownership
of land by Japanese is merely an index of their comparative ability
and has no close relation to their position as laborers. This is true
generally of the leasing of land in W ashington and Oregon, of some
in Utah and Colorado, and of much of the leasing and the purchasing
of land in California.
Among other things shown by the investigation of Japanese farming
were the following:
(1) That because of the convenience of the tenant system and the
difficulty farmers have experienced at times in securing laborers,
there has been a strong inducement to lease land to a member of the
race most prominent in the labor supply ;
(2) That a further inducement has been found in the fact that both
Chinese and Japanese, and the latter particularly, in their anxiety to
establish themselves as farmers, had offered such high rents that
leasing his land gave the owner the best returns, allowance being
made for the diminished risk:
(3) That with the exception of one or two localities, the Japanese
have been the most effective bidders for land and have overbid the
Chinese, the Italians, and native white men, and, moreover, have
sometimes been effective bidders because they would reduce land to
cultivation which white men would not lease on such terms;
672 The Immigration Commission.
(4) That much of the leasing is closely related to a labor contract
in which the tenant does certain stipulated kinds of work in return
for a share of the crop, but that there has been a strong tendency for
the Japanese to work for a greater degree of independence until they
became cash tenants or landowners;
(5) That little capital has been required for a Japanese to become
a tenant farmer because (1) of the formation of partnerships among
them, (2) of the provision of necessary equipment by the landowner
for the use of share tenants, and (3) of the advancing of money by
shippers and others in competing for the control of the crop, the
result being that many of the Japanese farmers have required little
or no capital to begin with ;
(6) That the leasing of land to Japanese, as to Chinese and Italians,
has resulted in a displacement of laborers of other races because, on
account of the disinclination of white persons to work for them or
their own favoritism, they employ persons of their own race almost
exclusively ;
(7) That the Japanese farmers usually pay their Japanese laborers
more than the local rate, but these wages are for a longer work day
and for the better men they are usually in a position to select from
those available;
(8) That in growing strawberries, asparagus, and certain vegetables
the Japanese farmers have increased the acreage in some instances
until the industry has become unprofitable for them as well as others;
(9) That because of the strong desire to remain independent of the
wage relation and the limitations placed upon the occupations in
which they may engage, the Japanese farmers in some instances
appear not to have been discouraged in gaining control of land as
long as there was a prospect of a small profit to be realized.
Though in many localities the Japanese laborers were at first
received with great favor, widespread dissatisfaction with them is
now found and they are almost always disparagingly compared with
the Chinese, who, because they are careful workmen, faithful to the
employer, uncomplaining, easily satisfied with regard to living
quarters, and not ambitious to learn new processes and to establish
themselves as independent farmers, are used in the older agricul-
tural district as the standard by which others are measured. Indeed,
while the largest number of Japanese were arriving and there was no
great question of an insufficiency of numbers, there was a demand for
a limited immigration of Chinese. Though many ranchers think
that for social reasons it would be a mistaken policy to readmit the
Chinese, they generally regard Asiatic laborers as indispensable to
the prosperity and expansion of the agricultural industries which
have become predominant in the State, and their almost unanimous
preference is for Chinese rather than any other Asiatic race.
Perhaps between 12,000 and 15,000 Japanese are employed in the
1 1 States and Territories comprising the Western division, as domestic
servants in private families, and as help in restaurants, hotels, bar-
rooms, clubs, offices, and stores conducted by members of the white
races, while some 10,000 or 11,000 more are engaged in business for
themselves or are employed by those who are thus occupied, or are
professional men and craftsmen working on their own account. Few
are found in city employments other than those indicated.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 673
The 12,000 or 15,000 Japanese engaged in domestic service in its
broad sense are chiefly in a few cities of the Pacific Coast States, the
largest number being in Seattle, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.
The greater number are domestics in private families, dishwashers
and " general help" in restaurants, hotels, and saloons, and "day
workers," i. e., persons who do work about the house or premises
and are paid so much per hour or day. A rather large percentage
of the domestics in private families are "school boys," who work
short hours for which they receive board and lodging and a small
wage, depending upon the number of hours per day they work. The
student class, the farmers' sons, and those who had not been gain-
fully occupied at home, have furnished the larger percentage of those
engaging in these occupations. The work is less arduous than in
the industrial employments, the conditions of living are very much
better, and the opportunity to learn English and certain American
methods are present. To some extent they have taken the places of
the Chinese, who are gradually decreasing in number and are seldom
available except as comparatively high-priced cooks. In few
instances have they increased in number rapidly enough to displace
white female servants, and though the Japanese have been regarded
as the cheapest labor, until recently there has been a scarcity of
servants even at increasing wages, and it should be added that the
wages of Japanese servants increased rapidly during the decade of
the nineties and in subsequent years when the largest number were
arriving in this country. That their presence prevented a greater
increase of wages for other classes there can be no doubt, for they
have added greatly to the supply of labor available for such work.
A comparatively large number of Japanese have found employ-
ment in restaurants and saloons in Seattle, San Francisco, and Los
Angeles. Their wages have been materially . less than the union
rates, but not always smaller than those earned by unorganized
workmen. The convenience in obtaining them, their willingness to
work regularly, and their superiority over many of the white men
engaged in such unskilled and poorly paid work has caused them to
be extensively employed. The number employed in saloons, how-
ever, and especially in San Francisco, has diminished rapidly, as
many of the patrons have objected strongly to their employment at
the lunch counters and as cleaners. This opposition has been
effective, moreover, in preventing them from being employed as bell
boys in other than exceptional cases in California hotels. In Port-
land and Seattle, however, where the anti-Japanese sentiment is
not so strong as in San Francisco, they have been extensively
employed in this capacity, not in an effort to substitute a cheaper
class of laborers, but to obtain a more stable and more easily managed
group. In all of the cities of the Pacific Coast States they have
found employment as janitors, porters, and assistants in stores, where
there has been much difficulty in obtaining desirable men at the
comparatively low wages which such positions have paid. Their
numbers have not been sufficiently large, however, to exercise any
considerable effect upon the wages of other persons similarly employed.
The number of Japanese business establishments in the Western
division is in excess of 3,000 — probably not much less than 3,500 —
two-thirds or more of which are in the State of California and more
than one-half of the remainder in Washington. The number of
674 The Immigration Commission.
persons occupied in conducting these establishments is perhaps
between 10,000 and 11,000. Their character is roughly indicated by
the number of each in five cities in Washington, seven cities in Cali-
fornia, Salt Lake City and Ogden, Utah, Denver, Colo., Portland,
Oreg., and 11 towns in Idaho, from which data were gathered by
agents of the Commission. Of a total of 2,277, 337 were Japanese
hotels and boarding houses, 232 restaurants serving Japanese meals,
187 barber shops, 149 restaurants serving American meals, 144
billiard and pool rooms, 136 tailor and dye shops, 124 provision and
supply stores, 105 cobbler and shoe shops, 97 laundries, 86 curio and
art stores, 44 employment offices, 32 contractors, 43 expressmen, 32
watch and jewelry stores and 26 photograph galleries. The other
establishments were engaged in various branches of business enter-
prise.
Most of these Japanese establishments have come into existence
during the last seven or eight years as a result of the rapid increase of
the Japanese population, a well-defined tendency exhibited by them
to rise from the ranks of wage laborers, and an inclination more
recently made manifest to seek " American " patronage and trade in
some branches of business. The tendency to rise from the ranks of
wage-earners has been made stronger by the fact that as such they
have had little opportunity to advance to the higher occupations and
to follow the trades some of them had acquired in their native land.
The investigation shows, in addition to the above facts :
(1) That with few exceptions the Japanese business establishments
are small, employ comparatively little capital, are conducted with
the assistance of few employees, and have a comparatively small
volume of annual transactions.
(2) That in the larger cities where there are great numbers of
Japanese many branches of business and many professions are repre-
sented; and because of clannishness, convenience in point of location
and language, and the character of the goods carried in stock, and
because of the feeling of opposition toward the Asiatics, with the result
that they are not welcome at white establishments giving personal
service, the majority of the wants of the Japanese are met by their
countrymen engaged in business and the professions.
(3) That while many of the Japanese establishments have been
called into existence primarily to meet the needs of the members of
that race, others have been started, mainly in recent years, for
1 'American" trade, and are patronized almost exclusively by white
persons.
(4) That frequently in competing with white establishments the
Japanese have underbid through a lower scale of prices.
(5) That because of organized opposition in some instances, and of
the small number of Japanese establishments as compared to those
conducted by other races, the trades which have been seriously
affected by Japanese competition have been few.
(6) That in some instances the changes in the character of the
population resulting from the settlement of Japanese who trade
principally at shops conducted by their countrymen have seriously
affected the business of shopkeepers and others located in or near
Japanese colonies.
(7) That few white persons are employed in Japanese estab-
lishments.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 675
(8) That usually, where there is competition between white and
Japanese business men, the former maintain a shorter work day and a
higher scale of wages than the latter.
While the cost of food and drink consumed by Japanese farm
laborers varies from about 23 to 30 cents per day, and by railroad
laborers is about $8.50 per month, the expenditures of a large per-
centage of those living in cities are very much larger. They spend
more for clothing than the members of most races similarly situated.
On the whole their standard of living is higher than that of the Mexi-
can and the Chinese, and compares favorably with the standards of
the south and east Europeans engaged in the same pursuits and earn-
ing like incomes. Yet the expenses of laborers without families have
been much less than those of white men with families. The migratory
laborers, usually with families or parents to support at home and
with limited opportunities for investment here, send most of their
savings abroad. The farmers, the business men and shopkeepers, and
a small percentage of the nonmigratory laborers stand in striking
contrast to these, for they usually invest most of their savings in the
business carried on or in agriculture, or else put by their savings until
they can find profitable investment for them.
The Japanese are well organized into prefectural societies or trade
guilds, and otherwise, and seldom become public charges. Though
in several instances it has been necessary to deal with Japanese
prostitution, they have not given much trouble on account of mis-
demeanors or crimes — much less than the Mexicans and the Latin
races.
In certain respects the Japanese have shown a great capacity for
assimilation, and very much more than the Chinese and the Mexicans
of the peon class. In fact, they are extremely anxious to learn
western ways and methods and conform at least to the externals of
the civilization into which they have come. They have organized
more schools for the acquirement of a knowledge of English than any
other race, and in spite of their general colony life and slight associa-
tion with other races they have made more rapid progress in learning
our language than the majority of the south and east Europeans, and
much more than the Mexicans and Chinese, who have shown little
interest in such matters. In dress and all superficial matters they
conform to American ways, and though the majority adhere to the
Buddhist faith, a large number, especially of the younger student
class, are professed Christians and the missions are usually well sup-
ported. Yet there are race characteristics which may be firmly
rooted — how firmly only time and longer association with other races
will tell.
But whatever their capacities for assimilation, the general condi-
tions have been, and are, unfavorable to Japanese laborers because
of race feeling growing out of difference in color, characteristics, and
ideals, because of the economic conflict which has taken place, espe-
cially in California, and (this being not least in importance) because
these laborers came from the same quarter of the world as the Chi-
nese and fell heir to their industrial position and general mode of
life. The Japanese, along with the Chinese, are regarded ,as differ-
ing greatly from the white races they have lived among, and a
strong public sentiment has segregated them, if not in their work,
676 The Immigration Commission.
in the other details of their living. This practically forbids, when not
expressed in law, marriage between them and persons of the white
races, and where a considerable number of Japanese have appeared
in a community race conflicts have frequently resulted. With the
exception of those who belong to the business classes, the Chinese
native-born have found limitations placed upon them so that,
regardless of any capacity they may have for Americanization, they
do not differ materially from and are treated as if foreign-born.
It is not unlikely that, with large numbers of laborers, similar limi-
tations— with similar results — would be placed upon the native-
born Japanese, none of whom has yet arrived at mature age.
EAST INDIANS.
East Indians of the laboring class were the last race to find a place
in the population of the Pacific Coast States. Though the census
of 1900 reports India as the country of birth of 2,050 persons resid-
ing in the continental United States, these were almost all of the
student and business classes of East Indians and persons of oth^r
races who had been born in India, a large percentage of whom were
located in the eastern States. The immigration of East Indian
laborers may be said to date from 1905. In 1906 the number of
" immigrant" and " nonimmigrant " East Indians arriving in the
United States was 271; in 1907, 1,072; in 1908, 1,710. Beginning
with 1908 the " immigrant" and " nonimmigrant " classes have been
reported separately by the Immigration Bureau. In 1909 the num-
ber of " immigrants" was 337; in 1910 (July 1, 1909-June 30, 1910),
1,782. The number of East Indian laborers in the United States
July 1, 1910, may be estimated at 5,000 or perhaps a little more.
About 85 per cent of these are Hindus wearing the turban; the others
are Mohammedans or Afghans.
The first important immigration of East Indian laborers to the
United States was from British Columbia, where, as the result of the
activity of steamship agents and the spread of Canadian " literature"
in India, and the efforts made to supply laborers under contract for
work with British Columbia corporations, 5, 179 entered during the four
years ending with 1908. In that year the further immigration of
East Indians was effectively stopped by the denial of admission to
persons who did not come directly from their native land, and upon
through tickets, and by another measure increasing from $25 to $200
the amount of money required to be in possession of Asiatic immi-
grants. The intent of the first provision becomes evident in view
of the fact that there is no direct steamship - connection between
India and Canada.
The immigration of East Indians from British Columbia is
explained by several facts. They found the northern climate too
severe, the white population was bitterly opposed to them, and the
wages they earned as construction laborers and section hands on the
railroads, as employees in the lumber mills, and as cannery hands
on the Frazer River were much lower than the wages paid in the
States of Washington and Oregon. The first East Indians coming
from Canada found employment in lumber mills near the border at
$1.60 per day, and when this fact was communicated to their friends
and acquaintances in British Columbia who were earning from $0.80
to $1.25 per day, the influx began. The movement practically ended
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 677
, * .
in 1908, however, because of the effective exclusion of the race from
Dominion territory. Since then most of the immigration to this
country has been direct from Asiatic ports, the, great majority of
them entering this country at San Francisco. During the first nine
months of the calendar year 1910, 1,401 were admitted at the immi-
gration station there located, while 623 were denied admission.
The number of East Indians entering the United States has been
affected somewhat by the attitude of the immigration authorities
toward them. In 1908 many were turned back on the ground that
they were likely to become public charges, and the same has been
true recently in the administration of the law at the port of San
Francisco, where during the four months, June to September, 1910,
482 were admitted and 421 rejected on the ground that they were
likely to become public charges, as against 919 admitted and 68
rejected for the same cause during the preceding five months of the
year. The more severe interpretation of the law has met with almost
unqualified approval, for the East Indian laborers are regarded as
the least desirable, not to say the most undesirable, immigrants who
have come to the Pacific coast. While 4,901 have been admitted to
this country during the four years ending June 30, 1910, 1,597 have
been denied admission at the ports. In this connection it should
be added that a large percentage of those who have applied had
already been passed upon when admitted to Canada, while recently
many are reported to have been turned back upon examination when
about to leave Asiatic ports. Of the 1,597 rejected during the four
years mentioned, 750 were rejected on the ground that they were
likely to become public charges, 447 because afflicted with trachoma,
112 because of loathsome or contagious disease, 177 on surgeon's
certificate of mental or physical defect which might affect their
ability to earn a living, 73 on the ground that they were contract
laborers, 2 because idiotic, 2 because criminal, and 34 because they
were polygamists. During the four years 15 were deported for
various reasons." In spite of the large number rejected, the move-
ment of East Indians to the Pacific coast has not been so discouraged
but that the number has tended to increase under the present immi-
gration law and its interpretation. The comparatively small num-
bers who have thus far come mark only the beginning of a much
larger immigration if the members of this race are successful in
establishing themselves as laborers in this country.
Of 473 East Indians from whom personal schedules were obtained,
85 per cent had been farmers or farm laborers in India.6 Of the
others a few had been soldiers, an equal number business men, and a
somewhat larger number wage-laborers in other than agricultural
work. Without exception they arrived in this country with little
money and most of them appear to have come with the expectation
of accumulating a sum of $2,000 and then returning to their native
land. A by no means small percentage, however, complain of British
oppression in their native land. They have come without their
families, but now that a few have decided to remain permanently in
« See reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1907,
1908, 1909, 1910.
&The occupations as reported by the Commissioner-General of Immigration are
somewhat misleading, for in a large percentage of the cases the occupation in British
Columbia, not India, is given.
678 The Immigration Commission.
this country they state that the immigration of families will soon
follow.
In this country the East Indians, with rare exceptions, have
engaged in the roughest, most unskilled labor outside of factory
waUs. Whether with a longer residence they would rise to higher
positions as they did in British Columbia lumber mills remains to
be seen. As yet their employment, with few exceptions, has been
limited to "yard work" in lumber mills, as section hands in several
places but chiefly in Nevada, as railroad construction laborers, as
hand laborers in the sugar-beet fields in California, as hand laborers
in grape and fruit picking, weeding, and hoeing, and as unskilled
laborers in a pottery and in a quarry. The only instance known in
which they have been employed at work in a building was in a rope
factory in Portland. A few Mohammedans have vended peanuts,
while several small groups have manufactured tamales at their
homes and sold them upon the streets of Oakland and San Francisco.
Since 1906 East Indians have been employed as yard laborers in
the lumber mills of the Northwest, chiefly about Bellingham, Tacoma,
Grays Harbor, and Astoria. They have been paid higher wages than
the Japanese, but as a rule somewhat lower wages than " white men,'7
the East Indians not being recognized as of the white race. Their
wages have been fixed by the lumber companies at comparatively
high rates, because of the strong hostility exhibited toward them by
laborers of other races, who have feared that they would undermine
their wages. The average wage per day of 53 East Indians was
$1.67. The average yearly earnings of 38 were $451 for an average
of 10.2 months in employment, as against $516 for 48 Japanese for an
average of 11.2 months in employment. Because of lower wages or
of more irregular work, or both, their annual earnings were found to
be lower than those of any other race for the members of which such
data were obtained. In a few instances they have been regarded
as worth the wage paid them, but in most instances the employers
have regarded them as dear labor at the price, because physically
weak as compared to " white men," slow to understand instructions,
and requiring close supervision. Because of this fact and the wide-
spread opposition to them they are not so extensively employed in
lumber mills as formerly. In fact most of the members of the race
have migrated from Washington and Oregon to California in search
of a warmer climate and of work in the fields and orchards, which
they find more agreeable. At present perhaps four-fifths of the
5,000 or more are found in the one State, and none are found else-
where than in the three Pacific Coast States and Nevada.
The East Indian laborers coming from the north made their appear-
ance in California late in the year 1907 to work in railway construc-
tion. They are known to have been employed as laborers in construc-
tion gangs on five railways being built in the State. In all of these
instances they were paid somewhat less than the members of the
white races, but were generally found to be too weak, because of being
underfed, and too slow to be worth the price when other laborers could
be secured at somewhat higher wages. In only one case were they
retained in employment for more than a short time and that has been
upon a railway still in process of construction. They have not been
extensively employed as section hands. In one instance they were
employed to some extent for a few months and then discharged. In
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 679
the spring and summer of 1909 only 73 were reported in a total of
34,919 section hands employed on railways in the Western division.
As section hands they have sometimes been paid higher wages than
other Asiatics, but with few exceptions have been regarded as the
least desirable of all races employed. Unless of the soldier class, they
have been found to be physically weak, unintelligent, and slow to
acquire a knowledge of the work to be done.
tinder these circumstances most of the East Indians have drifted
into agricultural work in California, where there has been the greatest
dearth of cheap labor because of the extension of specialized farming
and fruit growing and the diminishing number of Chinese and Japanese
available as wage laborers for seasonal work. In 1908 they made
their appearance in orchards, vineyards, and sugar-beet fields, and on
the large farms devoted to the production of various kinds of vege-
tables in northern and central California. In 1909 three small groups
made their appearance in southern California. Their work has been
of the most unskilled type, and limited to hoeing and weeding in field
and orchard, and to harvesting of grapes, fruit, and vegetables. In
only one or two instances were they found to have been employed with
single horse plows. In the Newcastle fruit district and along the
Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, where a large part of the land is
leased by Asiatics, they have found employment without much diffi-
culty because of a widespread desire to break the monopoly control
of the labor supply by the Japanese, or because of the much higher
wages than formerly commanded by other Asiatics. In most of the
communities, because of their dirty appearance and strange looks
when wearing turbans, they have found it difficult to secure employ-
ment at relatively low wages. They usually go from place to place in
small groups in search of work under the leadership of one of their
number who acts as interpreter and business agent. In 1908 their
wages varied from 25 to 50 cents per day less than was paid to Japa-
nese. In some instances when paid on a piece basis they worked at a
lower rate than other races. This difference has tended to disappear,
however, for the East Indians, when they have found employment in a
community, have demanded as high wages as were paid to other Asiatics.
In 1909 the difference had been reduced to 25 cents per day, and in
some cases to even less. Though in some instances they have com-
mended themselves to ranchers, they have generally been regarded as
distinctly inferior to laborers of other races and as not cheap labor at
the wages which they have been paid. In few cases have they dis-
placed any other race; usually they have done the work not desired by
other races or have been employed when other laborers were not avail-
able at the customary or even a higher wage.
While in a few instances they have been retained on large ranches
through the winter season as wood choppers, they have usually found
employment only during the busiest seasons and during the winter
have secured employment as construction laborers, have withdrawn
to the cities to live in idleness, or have moved from place to place only
to find little employment. Their industrial position is the most
insecure of any race; in general they are looked upon as a possible
source when laborers of other races are not available on satisfactory
terms. Though in extreme need they have frequently offered to work
for very low wages and in some instances nave even demanded
employment, their competitive ability, because of low efficiency and
680 The Immigration Commission.
a general disinclination to hire them, has been comparatively small.
With more experience and time, however, their position would doubt-
less become more secure and their competitive ability greater.
Of 371 East Indian agricultural laborers, 45 earned $1 but less than
$1.25 per day; 104, $1.25 but less than $1.50; 149, $1.50 but less than
$1.75; 43, $1.75 but less than $2; 28, $2 but less than $2.50; 2, $2.50
but less than $3 . Those receiving more than $1.75 .per day were either
pieceworkers or " bosses," who are paid somewhat higher wages than
their fellow-workers and do not receive commissions, as Japanese
" bosses" frequently do. These are summer wages and are much
higher than are paid at other times of the year and for wood chopping.
Nor are the wages paid a good index to earnings in the course of the
year, for much of the time is spent in idleness because of the irregu-
larity of their employment.
The standard of living of the East Indians is lower than that of any
of the races with which they compete, but, with better earnings,
their standard as measured by expense rises. The East Indians are
without families and the men live in groups of from 2 to 50, depend-
ing upon the size of the ' ' gang ' ' employed in a given place and also
to some extent upon the number of castes represented among them.
The agricultural laborers are provided with free lodging in "shacks,"
barns, or other outbuildings, or, more frequently, live in the open.
They usually have no furniture and sleep in blankets upon the floor
or ground. They generally cook upon a grate placed over a hole in
the ground and frequently eat without plate, knife, or fork. Fre-
quently the members of several castes are found working in the
same "gang" and lodging together, but the members of each caste
form a "mess" and all food eaten must be prepared by a member
of the caste. As a rule they will not purchase meat which has been
prepared by other hands, and are thus usually limited to poultry
and lambs butchered by themselves for their meat. In fact, they
eat little meat. They subsist chiefly upon unleavened bread cooked
as pancakes, upon vegetables, such fruit as they may happen to be
harvesting, and milk when they can get it. Tea and coffee are some-
times used. Many kinds of food are abstained from, the articles
upon the taboo list varying as between the "hat " (Mohammedan) and
the "turban" Hindus, and from one caste to another. Living in
this manner, their food rarely costs as much as $7.50 per month
per man — this, however, not including beer and whisky, which are
freely consumed in many of the groups. Of clothing, most of these
migratory laborers do not have enough for a change, and ' ' dressing
up usually consists of a change of headdress and putting on the
coat, which most possess. ,The cost of clothing as estimated by
various groups does not average more than $30 per man per year.
Most of the lumber-mill laborers and the Mohammedan peddlers
in the cities live better than the agricultural laborers. They usually
live in "shacks" or basements which alone are rented to them, the
group occupying one or two rooms. To the articles of food con-
sumed by the migratory laborers they add others, thus increasing
the cost of subsistence. The average cost of subsistence for 79
mill hands in Oregon and Washington, living in several groups, was
$12 per month. The outlay of the Mohammedan tamale makers and
peddlers was even larger.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 681
The observance of caste in the selection, preparation, and eating
of food has been noted. The strength of this is evidenced by the
fact that when placed in jail for petit larceny or misdemeanors they
have consistently refused to eat food not prepared by themselves or
brought by their friends. At Auburn, Cal., one East Indian fasted for
10 days, after which he was permitted to have a stove and to pre-
pare his own meals. At Fresno some prisoners subsisted upon
watermelons and food brought to them by their countrymen until
the inconvenience involved in retaining them in jail resulted in
their being set free without trial. Caste and taboo are not so closely
observed here as in their native land, but it is evident that both
are strong factors in the East Indians' life in this country.
When employed at the wages already indicated the earnings of
the East Indian men are much larger than the cost of their living.
Almost all of the savings are immediately sent to India to support
their families or to add to the fund they are engaged in accumulat-
ing. Few have as much as $50 worth of property in this country.
In fact, they have frequently sent all their savings abroad and left
themselves with nothing to live on in the event of unemployment.
In one case their pitiable condition was relieved by assistance given
by the British consul-general. Their poverty, precarious industrial
position, and habit with reference to sending savings abroad, are
likely at any time to cause great suffering among them or to cause
them, though able-bodied, to become public charges. That they
have not frequently become public charges heretofore is explained
largely by the fact that they have been far removed from the com-
munity life. They find work and move into the community, but as
yet have been no part of it.
The percentage of illiteracy among the East Indians is larger than
among any other immigrant race, not excepting the Mexican peons.
Between one-half and three-fifths of them are unable to read and
write. A larger percentage of them than of several races speak
English, if comparison is limited to those who have immigrated
within a period of five years. This fact, however, does not indicate
capacity for assimilation, for a large percentage had resided in British
Columbia before coming to the United States, while others had
studied English in India or had come in contact with English-speak-
ing people in the army or elsewhere before leaving their native land.
A few have taken out first papers as the first step toward acquiring
American citizenship. Others have applied for papers but have
been denied them- upon the ground that they were racially ineli-
gible for naturalization. The Bureau of Naturalization has instructed
federal attorneys to "oppose the granting of naturalization to
Hindus or East Indians, but in so far as known no case directly
involving the right of East Indians to become naturalized citizens
of this country has been decided by the courts. Recently the
United States circuit court of appeals in the southern district of
New York (180 Fed. Rep., 695) rendered a decision holding that a
Parsee — a native of India — was eligible for citizenship, but the court
made a clear distinction between the Parsees and the Hindus.
The assimilative qualities of the East Indians appear to be the
lowest of any race in the West. The strong influence of custom,
caste, and taboo, as well as their religion, dark skins, filthy appearance,
and dress, stands in the way of association with other races. At the
72289°— VOL 1^11 44
682 The Immigration Commission.
same time that their assimilative qualities are low, it is evident from
the attitude of all other races toward them that they will be given no
opportunity to assimilate. It appears certain that until many
changes have been wrought the East Indians of the laboring class will
find no place in American life save in the exploitation of our resources.
Except for those of an idealistic turn of mind, a few who look upon
our country as a place of refuge for the East Indian they believe to
be oppressed in his native land, and a very few of the many whose
chief interests and point of view are purely industrial,' the other races
of the West stand opposed to the immigration of East Indians as to
that of no other race.
MEXICANS.
The sections of the United States in which the great majority of the
Mexica-n immigrants are found were formerly a part of the Republic
of Mexico. How many persons of Mexican descent find a place in
the population of this country can not be ascertained. The number
of foreign-born Mexicans in 1900, as reported by the census, was
103,410. For various reasons the immigration has been far more
rapid since 1900 than at any previous time, with the result that the
number of foreign-born of that race is much larger than when the
census of 1900 was taken. According to the reports of the Com-
missioner-General of Immigration, the number coming to the United
States during the ten years between July 1, 1899, and June 30, 1909,
was 23,991. However, complete records of those who cross the border
have not been kept, and it is estimated that the number immigrating
approaches 60,000 per year. The majority of those who come for
the first time return to Mexico after a few months or a year.
Though Mexicans are now employed as far east as Louisiana, and in
railroad work as far north as Illinois, Kansas, and Wyoming, and
though there is a small settlement of families of that race in San
Francisco, most of them are found in Texas, Arizona, and New
Mexico, in Colorado from Pueblo south, in the southern part of
Nevada, and in California from Fresno south to the Mexican boundary.
In the territory thus roughly defined, many colonies of Mexican
families permanently settled in this country are found, as at El Paso,
San Antonio, Tucson, and Los Angeles, in all of which cities the
Mexicans are a conspicuous element in the population. Much
smaller numbers are settled on small farms, for the greater part in
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. But a far larger number are
transient laborers, many of them alternating between their native
land and the States of the Southwest, and living wherever their
employment takes them.
With few exceptions, the Mexicans of the peon class are engaged in
unskilled work for wages. Their chief employments are as laborers
in general construction work, as section hands and members of
"extra gangs" in railroad maintenance of way, as common laborers
and as helpers in railway shops, as laborers and to a less extent as
underground workmen in coal and ore mining, as general laborers
about smelters and ore reduction plants, and as seasonal farm hands
in Texas, Colorado, and California. Smaller numbers are employed
in brickyards, as hod carriers, and as helpers in the building trades,
as cigar makers (as in San Francisco and El Paso), as cannery hands
in southern California, and in biscuit and chili factories, laundries, and
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 683
other establishments calling for a similar grade of ability. With few
exceptions, their shopkeeping is of the pettiest kind, and conducted
in the Mexican quarter. Nor have they in many cases risen from the
rank of seasonal laborer to tenant or landowning farmer in the
specialized agricultural industries in which they find a place. The
Mexican being without ambition and thrift and being content with the
wage relation and a dependent position, his progress, unlike that of
the Japanese, has been slow, and is occupational and practically limited
to that of a wage-earner.
The investigation of Mexicans conducted through the western office
maintained by the Commission was limited to the 11 States and
Territories comprising the Western division, which in 1900 had only
29,579 of the 103,421 Mexicans reported by the census. The results
of the investigation of railroad work, coal and metal mining, smelt-
ing, and the sugar-beet industry and related agricultural work, briefly
stated, will show the more important economic phases of Mexican
immigration.
From the data collected by the Commission it would appear that
in the summer of 1909 Mexicans constituted about one-sixth of the
section hands and members of " extra gangs" employed in the 11
States and Territories embraced within the Western division. The
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe employed 2,598 Mexicans, 41 white
men, and 33 Indians as section hands and construction laborers on
its lines west of Albuquerque. The Southern Pacific Company
employed Mexicans almost exclusively on its southern lines, the com-
mon laborers of the race numbering 2,714 in a total of 12,592 employed
on the various lines comprising its system. The Denver and Rio
Grande employed 206' Mexicans of a total of 1,791, the San Pedro,
Los Angeles and Salt Lake, 397 of a total of 1,706. The majority of
the less important railroads of New Mexico, Arizona, and southern
Colorado employed Mexicans largely if not almost exclusively.
Farther east the members of this race are employed on the Santa
Fe, on the Rock Island, and several other railroads. Though a few
of these section hands are paid as much as $1.75, the majority at
the time of the investigation commanded only $1 per day, while as
track walkers they received $1.25. Of 2,455 Mexican maintenance-
of-way laborers from whom data were obtained, 86.1 per cent earned
less than $1.25 (i. e., $1, $1.10, or $1.15), 8.6 per cent $1.25 but less
than $1.50, and 5.3 per cent $1.50 or over per day. The Mexican's
wage was found to be the lowest paid to maintenance-of-way
laborers in the West and is lower than was paid to men of other
races where such had been employed previous to securing Mexi-
cans. Their wages on one railroad were $1 and in the desert $1.25
per day, while the Japanese employed in the more agreeable places
were paid $1.45. In several instances they have replaced at $1 per
day Indians and Japanese who had been paid $1.25. It should be
added, however, that, largely because of the more extensive employ-
ment of Mexicans as section hands in States to the east, the wages
of most of them employed in the Southwest have been increased to
$1.25 since the investigation of railway labor was made. But even
at this wage the Mexican is still the lowest paid railroad laborer in the
West and his wage is lower than that paid to other races and lower
than that paid generally to Japanese before restrictions were placed
upon the immigration of that race to this country.
684 The Immigration Commission.
During recent years many Mexicans living far in the interior of
Mexico have been brought to the northern part of the Republic to
work on the railways and in the mines and smelters. Once near the
boundary, they have found the wages in this country to be enough
higher than those paid in Mexico to induce them to enter this country
at El Paso, whence they are sent chiefly to the various railway lines by
the several employment agencies, some of which have been organized
to supply particular railroads with laborers of that race. At El Paso
the Mexicans have been permitted to enter this country freely when
without money if employment was to be obtained through these
agencies. In some instances the agents act as supply companies, the
railroad companies protecting their bills, and charge no commission,
but rely on the profits from selling goods at comparatively high prices,
while in other cases they charge an employment fee of $1, which,
together with the charge made for subsistence of laborers while in El
Paso and en route to the place of work, is deducted by the railway
companies from the earnings of the laborers. The laborers are trans-
ported without charge by the companies whose lines enter El Paso
and at party rates where such is not the case. The first-mentioned
lines give free return transportation to those who remain in employ-
ment for several months and in one instance to their families as well
after working for one year. This is an important consideration to
the Mexicans, approximately 50 per cent of whom claim their trans-
portation back to El Paso.
That there is not great exploitation of the Mexicans engaged in rail-
way work in the Southwest is evidenced by the fact that they do not
leave the employment of the companies more frequently than they
do to accept other work and that a large percentage of those who
come to this country are returning to this branch of employment with
their friends after a visit to their native land. In some instances it
was found that foremen promised the men employment for them-
selves and friends upon their return. " Rustlers" are employed to
meet incoming immigrants at the bridge over the Rio Grande at El
Paso, but no evidence was secured of solicitation by agents in Mexico.
The employment of Mexicans in the Southwest is largely in parts
of the country which are sparsely settled and in which the climatic
and other conditions are such that it has been difficult to secure and
to keep laborers of any other race, including the Japanese. It was
partly because of this fact, partly because of the lower wage for which
they were willing to work, and partly because of roadmasters' prefer-
ences for them as laborers that within ten years their employment
has become so general. That Chinese and white men of the older type
are no longer available in any considerable number under present
conditions and at any price is evidenced by the efforts made by one
company to secure laborers at higher wages to supplement the Mexi-
cans upon its pay rolls. Moreover, when Italians, Greeks, and Japa-
nese have been employed, as they were in 1905, 1906, and 1907, the
roadmasters and foremen have very generally, in fact almost uni-
versally, regarded them as less desirable than the Mexicans. The
Mexicans are stronger than the Japanese, and more tractable and
more easily managed than any of the races mentioned. Their short-
comings from the employer's point of view are drinking to excess and
being irregular in attendance at work, especially after a pay day.
Though comparatively few have risen to the rank of foreman, and
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 685
though as a race they are unprogressive, they are sufficiently intel-
ligent to meet the requirements of common labor when working under
close supervision.
The Mexicans are also extensively employed in railway shops and
about the roundhouses in the Southwest. In Mexico they are
employed in most of the occupations finding place in the shops. In
the Southwest, however, except in one case where they were employed
as strike breakers, they have been taken into the shops as unskilled
laborers to made good the deficiency of Chinese and white men avail-
able for unskilled work, especially in Arizona and New Mexico.
They work chiefly as common laborers, but also in smaller numbers
as engine wipers, boiler makers, car repairers, blacksmiths' and
machinists' helpers, and in similar occupations requiring compara-
tively little skill or ability but affording to those who have the neces-
sary ability the opportunity to rise to skilled positions. The extent
to which the Mexicans have done this is indicated by the fact that of
492 reporting wages earned in railway shops only 3.8 per cent earned
$2.50 or over per day, the rate which may be regarded as the mini-
mum for skilled work, while 65.9 per cent of them earned less than
$1.50 and 58.1 -per cent less than $1.25 per day. Most of them are
paid $1 per day as common laborers, a smaller wage than is paid
to Japanese similarly employed in railway shops. However, the
Japanese are very generally found to be superior for shop work other
than the heaviest common labor, for they are quicker, more intelli-
gent, more ambitious, and more progressive. That the Mexicans
have shown somewhat more occupational progress than the Asiatics
is explained partly by the difficulty in obtaining other men for some
of the shops in which they are employed in the largest number of
occupations, partly because there is less opposition shown by white
employees to the employment of the Mexicans than of the Japanese.
In the other departments of railway work, construction excluded,
the Mexicans find little place. Few are employed in the department
of bridges and buildings, for one reason because of the inconvenience
involved in making separate provision for their lodging and sub-
sistence.
The Mexicans also predominate in the unskilled work involved
in the electric railway service of the Southwest. Data were obtained
for 543 of them in southern California. Of these, 91.8 per cent were
construction and maintenance of way laborers, the others car cleaners
and unskilled laborers in the shops maintained by interurban electric
railways. Their wages correspond closely to those earned in the
steam railway service, as is shown by the fact that 75.6 per cent
earned less than $1.25 per day. In one locality, where three-fourths
of the track laborers were Mexicans and a part of the others were
Japanese, these races were paid $1 to $1.15 per day of nine to ten
hours, with lodging, wood, and water. In another locality near by
North Italians were employed almost exclusively in similar work,
three-fifths of them earning $1.75 but less than $2, the others $2 but
less than $2.25, per day of nine hours. Taking the 14 companies
investigated in the West, 75.6 per cent of the Mexicans earned less
than $1.25 per day, while 61.7 per cent of the North Italians, 50.2 per
cent of the South Italians, and 54.4 per cent of the Greeks — races
employed in the same occupations, and the races with the exception
686 The Immigration Commission.
of the few Japanese and the Mexicans having the smallest earnings —
earned $2 but less than $2.25 per day.
Coal mining is a much less important source of employment for the
Mexican than the railroads, partly because the mine operators find
more desirable laborers available, partly because they do not have as
good facilities as the steam railroad companies for securing the immi-
grating laborers of that race. They are employed as coal miners in
comparatively small numbers in Oklahoma and other States to the
east, but chiefly in the southern Colorado field and in New Mexico.
Of 2,417 persons employed in coal mines investigated in southern
Colorado, immigrant Mexicans numbered 115; of 1,143 on the pay
rolls of mines located in northern New Mexico, they numbered 134.
The number employed is smaller than formerly, for in southern
Colorado they were employed in large numbers as strike breakers in
1903-4, but permitted to drift away after conditions became normal,
because they were not regarded as being as good laborers as other
races available, and especially the Italians. The Mexicans do not
like to work underground nor do other men like to work with them
because of the Mexican's carelessness and ignorance in the use of
powder. Of 249, 129 were employed as common laborers in surface
work and as wood choppers about coke ovens; 8 were employed as
machinists and engineers or in higher capacities. The remaining 45
per cent were miners and loaders. As miners and loaders the pay
rolls of the mines in northern New Mexico showed that because of
less regular work their earnings were the smallest of all the races.
Moreover, their daily earnings were $2.87, as against $3.26 for all of the
races upon the pay rolls. Finally, their wages as laborers about the
mines and coke ovens averaged $2.11 per day, as against $2.66 earned
by the Italians and $2.54 earned by all races employed.
Metalliferous mining and smelting offer to Mexicans a much larger
field for employment, largely because of the fact that Arizona pro-
duces more than two-fifths of the copper output of the United States
and that many of the mines are located near the Mexican border.
New Mexico's mines and smelters are of less importance. In the
metal mines of these States, and especially in those within a hundred
miles or so of the Mexican boundary, a large percentage of Mexicans
are employed. They and the Italians share the larger part of the
simplest unskilled work. Of 609 Mexicans out of a grand total of
2,307 persons employed in mines investigated, only 2 were foremen,
employed largely because of their position as " bosses" and inter-
preters, and only 20 were mechanics. As has been stated,0 they are
the scavengers of the industry, picking up the positions left vacant by
other classes and supplanting the least skilled and least reliable
Europeans. In one district investigated they were nearly all paid
$1.50 per day as common laborers, while very few of the native white
men and Europeans employed were paid less than $2.75. In another
district in which Mexicans and Italians were extensively employed as
miners and in other occupations as well as laborers, the wage most
commonly paid to most of those engaged in the first-mentioned
occupation was $2.25, as against the $3.50 per day which was the
wage commonly paid to miners in the district farther north, and in
which the Mexicans occupied fewer positions. Of the Mexicans
a Clark: Mexican Labor in the United States, Bull. 78, U. S. Bureau of Labor.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 687
employed in the mines investigated, 6.9 per cent earned $1.50 but
less than $1.75 per day, 44 per cent $1.75 but less than $2, 42.4 per
cent $2 but less than $2.50. Thus, only 7 per cent earned as much
as $2.50 per day. In contrast to them, 21.1 per cent of the native-
born earned $4 or over per day and only 6.9 per cent earned less than
$3.50. The earnings of the Italians alone of any race of numerical
importance in the mines present no strong contrast to those of the
Mexicans.
Many Mexicans are employed in the smelter at El Paso and in
the large number of establishments in New Mexico and Arizona.
The number employed farther north, as in Colorado,- has been small,
for the smelters located there are too far removed from the source
of supply at El Paso. In some of the smaller plants of Arizona
and New Mexico Mexicans are employed almost exclusively, while
in most of the larger establishments they are employed to do the
greater part of the heavy, unskilled work. Of more than 1,400
men reporting data from two of these, for example, there were
922 Mexicans. Of 66 foremen, 6 were members of this race, as
were 14 of 174 engineers and skilled mechanics, while of 1,279 gen-
eral laborers, 902 were Mexicans, 52 were natives of Mexican father
and an unknown number of others were of Mexican descent. Thus
it is seen that most of them were employed in the large number
of occupations which call for little or no skill. More than 40 per
cent of them were paid $1.50 per day. In fact, 45.5 per cent of
those from whom data were obtained earned $1.50 but less than
$1.75 per day, 66.8 per cent less than $2, which was the lowest
wage paid any person of any other race, and 87.3 per cent less than
$2.50 per day, while 97.4 per cent earned less than $3 per day. It
was found that while the majority earned comparatively low wages
because common laborers, whatever their occupations they were
generally paid less than native white men and European immigrants
engaged in the same or in similar occupations. While 87.3 per cent
of the Mexicans earned less than $2.50, 85 per cent of the other
immigrants employed earned more than $2.50 per day.
Other branches of employment in whicn the Mexicans are
employed in the West are in the beet-sugar industry and the sea-
sonal agricultural industries. In Colorado, in 1909, they consti-
tuted something more than 2,600 of the 15,000 persons engaged in
the seasonal hand work involved in growing sugar beets, as against
an approximately equal number of Japanese and two and a half
times as many German-Russians. The Mexicans have been brought
by the sugar companies by the train load from Arizona, New Mexico,
and El Paso, where by liberal advertising some had been induced to
come across the border, beginning ten years ago in southern Colo-
rado with the introduction of the industry and in northern Colorado
in 1903. The remuneration is from $18 to $20 per acre for the
hand work. The Japanese care for 11 or 12 acres each, the Mexi-
cans about 8. At the prices which obtain, the latter earn $2 or
over per day while the season lasts. In California the number of
Mexicans so engaged is about 1,000 of a total of between 6,000
and 7,000, the great majority of whom are Japanese. Though
some have been transported to northern California to provide com-
petition with the Japanese, the great majority are employed in a
few districts in the southern part of the State, and even here they
688 The Immigration Commission.
have given way in some instances to the more ambitious Japanese
or to the greater attractions of the factory work. Their connection
with the growing of beets is practically limited to the hand work
in the fields, for only 32 growers of that race were found in Colorado
and 15 in California, as against 158 of the more ambitious Japanese
in Colorado and 74 in California. As hand workers, some prefer the
Mexicans to the Japanese; others prefer the Japanese to the Mexicans.
Mexicans have been employed to some extent in the beet-sugar
factories of Colorado, but more extensively in those of California.
Indeed, in 1909 it is estimated that they constituted about one-fifth
of the approximately 2,500 employed in the factories of the latter
State. They are found in the factories of the southern part of the
State, and their work is unskilled, consisting chiefly of shoveling
beets and the other heavy and dirty work involved in the manu-
facture of sugar. They earn from 17 \ to 20 cents per hour for a
twelve-hour day, while common laborers of the various white races
are paid as a minimum 20 cents per hour, and about one-half of
them are paid at still higher rates. The Mexicans are strong and
satisfactory at this work, and this fact, together with the avail-
ability of Japanese for field work, has caused some companies to
employ them in the factory rather than in the field.
In southern California a large number of Mexicans are employed
as seasonal laborers in the fields and orchards in picking grapes,
walnuts, and, to a less extent, citrus fruit. In some localities prac-
tically all of these men have been engaged in railroad work, but have
left it for the more remunerative work to be found elsewhere. They
are recent immigrants, migratory and working in groups or " gangs."
In other localities the majority are settled in colonies, and among
them the native-born are a prominent element. The members of
this race are also widely employed as teamsters. About Fresno,
Tulare, and Visalia, farther north, several hundred Mexicans are
employed, chiefly as grape and fruit pickers. In their various agri-
cultural occupations the Mexicans are paid higher wages than in
railroad work. When not paid at the piece rates determined by
the competition among the several races, their wages are almost
invariably fixed either at the rate paid to white men or at the some-
what lower rate paid to the Japanese. As a rule the Mexicans
have been regarded as fairly efficient laborers for agricultural work,
but because the Japanese have a well-developed organization of
labor which is a great convenience to the growers, are more versa-
tile, and in most communities more numerous and more capable of
guaranteeing a supply of labor sufficient to do the work required,
there has generally been an effective community preference for the
Japanese as opposed to the Mexicans.
From the summary made of the details relating to Mexicans in
these industries the following facts are evident:
(1) That the incoming Mexicans have afforded a supply of com-
mon labor in the Southwest in places and at a time when, because
of expanding industry, the supply from other sources was inadequate
at comparatively high wages;
(2) That in most industries they are paid the lowest wage, and in
transportation particularly are regarded as the cheapest at the price,
and have been substituted, when possible, for the members of other
races for unskilled work;
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 689
(3) That in most industries they are regarded as satisfactory
laborers ;
(4) That they are largely migratory and easily made available
for work where needed;
(5) That their competition is practically limited to the most
unskilled employments, and being without ambition and perse-
verence, and unprogressiye, they do not to any extent compete in
other walks of life; in brief,
(6) That they are desirable as laborers in the exploitation of
resources, and their competitive ability is relatively limited and
does not appear to offer any ground for fear of a general displace-
ment of other races;
(7) That for geographic and climatic reasons, and because of a
strong desire to return frequently to their native land, most of the
Mexicans have remained in Texas, New Mexico, " Colorado, and
southern California, but that they have been transported to a limited
extent farther north to northern Colorado and to northern California
for seasonal agricultural work with satisfactory results.
Unless conditions change, any great increase in the number of
Mexicans coming to the United States is not to be expected, in spite
of the facts that those who go back upon visits frequently return
with their families and friends and that some parts of Mexico have
not yet been drawn upon. In the more populous districts the
superior wages to be earned in this country have been generally
known. Moreover, the industries of Mexico are expanding rapidly,
and with this expansion and the diminishing importance of custom
which accompanies it the wide difference between American and
Mexican wages which has obtained is disappearing. With a wider
distribution of Mexican labor in this country and higher wages than
now prevail a larger immigration would, of course, be stimulated.
Many of the Mexican laborers return from their visits to Mexico,
bringing their families with them, and a good share of these families
settle more or less permanently in this country. In this way the
number of that race settled in Los Angeles has increased several fold
since -1900, and the Mexican quarters of some other cities have grown
only less rapidly. As implied in this statement, the Mexicans settle
in colonies. With rare exceptions their houses are the poorest in
these cities, are located in the least desirable districts, and are over-
crowded to a greater extent than those of practically all of the other
immigrant races. An investigation of Mexican and other families
in Los Angeles revealed the fact that their family incomes were the
smallest, their standard of living the lowest, and their lack of thrift
the greatest of the several immigrant races investigated. The cost
of subsistence among the railroad laborers is approximately $8 per
month, or less, if anything, than that of the Japanese similarly
employed. In these cases, however, the laborers purchase most of
their food supplies from the employment agents, and beans occupy
as prominent a place in their diet as rice in that of the Asiatics. In
the cities the cost of subsistence was found to depend directly upon
how much was earned and available for spending.
The assimilative qualities of the Mexican are slight. Because of
backward educational facilities in their native land and a constitu-
tional prejudice on the part of the peons toward school attendance,
the immigrants of this race have among them a larger percentage
•690 The Immigration Commission.
of illiterates than is found among any race immigrating to the western
country in any considerable number. Of 5,682 wage-earners from
whom data were obtained only 2,874, or 50.58 per cent,, reported
that they could read and write. Moreover, their progress in learning
English is very slow. Of 2,602 wage-earners only 350, or 13.45 per
cent, reported that they could speak English. Of 1,269 who had
resided in the United States less than five vears only 7.1 per cent,
of 757 who had resided here from five to nine years only 15.1 per
cent, and of 504 who had resided here ten years or over only 29 per
cent, could speak English. In connection with these data relating to
literacy and ability to speak English it must be noted, however,
that the Mexican is always inclined to give a negative answer,
whereas the contrary is true of some other races.
The progress of the Mexican children in the Los Angeles schools is
below the average and they leave school early. A large percentage
of the native-born can not speak the English language. Because of
their strong attachment to their native land, low intelligence, illit-
eracy, migratory life, and the possibility of their residence here
being discontinued, few become citizens of the United States. Of
978 wage-earners who had been in this country five years or over and
who were 21 years of age at the time of their immigration, only 16 had
become naturalized and only 17 had taken out their first papers.
Of 326 who had been here ten years or over, 300 were aliens. The
percentage of citizens among those settled in Los Angeles is very little
larger. In so far as Mexican laborers come into contact with natives
or with European immigrants they are looked upon as inferiors.
Though Mexican teamsters frequently live and eat with white ranch
hands, when Mexicans are employed in groups they eat by themselves
or in some cases with the negroes. Marriages between Mexicans and
Europeans or Americans are rare. Though it is apparent upon their
return to Mexico that American ideas and institutions here left their
imprint upon them, their progress toward assimilation has perhaps
not been more rapid than that of the conservative Chinese.
Because of a lack of thrift and a tendency to regard public relief as
a " pension," as indeed it is commonly known among Mexicans in
Los Angeles, many of the Mexican families in times of industrial
depression become public charges. In Los Angeles in 1908 approxi-
mately one-third of the persons assisted by the city and county were
of this race, though they constitute perhaps only one-twentieth of the
population. In the same year there were approximately 20,000
arrests in Los Angeles, 2,357 being of Mexicans — perhaps little more
than a fair proportion of the total when differences in age distribu-
tion of the different racial elements in the population are taken into
consideration. Mexicans, including the native-born, constitute a
large percentage of the inmates of the penal institutions of Arizona.
In the spring of 1909, 268 Mexicans in the territorial prison consti-
tuted 61 per cent, in the Pima County jail the 83 Mexican prisoners
were 62 per cent, and in the Tucson city jail the 22 constituted 24.2
per cent, of the entire numbers imprisoned. The principal offenses of
the members of this race are petit larceny and drunkenness, with
fights among themselves.
Thus it is evident that in the case of the Mexican he is less desirable
as a citizen than as a laborer. The permanent additions to the
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 691
population, however, are much smaller than the number who immi-
grate for work.
CONCLUSIONS.
* The immigration of Europeans to the Western States has not given
rise to any problems which are not found in more acute form in the
States of the East. For this reason nothing further need be said
concerning immigration from that quarter except that the West is
in need of a larger population to settle the land, exploit its resources,
and provide a supply of labor for the maintenance and expansion of
its industries.
The Mexican immigrants are providing a fairly acceptable supply
of labor in a limited territory in which it is difficult to secure others,
and their competitive ability is limited because of their more or less
temporary residence and their personal qualities, so that their incoming
does not involve the same detriment to labor conditions as is involved
in the immigration of other races who also work at comparatively low
wages. While the Mexicans are not easily assimilated, this is not of
very great importance as long as most of them return to their native
land after a short time. They give rise to little race friction, but
do impose upon the community a large number of dependents, mis-
demeanants, and petty criminals where they settle in any considerable
number.
At present the Chinese laborers are excluded from the territory
of the United States by law, and the Japanese and Korean laboring
classes are as effectively excluded by agreement. Elsewhere0 the
Commission has recommended that no change be made in the pres-
ent policy of the Government as regards the immigration of Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean laborers.
The East Indian laborers of the class who have been coming to the
Pacific coast during the last few years are, from no point of view,
desirable members of the community. The British Government
has consented to regulations which have effectively excluded the
laborers of this race from Canada, which measures have been closely
connected with and partly responsible for the more recent immi-
gration of East Indian laborers to the Pacific Coast States. Else-
where0 the Commission has recommended that an agreement with
Great Britain be sought, which would effectively exclude the same
classes from the United States.
The conclusions reached with regard to the desirability of permit-
ting Chinese, Japanese, and Korean laborers again to enter this coun-
try after such immigration has been restricted are based upon a num-
ber of considerations, in part social and political, in part economic.
In the first place, while the laborers of these races have done much
to develop certain industries, notably fish canning and intensive agri-
culture, and while their labor in other instances, as in domestic
service, has been a great convenience, they have competed keenly
and generally at a lower wage in certain industries, displacing
laborers of other races to an extent and retarding a desirable increase
of wages. Their immigration has been a detriment to labor condi-
tions, and while the great majority have been transient laborers,
returning after several years to their native land, an increasing
<* See p. 47.
692 The Immigration Commission.
minority of the laborers have settled here indefinitely, and by engag-
ing in petty business, and especially in farming for themselves, have
competed with the small business men of the cities and towns, as in
the laundry and restaurant trades, and the small farmers of other
races. This is especially true of the Japanese, who, because of their
ambition, ability, and industry, and the limitations placed by others
upon their progress as laborers, have made rapid advance in securing
control of land and of certain petty trades, with a consequent dis-
placement of laborers of other races and discouragement and loss of
profit to the members of different races engaged in these branches of
enterprise. In brief, the immigration of those who first found employ-
ment as laborers has given rise to a competition not limited to the
laboring classes. While the Chinese and Japanese as tenants have
reduced to cultivation much land which has proved unattractive to
others, they have also leased land for which there was a general
demand, thus preventing the influx of other races and their settle-
ment as farmers. Furthermore, whatever the capacities of these
races for assimilation may be, where any considerable number have
appeared sooner or later a situation has developed which has greatly
retarded or prevented the desired end, so that the Chinese who have
been here for many years have been assimilated to only a slight
extent as compared to the white immigrant races, and the more
adaptable Japanese are encountering the same difficulties.
Friction and race conflict have developed on several occasions
which have imperiled the harmonious relations between the gov-
ernments to which the contestants owe allegiance. Trade relations
have also been imperiled because of these conflicts incidental to the
contact between the races. Whether the Asiatics have fewer assimi-
lative qualities than certain European immigrants or not, there is as
a general phenomenon a feeling exhibited against them not exhibited
against others, which tends to prevent the assimilation of those who
remain here and which is a source of difficulty. Finally, it is not
believed that the necessity exists for changing the present policy
and permitting a limited or an unrestricted immigration of Asiatics to
maintain industries which have been built up with the assistance of
Asiatic labor. The continued need for that specific kind of labor
presumed by some to exist, especially in the beet-sugar industry and
certain branches of California agriculture, is not apparent.
The present general policy of preventing the immigration of eastern
Asiatic laborers is indorsed by practically all classes represented in
the West, save those who assert the moral necessity of according the
same treatment to all races with little regard to consequences which
result from so doing and those who assert that this specific kind of
labor is essential to the prosperity of such industries as those just
mentioned.
A few memorials have been presented to Congress requesting a
limited immigration of Chinese; many assert the necessity of more
Japanese if the Chinese, whom they prefer, are not forthcoming.
If the present specialization of communities in growing sugar beets or
only a few intensive crops, the present large holdings now found in
many places, the present methods of securing laborers, and the
existing wages, hours, and conditions of living and work for farm
laborers are all to remain the same, Asiatic labor is of course necessary,
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. 693
for these have been given shape by the employment of labor of that
kind. If it is essential that these conditions should remain as they
are at present, then Asiatic labor is necessary to the maintenance
of the industries. There is, however, the question whether, with the
possibility of securing Asiatic laborers now in the country for work
which is of such a character that the employment of others does not
seem feasible, changes and readjustments can not be made which
will make it possible to substitute, without prohibitive cost, white
laborers at the rate of a few, or, if need be, several thousand per
year as Asiatic laborers become fewer as a result of the present policy
of restriction or exclusion. In this connection the following features
relating to certain agricultural employments, which aside from
salmon canning alone have been dependent in any real sense upon
Asiatic labor, are in point :
(1) Though in some agricultural communities, as a result of the
employment of Asiatic labor, certain occupations are not regarded
as " white man's work," there is no work engaged in by Asiatics in
the West which is not done, to some extent, by white men and in
which white men do not engage in other parts of the country.
(2) It is believed that the supply of white laborers available for
ranch work could be greatly increased if the living conditions, which
are confessedly bad in many cases, were improved. In a relatively
large number of cases it has been found that where the living con-
ditions were good no difficulty had been experienced in securing the
white laborers needed except for brief seasonal employment.
Furthermore, it would appear that the greater efficiency of laborers
thus obtained would frequently offset the extra outlay required.
(3) The problem of the seasonal demand for labor, which is a con-
spicuous fact in certain industries, can, in a number of cases, be
solved in part at least by fuller utilization of the white labor supply
of the cities, which, with an abundant, organized, and convenient
supply of Asiatic labor at hand, has not been used in many instances.
At Vacaville, however, some 2,000 were obtained through employ-
ment agents for the fruit harvest in 1908. With the exception of a
few communities most of the hops are now harvested by white
people, who come for the picking season. One difficulty has been
that the orchardists and other small growers have not been in posi-
tion to secure the white labor themselves because it has not been
organized, or to guarantee work so as to make it attractive. In
southern California, however, in several instances, the packing houses
and the citrus fruit associations have "crews" of white pickers who
are sent to the ranches where they are needed for harvest work.
In some other industries, as in the deciduous-fruit industry, where the
fruit is shipped "green," a similar organization is possible. In fact,
some shippers now pack the fruit delivered to them. It would be pos-
sible to extend this system and maintain "gangs" of pickers and
packers and send them to the places where needed.
(4) Mexicans, German-Russians, and other white races can be used
more extensively in the hand work in the beet fields until such time
as the lands are subdivided and the growing of beets takes its place
in diversified farming — a condition which obtains at Lehi, Utah,
where the families of American, English, and other farmers, with the
assistance of regular farm laborers, do the work in the fields.
694 The Immigration Commission.
(5) A greater diversity of crops and of industries in the community
can be developed so as more nearly to equalize the demand for labor
and to provide fairly regular employment for laborers where it is not
now to be found. This fact has already appealed to some growers on
the Sacramento River and has simplified the problem on certain
ranches.
(6) With a diminishing number of Asiatic laborers, there will be a
tendency to subdivide the large vineyards and vegetable farms which
have been conducted here and there as " estates" or by corporations.
This would induce a settlement of families upon small farms, the
members of the families would do most of the work, and this would
incline toward solving the problem of labor, for smaller holdings
would naturally be accompanied by a greater diversity of crops.
(7) A development such as that indicated and a diminishing
number of Asiatics will increase the influx of families from the East
and Middle West, which, without doubt, has been retarded by the
presence of the Asiatics.
(8) Finally, a larger influx of laborers and families, especially of the
Italians and Portuguese, would follow the completion of the Panama
Canal. While there has been much criticism of immigrants from
southern Europe, in so far as it has been connected with the agri-
cultural class it is principally based upon the fact that they have
been clannish and have usually worked for their countrymen. With
increasing numbers there is no reason to believe that they would not
be available as a part of the general labor supply, and prove to be
fairly satisfactory laborers and small farmers.
IMMIGRATION CONDITIONS IN HAWAII.
The complete report of the Immigration Commission on this subject.
695
CONTENTS.
Page.
Early immigration 699
Effects of annexation 701
Recent immigration 702
Assisted immigration since 1905 703
Immigration statistics 708
School attendance 714
Economic status of immigrants 714
Accumulation of wealth by immigrants 717
Land and settlement 718
General conditions attending immigration 720
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. Population of Hawaii in 1900, by race; per cent distribution 700
2. Population of Hawaii in 1900, by sex 700
3. Arrivals and departures of orientals, Honolulu, June 14, 1900, to June
30, 1910 709
4. Arrivals and departures, certain immigrant races, Hawaii, 1905 to
1909, and first six months of 1910 710, 711
5. Aliens departed from Honolulu for the mainland of the United
States, May to October, 1910, by nationality 712
6. Average annual family income of working people, Honolulu, 1910,
by race. 712
7. Increase or decrease in population, Hawaii, 1900 to 1910, by race 713
8. Nationality of children in public and private schools, Hawaii, 1900-
1909 714
9. Number of plantation employees, Hawaii, 1904 to 1910, by nation-
ality; per cent distribution 715
10. Taxpayers of nationalities to which assisted immigrants chiefly
belong, Hawaii, 1909 717
697
72289° — VOL 1—11 45
IMMIGRATION CONDITIONS IN HAWAII,
EARLY IMMIGRATION.
While the purpose of the following report is to describe immigra-
tion conditions in Hawaii since annexation, these conditions can not
be understood without a cursory survey of the conditions that pre-
ceded them.
The native population of Hawaii has been constantly decreasing
since the introduction of modern civilization. Contemporary with
this decrease has been a large industrial development calling for a
growing population of laborers. The main industry of Hawaii, sugar
planting, has to compete with countries employing colored labor, and
the rate of wages has not hitherto been high enough to attract a
voluntary immigration of Americans or Europeans. An additional
obstacle in the way of European immigration has been the cost and
time of travel from Europe to Hawaii, and the only route by which
immigrants have successfully been brought from Europe is around
Cape Horn. One result of this remoteness has been that few
European emigrants to Hawaii ever returned to their native country,
and consequently the advantages that the Territory possesses for em-
igrants have not been advertised in Europe by those returning from
the islands in the same way as have the advantages of America.
Consequently Hawaii has had to choose between voluntary im-
migration from the Orient or assisted immigration from America
and Europe ; and for a long period even immigration from the Orient
required the stimulus of prepaid passages and other inducements.
Prior to annexation practically all the immigration to Hawaii from
Japan and China was thus assisted.
The problem of importing laborers received consideration in
Hawaii as early as 1852. At that time the main labor force was
native, but there had been for some decades a small immigration
of Chinese traders and farmers, as well as of white missionaries, mer-
chants, and adventurers. The presence of the Chinese as voluntary
immigrants suggested at an eacly date the importation of coolies of
this nationality as agricultural laborers, but this movement acquired
no volume until shortly after the American civil war. At that time
the growing market on the coast, the decline of the whaling fleet
business, and other conditions, partly local and partly general,
greatly stimulated the sugar industry and caused an increasing de-
mand for labor. This demand was accentuated by the reciprocity
treaty of 1876, which opened the American market to the Hawaiian
planters.
By the latter date the system of indentured service was well es-
tablished in Hawaii. Introduced originally to secure regular work
from* the natives, and based upon the seaman's shipping contract laws
of the United States, this institution was easily applied to Asiatic
coolies, and continued the prevailing form of labor contract until
the annexation of the islands by the United States of America.
699
700
Th'e Immigration Commission,
There was little essential difference between the contract labor laws
of Hawaii and those still in force in Sumatra and the Straits Settle-
ments, and formerly in force in Queensland. Except in minor details
the law did not differ materially from that under which many thou-
sands of English, Scotch. Irish, and German laborers were brought
to America in colonial days. The immigrants contracted to work for
a specified number of years, which might vary from five to ten, at a
stated wage. Failure to perform this contract might be punished by
imprisonment, and, during the early years of the law, by an extension
of the time of service. The passage of the immigrants was prepaid
by the Government or by the planters.
This system resulted in making the population of Hawaii pre-
dominantly oriental. Until 1883 practically all the labor thus im-
ported was Chinese; thereafter the Japanese began to come in, at
first in small parties and later in increasing numbers, until by the time
of annexation they were the most important single element in the
population. During the eighties, partly in order to diversify the labor
force and prevent any single nationality becoming predominant on
the plantations, and partly to build up a domiciled citizen population,
Portuguese and other European immigrants were brought to Hawaii
in considerable numbers under the same contract that was employed
in the case of orientals. From the first, however, partly in consid-
eration of their higher standard of living and partly because these
European immigrants brought families with them, while the orien-
tals were mostly single men, the rate of pay and the quarters fur-
nished Europeans Avere better than those furnished the Asiatics.
By the year of annexation, 1900, the result of this immigration
policy had been to create a population composed as follows :
TABLE 1. — Population of Hawaii in 1900, by race; per cent distribution.
Race.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Hawaiian
29 799
19 35
Part- Hawaiian
7 857
5 10
Foreign-born Chinese »
21 746
14.12
Foreign-born Japanese
56 230
36 51
All other
38 369
24 92
Total
154 001
100 00
This population, on account of the method of immigration, pre-
sented certain abnormal features, most important of which was a
disproportion in the number of males. This is shown by the follow-
ing table :
TABLE 2. — Population of Hawaii in 1900, by sex.
Race.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Hawaiian
15 64°
14 157
29 799
Part-Hawaiian
3 971
3 886
0 7, 857
Caucasian
16 531
12 288
28 819
South Sea Islander
263
'l52
415
158
75
233
Chinese
22 296
3 471
25 767
Japanese
47 508
13 603
61 111
Total
106 369
47 632
154 001
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii. 701
EFFECTS OF ANNEXATION.
Annexation made radical changes in the labor conditions and the
conditions of immigration in the territory. Labor conditions were
revolutionized by the immediate abolition of the penal contract. To
some extent this change had been prepared for by the increasing
number of noncontract laborers, as compared with contract laborers
on the plantations. This wage force was composed for the most part
of Asiatics and Europeans originally brought to the islands under
contract, who after the expiration of their term of service had elected
to remain in the country. The immediate result of the abolition of
the contract system was an increase in wages. This increase was
partly justified by the fact that annexation made the tariff protec-
tion on Hawaiian sugar secure and gave a stimulus to that industry,
resulting in a great extension of cane planting and the establishment
of new plantations, which created suddenly an added demand for
labor.
The most radical change in immigration conditions arose from the
exclusion of the Chinese, who no longer could come to the islands and
who, since annexation, have been a constantly decreasing element
in the population.
With the abolition of the penal contract and the prospect of amend-
ments to the federal immigration laws entirely forbidding assisted
immigration, there was an incentive to settle in the Territory a popu-
lation likely to become permanent residents and to rear children who
would supply a future labor force. However, a definite policy for
accomplishing this end, though .immediately discussed, did not take
practical shape until 1905. One reason for this was that the volun-
tary inflow of Japanese continued large and was even increasing.
By the middle of the decade, however, the Japanese immigration
had assumed a new form. The demand for unskilled labor on the
Pacific coast had been sufficient to attract some Japanese directly
from their own country and others from Hawaii. These became the
pioneers of a heavy movement of Japanese labor to California and the
Pacific Northwest, whence it was distributed throughout the coast
and Rocky Mountain States. This labor made Hawaii a half-way
ground in its migration to the mainland of America. The result of
this was twofold. In the first place a system of indirectly assisted
immigration from Japan to Hawaii was in existence, promoted by
the Japanese immigration societies and, presumably, financed to some
extent by the large employing interests of the Territory. Financial
assistance of this character became unprofitable to Hawaii as soon
as the laborers encouraged to come to that Territory could no longer
be depended upon to remain, and any such aid became really a tax
on the planters to promote immigration to California. In the sec-
ond place it was felt in Hawaii that the competition of Japanese
laborers on the mainland would cause an agitation probably leading
to a restriction on the immigration of Japanese to all territory be-
longing to the United States. This anticipation was realized when,
in 1908, the Japanese Government adopted the policy of refusing
passports to laborers migrating to America.0 In the meantime a
comparatively small immigration of Koreans afforded sufficient
a See Vol. II, p. 584.
702 The Immigration Commission/
experience with this nationality to indicate that it could not be
depended upon as a permanent source of labor for the plantations.
While annexation greatly curtailed the sources from which colored
labor could be drawn to Hawaii, it opened two sources which had not
previously been exploited. The first of these was Porto Rico, whence
some 5,000 laborers were, soon after annexation, brought to the Ter-
ritory. The second was the Philippines, from which islands there has
recently begun an assisted migration practically contemporary with
the cutting off of Japanese labor. The total result, however, of the
complex conditions following annexation was to increase greatly
the demand for labor in Hawaii, and at the same time to curtail the
sources from which cheap labor could be obtained. The outcome was
a great incentive to the so-called " white immigration policy."
RECENT IMMIGRATION.
All these conditions resulted, in 1905, in an act of the legislature
establishing a territorial board of immigration for the purpose of
Eromoting white settlement in the islands. The federal immigration
iw at this time was so construed as to permit this board to assist
immigrants to come to Hawaii, by funds raised by private subscrip-
tion. Such a method of financing a public body from private sources
had been in existence under the old government, but had been used
to bring Asiatics instead of white labor to the country. The new
board operated in constant consultation with the federal Bureau of
Immigration at Washington, and the federal officials, from the
President down, showed a strong interest in the effort to domicile
in Hawaii a larger proportion of Caucasians.
Consequently the year 1905 marks the beginning of a new immi-^
gration era for the Territory. During the fifty-three years prior to
that date, about 184,187 immigrants had been brought to the country.
The nationality of these immigrants and the approximate expense to
the islands for their importation is thus summarized by Mr. L. A.
Thurston, who was commissioner of immigration under the old
government :
From that day (1852) to the present time, with brief intervals, the insufficient
labor supply has been a never-ending source of anxiety and expense to the
sugar planters of Hawaii.
Laborers have come to Hawaii from Manchuria, Korea, China, Japan, the
New Hebrides, Solomon and Gilbert islands; from Norway, Germany, Austria,
Italy, Portugal, Madeira, the Azores, and Porto Rico, wrhile both whites and
negroes have been recruited in the United States. The latest addition to this
heterogeneous mass is the sect of Russians known as Molokans.
The exact numbers of these immigrants is difficult to obtain, the data being
scattered disconnectedly through reports of the custom-house, the Board of
Immigration, the Planters' Monthly, Thrum's Annual, and the records of the
Planters' Company. After research, however, I think the following compila-
tion is approximately correct:
Number and nationality of labor immigrants to Haivaii, 1852 to 1905.
Korean 6, 908
Chinese (including Manchurian) 44,494
Japanese 111, 137
South Sea Islander 2,448
Norwegian 615
German 1, 279
Italian 84
Austrian (Galician) 372
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii. 703
Portuguese 11,440
Porto Rican 5, 000
Negro 200
American (white) 100
Russian (February, 1906) 110
Total _ 184,187
The cost of this immigration has been enormous. As above noted, the cost
of recruiting the first Chinese in 1852 was $50 each. In 1886, when labor
recruiting was being carried on from more sources than at any other time,
the cost per capita of importing immigrants, including men, women, and all
children over 2 years of age, was as follows :
Cost per capita of recruiting and importing immigrants to Hawaii as of
1 884-1 S86.
Chinese $76.83
German 100.00
Japanese 65. 85
Norwegian 130. 00
Portuguese TT 112.00
South Sea Islander__ 78. 50
During the five or six years prior to 1886 the government expended $1,079,797,
and the planters expended $931,077 in importing laborers to the islands, a
total of over $2,000,000.
Five shipments of Portuguese, about 6,000 in number, introduced between
1884 and 1888, cost per capita — that is, for each man, woman, and child — $89.45,
of which the government paid $52.41 and the planters $37.04.
The cost per adult male laborer of the five shipments came to $266.15.
The least expensive European immigration that I have found statistics for
cost $83.60 per capita and about $160 per man.
The cost of recruiting and bringing the 5,000 Porto Ricans to Hawaii was
$564,191, or $112 per capita.
In the earlier days of immigration the government and the planters divided
the expense by a hit-or-miss plan, varying with every shipment. In some
cases the immigrant paid back a part of the expense, and in others not. The
expense incident to Japanese immigration was successively reduced from $65
to $55, to $40, to $35 per capita, and since the Japanese have been coming vol-
untarily and at their own expense the cost of passage from Japan to Honolulu
has been reduced to $30, and even less.
It is conservative to estimate that the average immigrating expense of ap-
proximately 184,000 immigrants to Hawaii, nearly all within the past twenty-
five or thirty years, has been $50 each, or a total of approximately $9,000,000.
ASSISTED IMMIGRATION SINCE 1905.
The establishment of the territorial board of immigration by the
act of April 24, 1905, did not supplant the system of assisted labor
immigration formerly in operation, but created a new agency sup-
plementary thereto. The Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association con-
tinued to seek and to assist to the Territory labor from all sources
still open to private solicitation. Consequently a division of func-
tions between the territorial board of immigration and the Planters'
Employment Agency naturally took place, the planters seeking immi-
grants within the territory covered by the federal immigration laws
and the territorial board seeking immigrants principally outside of
these boundaries. Furthermore, the planters have had no motive to
avoid bringing colored labor to the Territory, while the territorial
board, which promotes immigration with a civic as well as an em-
ployment object in view, has confined its encouragement to Caucasian
settlers.
Tracing briefly the operations of the Planters' Association, after
the immigration of Porto Kicans in 1900 the inflow of Japanese,
704 The Immigration Commission.
which was largely voluntary, made unnecessary further recruiting
t'« >r several years. When this supply of labor was cut off, measures
\\ ere immediately taken to substitute, in the place of the Japanese,
Held hands from the Philippines, and the Planters' Association has
for the past two years maintained a recruiting system in those islands,
with the result that nearly twenty-five hundred laborers of this
nationality have within that time been brought to Hawaii.
Tin- territorial board of immigration is a body of unsalaried com-
missioners, authorized to expend specific territorial appropriations
for immigration purposes. With the enactment of the new federal
immigration law, in 1907,° it became impossible for the board to pay
the |>:i— Miri' of immigrants with funds solicited from private parties.
Thereupon the territorial legislature amended the original law by a
revenue act, levying a tax of 4 per cent on all incomes exceeding
$4,000. Three-quarters of the revenue from this tax was appropri-
ated "for the encouragement of emigration to the Territory of
Hawaii in aid and development of the agricultural resources and
conditions."
So long as the board was largely financed by private subscriptions,
these subscriptions were adjusted to the requirements of the work
it \va> undertaking. The first active campaign to secure immigrants
was begun in the spring of 1906, when two agents were sent to
Europe to secure laborers and settlers for the Territory. From the
establishment of the board, in the spring of 1905, until 1909, when
the funds from the income tax just referred to became available, the
board of immigration received from the Hawaiian Sugar Planters'
Association subscriptions to the amount of $314,542.15. With these
funds ,438 immigrants were brought from the Portuguese islands
and 2,246 were brought from southern Spain, at an average cost
per capita of $62.19.
In addition to bringing immigrants from foreign parts, the board
I.Iished a recruiting office at New York, and employed agents to
solicit immigration on the Pacific coast. These two ventures how-
ever, were failures so far as securing settlers for Hawaii was con-
cerned.
te 'nCOme ta£ d?Voted to immigration amounts to
per annum. During the first year this money was
t was expended in soliciting immigrants from two points,
he Azores Islands and Madeira, and Manchuria. An agent of the
board was sent to Madeira in 1909. Conditions for securing emi-
inthese islands a
,
more
hi, A .
0 See Vol. II, pp. 731-744.
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii. 705
In the meantime a novel experiment had been commenced in the
Far East. Since 1906 the attention of the territorial authorities had
been repeatedly called to the presence of a surplus population in
Manchuria and eastern Siberia, from which these informants stated
a class of very desirable immigrants could be obtained. The Rus-
sian Government had been promoting emigration from Russia to
eastern Siberia for several years, but many of these settlers found
the climate too severe and the agricultural opportunities inadequate
or unsatisfactory, or for other reasons were dissatisfied with their
new home. A large number had drifted over into Manchuria, where
they came into competition with oriental labor, and in many in-
stances experienced great distress. The average wage of field
laborers was from $35 to $40 per year and subsistence. An addi-
tional reason^for considering this source of immigration was that the
people could be brought to Hawraii in transpacific liners by a short
and comparatively cheap route, while the Portuguese and Spaniards
were being brought around Cape Horn in chartered ships. Conse-
quentty, in the summer of 1909 a representative of the board was
sent to Manchuria with instructions to bring over 50 families on
trial. These Russians were easily obtained and proved exceedingly
satisfactory laborers on the plantations. The cost of importing the
255 persons in this party averaged $70.13 per capita. So successful
did this first experiment prove that, immediately upon the return of
the agent of the board, a strong desire was manifested by many in-
fluential men in the Territory to have the immigration continue.
The members of the board considered it expedient to allow the first
lot a year in which to become assimilated before resuming the move-
ment, but the urgent outside demand for more settlers and laborers,
accentuated by a recent strike of Japanese plantation employees in
Oahu, overruled their judgment in this matter, and the same agent
was forthwith dispatched on a second mission to Manchuria. Dur-
ing the winter of 1909-10, 1,788 Russians were dispatched to Hawaii
in parties ranging from less than 100 to several hundred, and nearly
8.s many applications for passage were rejected as were accepted.
The per capita cost of bringing the second lot to Hawaii amounted
to $85.79, the conditions under which they were recruited having
proved less favorable than was anticipated and a heavy quarantine
expense having been incurred in Honolulu. This quarantine expense
was due to the outbreak of an epidemic of diphtheria soon after the
arrival of the first party, which led to several hundred persons being
held in detention at the quarantine station for several weeks.
Difficulties were experienced with the new immigrants as soon as
the first party of the second migration arrived in Honolulu. These
difficulties were apparently occasioned by a number of causes. The
quick transition from the intense cold of a Manchurian and Siberian
winter to the enervating heat of Hawaii distressed the immigrants,
who came without suitable clothing. By the time of their arrival
a certain number of the former immigrants, discontented with plan-
tation labor, had drifted into Honolulu, and fomented distrust of
plantation conditions in the minds of the new arrivals. While by
no means entirely illiterate or uninformed concerning their home
country, the recent arrivals were intensely ignorant of affairs outside
their previous range of experience and of the new conditions of life
706 The Immigration Commission.
into which they came. This made them distrustful and unwilling to
take advice, even from intelligent Russian-speaking residents of the
Territory. The long period in quarantine was demoralizing, and
diinng t'his time rumors were spread among them to the effect that
the Government could be forced to return them to their native coun-
try and in addition pay them a large sum of money. Similar
rumors, some of them of even wilder character, have constantly cir-
culated among the Russians in Honolulu since the difficulties imme-
diatelv attendant upon their arrival have ceased, and such rumors
96601 to find ready credence, one of the most recent being that a large
HUH of money for use in their behalf has been raised by sympathizers
in the eastern States.
An additional source of trouble was the fact that the. new arrivals
did not consist to any extent of persons accustomed to agriculture.
As the recruiting took place in winter, and under a system of per
capita payment for all immigrants accepted from the recruiting
agents, the tendency was to procure principally persons from the
citie- and towns. These turned out to be in many instances skilled
tradesmen and petty merchants, draymen, railway employees, and
others accustomed to a different class of work and a different style
of living from that of the agricultural laborers, either of their own
country or of Hawaii. Many of these men found employment in
Honolulu at wages two or three times greater than those paid on the
plantations. The plantation laborers, envying their more fortunate
comrades, and not fully understanding the reason for the higher com-
pen-ation these received, became increasingly dissatisfied with their
condition and with any employment in the country.
The outcome of the difficulties arising with this new immigration
was that several hundred Russians encamped under temporary
shelter- on the edge of one of the slum districts of Honolulu. A
number of the more enterprising and competent secured city employ-
ment and very soon established themselves in houses and tenements,
under approximately the same conditions as the resident laboring
population. Several hundred— about one-third of the total number
of immigrants— went out to the plantations, where most of them re-
ma in to the present time.
Little by little the laborers who took up a vagrant mode of life at
the camp above mentioned have been absorbed by the other laboring
population and have removed to better quarters. A certain number
11 the hovels they first erected, but in most instances these
Belonged, prior to their arrival in Honolulu, to the vagrant
class and nave adopted m their new home the manner of livmo- to
which they were accustomed in Russia
910, about six months after the Russian immigration
nfomv.Hon^,086 ^^ •regJlllar emP%ment. ' Those from
doTl, ' ; ''? "^ °bt5lne^ were the exceptionally well to
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii. 707
There were interviewed 69 married men with their wives and
children, 19 married women whose husbands were absent from the
city (in some cases in California), 52 single men, and 9 single women,
the total number of persons represented by the interviews being 389.
Of the 69 heads of families 37 were regularly employed, 22 were ir-
regularly employed as casual laborers, and 10 were unemployed.
Of the 52 single men 30 were regularly employed, 11 were working
irregularly, and 11 were unemployed. Two of the single women had
regular positions, 2 worked irregularly, and 4 reported no employ-
ment. Two of the married women whose husbands were in the city
worked regularly and 7 of those whose husbands were out of the
city had constant employment. Of the children 11 boys and 7 girls
were working and 18 boys and 22 girls were attending public school.
The wages of the married men varied from $1 to $3 per day, the
average wage for all those regularly employed being $1.84 per day.
The wages of the single men varied from $1 to $2 a day, the average
wage being $1.47. Women and children earned all the way from
$2 per week, this lowest wage reported being for a young girl working
in a cannery, to $2. per day. The pay of those working as servants
was about $3 per week. Of the 121 adult males, 30 had, at some time
during their six months' stay in Hawaii, worked on the plantation.
In regard to tenement -house conditions 45 families out of the 69,
and practically all of the single women, were living in cottages and
tenements scattered throughout the city under practically the same
conditions as the rest of the laboring population. Thirty-four of the
52 single men were also boarding or living in similar tenements.
Seventeen families, 1 single woman, and 11 single men were living
in houses in a slum district of the city. Most of these were not
attracted to this district so much by the cheapness of the rent or the
immoral conditions prevailing in the neighborhood as by the fact
that it was adjacent to one of the large pineapple canneries, where
many members of these families were employed. Seven families and
7 single men, and 2 women, whose husbands were absent from the
city, a total of 43 persons, were still living in the Iwilei camp, in
which the Russians settled immediately after leaving quarantine.
The population of this camp varied at different times from 20 to 40
or 50 people. In some cases, where the head of a family was dis-
sipated, a period of unemployment or a protracted spree would bring
the family back to the camp after a few weeks or months in better
quarters. Thirty-six of the 52 single men and 56 of the 69 married
men were able to read and write. In addition to the 40 children at-
tending public school about 70 adults and minors attended night
school at Palama Settlement.
Considering the mildness of the climate and the consequent absence
of many expenses necessary in a northern city, and even allowing
for the greater cost of some necessities of life in Honolulu, as com-
pared with the mainland, the average condition of these immigrants
six months after their arrival was probably equal to that of immi-
grants coming under similar conditions to an Atlantic seaport.
Nearly one-third of the Russians who came to Honolulu during the
first four months of 1910, were able, during the next four months,
to save sufficient money to pay the passage of themselves and their
families to the coast. Many of those migrating from Siberia had
708 The Immigration Commission.
California in mind as their destination when they accepted passage
to Honolulu from the Territorial government. Allowance must be
made for the fact that certain of these immigrants brought with
them small sums of money, in some instances doubtless sufficient to
i heir passage from Honolulu to the Pacific coast.
In many respects the Kussians as a body were superior to any other
equally large group of assisted laborers ever brought to Hawaii.
Their faults, and the problems their arrival presented, were the
faults and the problems that would probably attend a labor importa-
tion of equal size from the mainland of the United . States. Had
these Russians come to a country not already occupied in a large de-
gree by oriental labor, their distribution to the plantations would
i.i-i'ii much easier and a larger proportion would have been con-
tented to remain permanently in Hawaii. The problem of their set-
tlement was not entirely an economic one ; it was, in no slight degree,
a problem of climate and of contact with alien races. In no case that
has come to the attention of the Board of Immigration have the Rus-
sians been jlltreated, nor have they been deceived and imposed upon
to any serious extent, except by the more intelligent and less scrupu-
lous of their own nationality.
The embarrassments attending the arrival of the Russians in Hono-
lulu. and their settlement on the plantations or in urban pursuits,
were so great that the board returned to their homes several hundred
Russians who were already embarked on their way to Hawaii, and
further immigration from this source has been entirely discontinued.
There are some reasons for thinking, however, that the immigration
of 1909-10 was but the pioneer stage of what may prove to be a con-
siderably larger movement, and one of permanent importance not
only to Hawaii but to the Pacific coast. The economic condition of
the laborer, not only in California but even in Hawaii, is better than
in Manchuria. Many of the Russians now settled in the Territory
desire to bring over friends and relatives from their native country.
When the present Russian colony becomes more fully assimilated,
so that the residents of that nationality in Hawaii understand local
conditions, speak the English language, and afford a medium of
communication between the people of the Territory and future immi-
grants, it is not improbable that further immigration of the same
character may be solicited. However, the policy of brinoing over
large parties at one time is not likely to be resumed. It is possible
thai the prepayment of passages will no longer prove necessary
This closes the history of promoted emigration to Hawaii up to
the autumn of 1910. In August, 1910, a representative of the board
;ent to Madeira and Portugal to secure further emigrants from
V1C!n- L- Tent revolution has interrupted his work, but
5 bei^niade to dispatch future emigrants from southern
torope via the Tehuantepec Peninsula or Panama, thus preparing
UndouL llV' ,1 £ lmmi*ratio? <ha«*el than around CaPpe Hon!
-ditions
IMMIGRATION STATISTICS.
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii.
709
tion to and from the Pacific coast and the insular dependencies of
the United States. Fairly complete statistics of the oriental immi-
gration and emigration, however, are available. The figures are not
absolutely accurate, as they do not take account of a small migration
by sailing1 vessels and occasional steamers sailing from Hawaii to
America from ports other than Honolulu. From June 14, 1900, the
date the islands became a Territory, to June 30, 1910, the number
of Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans who arrived in Honolulu from
any outside territory of the United States or from foreign lands,
and the number who departed from Hawaii for such other terri-
tories or countries, was as follows :
TABLE 3. — Arrival and departures of orientals, Honolulu, June 14, 1900, to June
30, 1910.
Japanese.
Chinese.
Males.
Females.
Chil-
dren.
Total.
Males.
Females.
Chil-
dren.
Total.
Arrivals '.
61,026
57,966
15, 875
11,204
+4,671
520
6,016
-5, 496
77, 421
75, 186
+ 2,235
+ 18,548
3,605
11,679
173
1,003
72
1,238
3,850
13, 920
Departures
Net loss (-) or gain (+) by
immigration
Net loss ( — ) or gain ( + ) ac-
cording to census
+3,060
-8,064
-830
-1,166
-10,070
- 4,064
Difference «
=
'
+16,313
- 5,906
Korean.
Total.
Males.
Females.
Chil-
dren.
Total.
Males.
Females.
Chil-
dren.
Total.
Arrivals..
6, 646
1,959
634
157
141
160
7,421
2,276
71,277
71, 604
16, 682
12, 364
733
7,414
88,692
91,382
Departures
Net loss (— ) or gain (+) by
immigration
+4,687
+477
-19
+5, 145
-347
+4,318
-6, 681
-2, 690
This difference is presumably due principally to the natural increase of population. There may be
ne inaccuracies in the immigration statistics, but these are probably slight and tend to check each other.
of males, which tends to lower percentage birth rate; (6) a disproportionate number of adults of both sexes
in the prime of life, which tends to lower death rate and to increase birth rate; (c) the practically universal
marriage of females. Children are recorded separately only after December 31, 1904. Before that date
they are included with males and females.
The census figures show the net loss or gain of Japanese and Chinese
residents of Hawaii during the decade between 1900 and 1910, a period
corresponding very closely with that for which the immigration
figures are taken. These figures indicate a natural increase of
Japanese amounting to over 16,000, and a natural increase of Chinese,
counteracted, however, by a large emigration, exceeding 5,000. In
each case these figures are approximately 25 per cent of the average
population of the respective nationalities for the decade. The three
oriental nationalities show a net loss, by the excess of departures over
arrivals, of 2,690 since the Territory became a part of the United
States. The female population, however, increased from immigra-
tion sources 4,318, the total decrease being due chiefly to the de-
parture of children for the Orient, where it is cheaper than it is in
Hawaii to support and educate them while they are nonproducers.
710
The Immigration Commission.
So much for the oriental population alone. After the beginning
of 190:> f;iirlv accurate figures are available showing the arrivals
and departures, not only of orientals, but of Portuguese, Spaniards,
and Porto Ricans, who in the following table are grouped together
as Iberians, and of Filipinos, Hindus, and Russians. These figures
are set forth in the following table :
TABIE 4— Arrival* <t»<l departures, certain immigrant races, Hawaii, 1905 to
1909, and first six months of 1910.
Race.
Arrivals.
Departures.
Increase (+) or
decrease (— ).
Coast.
Orient.
Total.
1
iS
i
2
55
134
5
1
£
Children.
1
8
*c3
1
687
15
55
Children.
1
£
Children.
1
Females.
Children.
1905.
Japanese
Koreans
Chinese
Iberians o . . .
5,447
2,337
130
567
101
2
8,657
373
712
16
281
10
1,658
190
839
873
14
160
10,315
563
839
244
1,399
31
55
177
1, 154
24
160
304
-4,868
+1,774
- 709
- 244
- 832
+ 70
- 53
- 177
-1,099
+ 110
- 155
- 304
244
177
304
Total....
1906.
Japanese
Koreans
Chinese
Iberiansa ...
Total...
1907.
Japanese
Kon-ans
Chinese
7,914
670
".— _ —
1,113
1
1
276
194
r__-
67
i
556
9,274
11,047
428
905
794
17
595
386
13
2,687
-
1,676
254
823
757
1,047
=Z^=
951
%
11,961
1,662
1,522
46
58
217
1,642
1,337
56
143
350
-4,047
+4,284
- 675
- 675
+ 184
- 992
-1,448
17,007
7
148
510
728
29
58
12,723
682
823
326
- 409
- 45
- 57
+ 59
-1,270
- 56
- 142
+ 206
326
217
350
17,672
-
11,940
2
16C
1,158
188
1,391
===
2,877
1
1
922
20
624
"-•-g... -
158
4
1
1,667
12
11,801
5,149
130
6
490
1,028
198
12
749
91
6
2,753
1,810
266
838
815
692
39
70
1,137
14,544
1,843
1,886
+3,118
+4,981
- 393
- 684
+ 668
+ 186
- 452
-1,262
986
44
177
6,959
396
844
490
2
890
51
70
305
1,077
50
177
532
+1,987
- 50
- 69
+ 617
+ 20
- 919
- 46
- 176
+1,135
+ 12
Iberians a ...
Filipinos....
Total....
1908.
S5S±:
1
Iberians* ...
Hindus
305
532
7,
13,449
=====
2,369
242
262
201
3,821
1,842
_
133
20
"i%
5,775
•••••
45
11
214
195
515
17
629
2,916
1,804
85
813
801
•"'-'
678
9
41
1,207
j_ —
972
11
119
8,691
1,316
1,836
979
11
119
204
+4,758
"-" " —
+ 520
- 85
- 581
+ 48
+ 66
+2,505
+ 6
- 846
— 11
- 99
- 8
1,700
18
1
99
7
1,849
86
824
214
135
695
9
41
132
+1,005
- 8
- 23
— 33
132
204
10
Total....
1909.
Japanese
Koreans
Chinese
Iberiansa ...
as....
Hin.liis
Russians....
Total....
1905-1909.
fc;;;;
Chinese
Iberiansa...
Filipinos....
Hindus
Russians....
Total....
3,076
385
1,818
849
349
=====
76
396
===
16
2
149
211
2,712
• —
1,581
117
838
728
1,102
.
912
9
102
3,108
877
1,313
- 32
+ 941
- 964
7
5
617
8
48
1,597
119
851
351
46
624
8
48
197
917
9
102
286
-1,212
- 119
- 518
+ 165
+ 651
+ 32
+ 107
+ 225
- 8
- 21
+ 95
+ 70
+ 1
+ 66
- 841
Q
- 69
+ 130
+ 42
+""80
- 667
333
516
697
242
108
27
292
H
66
33
416
42
183
80
647
489
Ut
50
2,8U
44
""so
13
351
46
183
197
286
27
1
210
1
2,281
•
.',7. MX
2,601
772
2,444
885
443
106
1,305
===
7. UK
121
32
1..-.V
«
«
611
24,914
934
30
1,625
46
308
204
•
1,728
45
i,"028
291
"-• • ~
770
29
1,676
2,564
===
8,529
912
4,151
673
1 '
3,402
100
272
1,023
—
4,694
121
701
3,175
877
1,314
- 894
+ 428
33,443
1,846
4,181
1,625
48
345
1
5,130
145
272
1,028
5,464
150
701
1,676
+3,705
+ 502
-3,167
+ 821
+ 837
+ 98
+ 107
+1,976
- 41
- 223
+ 561
+ 90
+ 1
+ fifi
-4,975
- 12
- 641
+1,159
+ 54
+ CQ
2
37
1
M,M
<MIU-
•
Ma
27,857
2,801
2,475
13,632^3,774
5,516
41,489
6,575
7,991
+2,903
+2,430
-4,335
Portuguese, Spaniards, and Porto Ricans.
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii.
711
TABLE 4. — Arrivals and departures, certain immigrant races, Hawaii, 1905 to 1909,
and first six months of 1910 — Continued.
Departures.
Arrivals.
Increase (+) or
decrease (— ).
Coast.
Orient.
Total.
Race
m
j
j
.
J
M
d
•1
^
i
.•a
|
I
1
A
1
1
Jj
I
I
"3
|
1
i
I
1
9
£
1
s
£
O
i
£
1
£
5
1905-1909.
i
JANUARY 1
TO JUNE
30, 1910,
INCLUSIVE.
Japanese
Koreans
199
4&
31
21
5
3
775
20
351
3
549
6
796
23
356
552
6
- 597
- 21
+ 132
+ 1
- 521
3
Chinese... .
176
13
1?
5
301
13
28
306
13
28
- 130
- 16
Iberians «
20
9
329
180
306
329
180
306
- 309
- 171
- 298
Filipinos.
1,765
56
35
8
43
+1.722
+ 117
+ 56
Hindus
36
65
1
72
-f
— 36
— i
Russians.
652
287
362
91
24
39
c
^
100
28
43
+ 552
+ 259
+ 319
Total...
2,850
921
472
549
209
348
1 1>12°
375
587
1,669
584
935
+ 1,181
+ 337
- 463
a Portuguese, Spaniards, and Porto Ricans.
These figures indicate that during the five years ending with the
close of the year 1909 the net increase of population in Hawaii, due
to immigration, was slightly less than 1,000. The net increase of
Caucasians (Iberians and Russians) was 2,794. This was the net
increment in the islands after an immigration during that period
of 7,124. In other words, for every 5 Caucasians of the nationalities
from which the islands derived assisted immigrants, who came to
Hawaii during this half decade, 3 left the islands. Of course those
departing were not in all cases immigrants; many of them were
doubtless children of families who had come to the islands in the
earlier immigration, but the effect upon the population was the same.
The number of aliens departing from Honolulu for the mainland
of the United States during the six months ending with October,
1910, was 848. This was a normal movement, except for the Rus-
sians, of whom 510 recent arrivals departed for the Coast during this
period. One hundred and seven Spaniards also left Honolulu for
California. In the case of the Spanish and Portuguese, and even
the Russians, there is some return movement, this movement being
most marked in the case of the nationalities longest settled in Hawaii.
It is due partly to the seasonal character of the labor demand in
California. As soon as the fruit-picking season is over unemploy-
ment drives the former resident of Hawaii back to the islands. The
following table shows the details of this movement. The figures for
nationalities other than those mentioned possess little significance,
as do also the statistics of arriving aliens of the same class. They
merely represent the transient passenger traffic of a mid-Pacific port.
712
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 5 — Aliens departed from Honolulu for the mainland of the United States,
Mail t<> October. 1910, by nationality.
Nationality.
May.
June.
July.
August.
Septem-
ber.
October.
Total.
4
4
1
2
11
1
4
1
47
44
7
9
3
2
2
1
1
94
510
2
107
1
1
1
2
1
Danish
1
1
19
5
3
1
41
2
4
1
English
10
12
French
2
2
1
3
1
Iri>h
3
1
Italian
1
New Zealander
1
1
1
1 '••' Mill
Polish
1
9
140
1
11
Portuguese
37
18
27
106
12
117
...„
3
55
1
11
6
74
Russian
Scotch
S)i'ini--li
44
34
1
Turkish
Total ....
115
205
181
142
118
87 848
This flowing out of the Caucasian population almost as rapidly as
it is recruited is one of the most serious problems met by the Terri-
tory in its present immigration policy. It is a phase of the displace-
ment of races and nationalities by other races and nationalities
having a lower standard of living that takes place in certain neigh-
borhoods of New York and Chicago, and in certain country districts
of the South where the colored population increases at the expense
of the white.
This displacement is due both to racial antipathy and to economic
causes. The economic influence of the different races in competition
LS roughly shown by the following table of average incomes of work-
ing people in Honolulu, summarized from an investigation made by
the federal Bureau of Labor, in 1910:
TABLE 6.— Average annual family income of working people, Honolulu, 1910,
by nice.
Number of fam-
Race.
ilies from which
Average annual
statistics were
family income.
taken.
Caucasian
Hawaiian and Part-Hawaiian. '
Porttieiiese
Chinese
Japanese J
14
150
127
42
$1,068.54
927. 74
793.53
607.41
30
425. 06
wh'ch show that the average Japanese
f-, ., I ? tlef
n £ 6" W',th ^ ^hnn half the income of e average
or Hawaiian family, it is but fair to recall that even this
. probably exceeds the average income of
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii.
713
possibility of maintaining the margin of difference in wages and
standard of living, as compared with those of the oriental, which
the white man thinks his race dignity demands, that causes the latter
to avoid competition.
Another motive for the rapid migration of whites from Hawaii,
in spite of continuous employment at fair w&ges, is the attraction
of higher wages, a more homogeneous race community, and the greater
variety of occupations on the Pacific coast. No doubt at the pres-
ent time the field of opportunity for the unskilled laborer is broader
in California than in Hawaii ; he may not throughout the year earn
more in the former State, but the chances of his being able to acquire
a home and a competence, and the speculative elements of success
are much greater on the mainland.
A comparison of the census figures of 1900-1910 gives the follow-
ing results :
7. — Increase or decrease in population, Hawaii, 1900 to 1910, by race.
Race.
1900.
1910.
Increase.
Decrease.
Hawaiian
29,787
26,099
3,688
Part-Hawaiian
•7, 848
12, 485
4,637
Portuguese •
15, 675
22, 294
6,619
1,962
1,962
4 828
4,828
Other Caucasian -
10, 577
14,684
4,107
Chinese
25, 762
21,698
4,064
Japanese
61,115
79, 663
18, 548
All others
3,237
8,196
4,959
Total
154,001
191,909
45,660
7,752
Net increase
37,908
The figures showing increase and decrease are to be taken with
some slight qualification, on account of the probability that the
enumeration of orientals was rather more complete in 1910 than in
1900. The real increase of Japanese, especially, is probably some-
what less than that indicated. The increase of Part-Hawaiians is
not governed by the same laws of growth as the increase of any
of the other population elements, because its source is three races —
the pure Hawaiian, the Caucasian, and the oriental. Upon an
uncertain number of these three races this increase has to be com-
puted, and not upon the number of Part-Hawaiians in the terri-
tory in 1900.
The distribution of this population by sexes and by age periods is
abnormal. Orientals brought to the country, or coming of their own
volition, are usually adult males. As old age approaches and a small
competence is acquired these orientals return to their own country.
Comparatively few oriental women came to Hawaii in the days of
contract labor. Oriental children are not brought to Hawaii in
numbers, and children of oriental parents born in Hawaii are often
returned to Japan and China to be educated. In 1900 the proportion
of females to the total population in Hawaii was about 30 per cent, as
compared with 48 per cent on the mainland of the United States.
While the Japanese formed but 36.5 per cent of the total population
in 1900, they furnished over 51 per cent of the male population 18
72289°— VOL 1—11 46
714
The Immigration Commission.
•MM of ao-e or over. On the other hand the Hawaiians, who prob-
•bly represent most closely the normal distribution of age, supplied
19 per cent of the total population and but 11.5 per cent of the adult
male population. This condition explains the diversity in the emi-
nation and immigration of the two sexes and of adults and children
shown in the statistics of immigration for 1905 to 1909.® The excess
of departures of children, amounting, to 4,335, was due to this re-
turn of Japanese minors to Japan. Of recent years an increase in
the number of women through immigration has occurred, in spite of a
decrease of both men and children, showing that under present im-
migration conditions there is a tendency to establish a closer equi-
librium of the sexes.
SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
The facts as to children are further illustrated by the statistics of
school attendance during the past decade, which are given in the fol-
lowing table. During this period the total school attendance in-
creased about 65 per cent, or some 10,000. Of this increase over
one-half, or 5,406, was of Japanese children alone. In spite, there-
fore, of the large return of Japanese children to Japan the residue in
the islands continues very large. However, of the total school at-
tendance the Japanese children do not form so large a percentage as
the Japanese population does of the entire population. The in-
crease in the school attendance of Portuguese appears to be less
relatively than the increase in the Portuguese population.
TABLE 8. — Nationality of children
public and private schools, Hawaii. 1900-
1909.
Nationality.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
Hawaiian
•1 ''77
4 903
5 076
4 893
4 983
Part-Hawaiian
American
British
German
Portuguese
Scandinavian
2,631
m
232
320
3,809
114
2,869
812
240
337
4,124
98
2*934
796
215
333
4,335
108
3,018
799
217
295
4,243
194
3,267
931
226
252
4,448
93
3.430
1,025
268
298
4,683
99
3,500
1,009
187
273
4,437
82
3,546
937
220
295
4,537
81
3,691
999
189
265
4,777
67
3,841
1,057
185
263
4,722
Japanese
Chinese
I'orto Rican...
1,352
1,289
1,993
1,385
596
2,341
1,499
593
2,521
1,554
coo
3,313
1,875
3,869
2,087
4,547
2,197
5,035
2,548
6,095
2,797
6,758
2,840
Korean
392
368
447
381
Others
115
162
152
143
192
'537'
199
652
168
594
248
579
Total
15,538
17,519
18,382
18,415
20,017
21,644
21,890
23,087
24,856
25,410
ECONOMIC STATUS OF IMMIGRANTS.
The assisted immigrants to Hawaii come principally as plantation
laborers and the most important influences in determinm/their eco-
status are the rate of wages and the other conditions of service
l^vfT F '^ry- .That these conditions are improving is indi-
y two facts. First the wage of field hands is constantly in-
, second, a transition from day labor to contract cultivation
ig, which enables laborers to earn more than formerly. Be-
a See p. 710.
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii.
715
tween 1905 and 1910, according to statistics gathered by the United
States Bureau of Labor, the number of field hands on all the sugar
plantations of the Territory decreased from 20,925- to 14,645, although
there was during this period an expansion of the industry unequaled
during any previous period and a considerable increase in the total
plantation force. In the meantime the average wage of field hands,
including women and children, rose from 63 cents to TO cents per day.
This wage is in addition to house, fuel, water, and, in most instances,
medical attendance. Contemporary with this decrease in field hands
was an increase in the number of cultivation contractors from 5,846
to 7,106. The average earnings of the cultivation contractors rose
from 83 cents to 91 cents per day, together with the same privileges
of house, fuel, and water that are enjoyed by the field hands. In
other words, there was an increase of wages in both of these basic
occupations and a transference of labor from the lower paid employ-
ment to the higher. As nearly one- fourth of the entire population of
the Territory is employed on the plantations, and over one-half of all
the plantation employees are rated either as field hands or contract
cultivators, these figures, which are more or less representative of the
movement of wages in all classes of employment, are very significant.
The following table shows the nationality of plantation hands from
1904 to 1910, inclusive, and the percentage of each nationality for the
years in question. For several years, at least until the Japanese chil-
dren now in the islands become of working age, we may expect, if the
present immigration policy is pursued, a continued decline of Japa-
nese field hands in the plantation forces. At present this decline seems
to be about counterbalanced by the importation of Filipinos.
TABLE 9. — Number of plantation employees, Hawaii, 1904 to 19JO,a by nation-
ality; per cent distribution.
Nationality.
Number.
Per cent distribution.
1904.0
1905.a
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.ft
1910.
1904o
1905«
1906.
1907.
1908.
1.2
8.1
1.6
190S&
1.4
9.2
1.5
1910.
1.4
8.9
1.2
1.0
(3C)0
4.3
6.3
64.0
4.0
5.2
.7
American
European:
Portuguese
Spanish
509
2,876
654
3,194
615
3,286
621
3,394
583
542
3,807
750
604
3,826
637
627
3,906
515
457
(c)
1,339
1,869
2,761
28, 106
1,752
2,269
316
43,917
1.1
6.3
1.5
7.1
1.5
7.9
1.4
7.6
1.3
Russian
Other
470
dl,312
2,066
3,778
32,331
2,435
455
1,711
2,029
3,938
28,030
4,895
467
1,604
2,017
3,684
26,218
3,615
544
1,356
1,878
3,248
30,110
2,638
428
1,309
1,989
2,916
32,771
2,125
141
140
396
1,454
2,024
3,561
26,875
2,229
86
10
1.0
2.9
4.5
8.2
70.5
5.3
1.0
3.8
4.5
8.8
62.4
10.9
1.1
3.9
4.9
8.9
63.1
8.7
1.2
3.1
4.2
7.3
67.7
5.9
.9
2.8
4.2
6.2
69.8
4.5
.3
.3
.9
3.5
4.9
8.5
64.4
5.3
.3
(«)
Hawaiian
Porto Rican
Oriental:
Chinese
Japanese
Korean
Filipino
All others .
83
45
18
75
.2
.1
(•)
.2
Total
45,860
44,951
41,524
44,447
46,918
41,702
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
a The figures for 1904 and 1905 are for July 31. For subsequent years they are for June 30. The number of
employees does not vary materially throughout the year, but the distribution of employees in different
branches of work is quite different at different seasons.
ft The figures for 1909 are abnormal because a strike of Japanese plantation workers was in progress when
they were taken. This strike was confined to the island of Oahu.
<• Not reported.
d Figures for earlier years, except 1903, will be found in Bureau of Labor Report on Hawaii, 1905, p. 11.
f Less than 0.05 per cent.
716 The Immigration Commission.
Statistics secured by the United States Bureau of Labor indicate
that while the pay of field hands, and also of overseers and fore-
men is increasing, the average pay of mechanic employees and their
helpers fell off about 9 per cent between 1905 and 1910. The details
of these statistics clearly show that this is diie to the greater employ-
ment of Japanese in skilled positions. The increase of Japanese in
thi< class of employment has been sufficient not only to take up the
entire addition to the plantation skilled-labor force during these five
years, but also actually to displace a considerable number of Cau-
casians, Hawaiians, and Portuguese previously employed in such
position*.
The condition of quarters furnished laborers, the sanitation of
camps, and the general terms of employment have all improved
during the decade. A movement is already started to conduct social
welfare work among the employees at the expense of their employers.
Several plantations are supplying parks and playgrounds and are
preparing to furnish recreation halls for their workers. The Plant-
ers' Association has made arrangements for lectures and moving-
picture shows upon the plantations. These entertainments will not
be free, but will be open to employees at a nominal price.
During the decade since annexation the industries of the Territory
have become more diversified? and the number of small farms has
nearly doubled. This subdivision of the land into small freeholds
and leaseholds has given opportunity, particularly to the Portuguese
and orientals, to settle in Hawaii more permanently and inde-
pendently than heretofore. The tillers of these small homesteads
pursue subsistence farming, and, except in the vicinity of the pine-
apple canneries, raise few staple crops. Consequently many of them
combine the cultivation of their holdings with wage service on the
plantations, the public roads, the irrigation Avorks being constructed
in different parts of the Territory, and similar undertakings. These
people are forming the basis of what may ultimately become a resi-
dent peasant population, which at present does not promise to rise
to the civic or economic dignity of the communities of farming
settlers in the mainland States.
To encourage settlement, or, as it is commonly called in Hawaii, -to
domicile rural labor, the plantations have offered Caucasian immi-
grants small holdings, which they may acquire, in freehold or fee
simple, conditionally at the end of three years' service, and practi-
cally unconditionally at the end of six years' service. These free-
holds are paid for by the deduction of $2 per month from the laborer's
wage, and their intrinsic value is considerably more than the $72
which they cost ; in fact, the houses on some of these homesteads rep-
five times the amount of the payment required. But the
laborers are not, as a rule, disposed to take advantage of this offer,
partly because the advantage of $2 per month additional wages is
more highly esteemed than the remoter benefit to be derived from
the homestead. Parcels of land assigned under this contract never
2 acres and are not of themselves, large enough to make the
lomesteader independent of plantation work. As the laborer is cer-
am to receive the use of a cottage free during his term of service.
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii.
717
At the time the homestead scheme was adopted the sugar planta-
tions of the islands offered 400 homesteads of 1 acre each of fee-
simple land, 425 paid-up leases of 1 acre each on lands leased by the
plantations, in addition to which 495 homesteads were offered upon
government lands held by the plantations under lease and relin-
quished by them for this purpose, the total number of homesteads
thus offered being 1,485. A census of the homesteads taken up under
this agreement has never been made, and consequently accurate
figures are not now available, but it is probable that out of the 1,485
offered not over 25 per cent were ever entered upon by the laborers,
and that at the present time there are only two or three score actually
occupied in the Territory.
ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH BY IMMIGRANTS.
The tax statistics of Hawaii show that the colonies of assisted
immigrants have, during their sojourn in the Territory, acquired a
considerable amount of wealth. These figures are as follows:
TABLE 10. — Taxpayers of nationalities to which assisted immigrants chiefly
belong, Hawaii, 1909.
Property tax.
Income tax.
Nationality.
Number
of tax-
payers.
Amount
of tax.
Assessed
value of
property.
Number
of tax-
payers.
Amount
of tax.
Amount
of an-
nual in-
. come.
Portuguese
1,794
$24,451 41
$2 451,141
139
$1 473
$73 671
Chinese
2,252
33, 258. 01
3, 325, 801
168
1,847
88, 532
Japanese
2 515
17,481 79
1, 748, 179
134
2 002
97 930
Total
6,561
75,191 21
17, 519, 121
441
5 322
260 133
The property tax is levied upon an assessed valuation assumed to
be nearly the true valuation, which it is in the case of much of the
property here affected. However, in condemnations considerably more
than the assessed valuation is claimed and paid. There is a $300
'exemption, which makes the sum here given much less than the
total property held by these nationalities in Hawaii.
The income tax is 2 per cent on all incomes over $1,000 per annum
and 6 per cent on all incomes over $4,000 per annum, with an ex-
emption of $1,000 from the aggregate income of each family, com-
posed of parents and minor children. Four Portuguese, 6 Chinese,
and 2 Japanese pay the 6 per cent tax.
With regard to these figures it should be remembered that the
immigrants who have come to Hawaii from other countries than the
United States have, as a rule, brought with them very little money,
and their accumulations represent the savings made in the Territory.
The Honolulu banks hold over $750,000 deposited by Portuguese.
The two principal benefit societies have paid out many thousand
dollars in benefits and pensions to their members. The Japanese
have built up in the islands a considerable trading capital and have
been able to establish a number of small manufactures, as well as
718 The Immigration Commission.
several more pretentious undertakings. They own cooperative can-
neriea r;<-e mills, a sake brewery, and one or two planing mills. The
Chinese, on acvount of their longer residence and their greater dis-
position to invest money in the Territory, control a relatively larger
amount of local capital.
LAND AND SETTLEMENT.
The public lands of Hawaii consist of lands transferred to the ter-
ritorial government by the Republic. They are administered by the
territorial government under general regulations made by Congress.
These regulations were amended at the last session of Congress for
the purpose (a) of securing a greater subdivision of the land of the
islands into small farms and (b) of preventing the acquisition of
such lands for speculative purposes. The principal provisions of
the amended act are:
1. Xo government lands shall be alienated to a person who has previously
acquired government lands or whose holdings of land exceed 80 acres, or who
is an alien.
2. Government homesteads can not be conveyed., mortgaged, leased, or other-
wise transferred to or held by or for the benefit of any alien or corporation,
either before or after title is acquired.
3. Provision is made for drawings to determine the order in which applicants
shall be permitted to select homesteads on the public lands.
4. The opening of public lands is compulsory whenever a sufficient number
of citizens shall apply for such opening, providing the lands were not, prior to
the passage of the act, under lease for a definite term. In the latter case the
lands can not be leased again, at the expiration of the term, in such a way as
to prevent their being opened to settlers whenever petition for them is made.
The general effect of these regulations will be to force the sub-
division into small farms of about one-tenth of the cane lands at pres-
ent under cultivation in Hawaii and a much larger proportion of
other agricultural lands now used for grazing or unoccupied. The
forms of tenure are as follows :
Homestead lease.— The applicant first receives a certificate of occupation,
and at the end of six years, if he has performed the required conditions, he
obtains a lease for nine hundred and ninety-nine years without rent. He must
reside on the lot continuously from the end of the second year. He must reduce
to cultivation before the end of six years at least 10 per cent of the land, or.
else reduce to cultivation 5 per cent and -plant and keep in growing condition'
an average of not less than 10 trees per acre of the entire land, if it is agri-
cultural, or, if the land is pastoral, he must fence it within six years. The
land can never be transferred except between joint heirs or by exchange between
persons holding under this method, and is exempt from the execution, but it
descends to heirs in the manner prescribed by the statute. There is no charge
for the laud, but the applicant must pay a fee of $2 when he makes his selection
1 a fee of $5 when he receives his lease at the end of six years The area
which may -be taken by this method is smaller than that under the other
It is limited to 8 acres of first class, and 36 acres of second class,
•iniltural land; 1 acre of wet land; 30 acres of first class, and 60 acres of
second class, pastoral land; and 45 acres of pastoral-agricultural land. Under
ethod a person and his descendants are given a home for nothing and
process as lo en^raent of it; both against his own acts and against legal
rwe^°n^ri^^0d a9™ement-— The applicant pays 5 per cent of the purchase
••' ' -r Srtl 1 the reTippTrS1' £e"»fter' and 10 Per cent each year there-
«£^e$k^^
as shown below, of paying all at any time after five years LsfdencTmusf
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii. 719
aggregate five years in periods of not less than six months each and must begin
within three years. The applicant must have at least 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 per
cent of the land cultivated, and maintain an average of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25
growing trees per acre upon the remaining 75 per cent of the land, from the end
of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth years, respectively, until he becomes
entitled to a patent. He may obtain a patent at any time after five years if he
has performed all the conditions up to the time, and has resided on the land at
least five years in periods of not less than six months of continuous residence
at a time and cultivated at least 25 per cent of the area and maintained at least
25 growing trees per acre upon the remainder of the land for at least four years,
continuously.
Right of purchase lease. — The applicant obtains a lease for twenty-one years,
with an option of purchase. He pays a yearly rental equal to 8 per cent of the
price of the land. He must reside on the land from the end of the first year to
the end of the fifth year continuously. He must before the end of the third year
reduce to cultivation not less than 5 per cent of the area, and at the end of the
fifth year have under cultivation at least 10 per cent of the area, and keep in
growing condition an average of not less than 10 trees per acre of the whole
area if the land is agricultural, or fence it if it is pastoral. At any time after
three years during the period of the lease he may obtain a patent upon paying
the price of the land, if he has reduced to cultivation 25 per cent of the land
and resided thereon not less than two years and performed all other conditions.
Cash freehold agreement. — One-fourth of the price of the land is paid at once
and the balance in equal installments in one, two, and three years, with interest
at 6 per cent per annum, with the privilege of paying at an earlier date and
stopping interest. Residence must continue from the end of the first to the end
of the third year. The applicant must have under cultivation at least 25 per
cent of the area and keep an average of at least 10 trees per acre if the land is
agricultural, or fence it if it is pastoral, before the end of the third year. A
patent is then given.
The public lands are offered to homesteaders at an appraised valu-
ation that varies from a few dollars to $20 or $30 per acre for those
at present thrown open to settlement. The cane lands, as they are
subdivided, will doubtless be sold for a higher price.
Hitherto the obstacles to small farming in Hawaii, more espe-
cially by American settlers, have been :
1. The competition of Asiatic labor in agriculture, which creates a
caste prejudice against field work and lowers the general standard of
living in rural communities.
2. Pests and blights, which, on account of the large uncultivated
areas, especially in the mountains, are not so easily brought under
control as in a more densely settled and highly tilled country. How-
ever, with the extension of agriculture and the increasing study given
to pests by both the federal and territorial governments this difficulty
is being slowly obviated.
3. Lack of transportation facilities. — While there has been great
improvement in the local highways during the last ten years, outside
of the cane districts wagon communication in many parts of the Ter-
ritory is hardly a decade old. Prior to that time, in most regions,
the only way of getting produce to market was over a horse trail.
Communication between the islands is still very expensive, and
hitherto there has been little direct shipment to the coast. The Fed-
eral Government, however, is now developing excellent harbors on
each one of the four principal islands of the group, and on the island
of Hawaii a railway is under construction that will tap over 100
miles of rich agricultural territory. Consequently transportation
difficulties are gradually being overcome. The whole problem is not
yet solved, but it is now possible to market many products that for-
merly could not be sold to advantage, and there is an excellent pros-
720 The Immigration Commission.
pect that special facilities will soon be at hand to place the products
of Hawaii not only in the local markets but on the Pacific Coast.
4. Marketing facilities.— Partly on account of the diversity of races,
C'ly because so many of the homesteaders are not educated, partly
use the producing districts of the islands are frequently sepa-
rated by valleys, gulches, and lava tracts, which prevent ready inter-
communication, there has been little cooperation among Hawaiian
farmers in placing their produce either in the Honolulu market or
in other countries. The pineapple raisers and canners, however, have
been a notable exception. Even the coffee business is still unor-
ganized. Consequently shipments of produce have been made in a
form not calculated to secure a good market. Sent in irregular par-
cels, often poorly packed, generally not graded, this produce has been
charged a higher freight rate than would have been made had it been
properly packed in uniform parcels and shipped in larger quantities.
The commission merchant receiving such produce has discounted
heavily in the price he paid, on account of uncertainties of quality
and the need of regrading and packing. The lack of cooperation
caused producers to flood the market at one time and to leave it en-
tirely unsupplied at another, and this unreliability in supplies has
led local commission merchants to depend upon the coast for produce
that could easily be raised in the islands.
To meet these difficulties the Territory has provided an appropria-
tion to establish a government marketing department in Honolulu,
to receive and grade produce and to promote a market for it not only
locally but on the coast. An important function of this department
will be to instruct farmers as to the demands of the market, the time
for shipping certain classes of produce, and the methods of packing
and grading in order to get the lowest freights and the highest
returns.
GENERAL CONDITIONS ATTENDING IMMIGRATION.
The two motives that induce an immigrant to come to Hawaii are
employment and land. The remoteness of the Territory from the
labor-supplying countries of Europe makes it necessary for the Gov-
ernment to pay the expenses of immigrants to the islands. The prin-
cipal employers are the sugar planters, who engage directly the serv-
ices of nearly one-quarter of the population. So dominant an indus-
try must determine all labor conditions in Hawaii, and only in co-
ooeration with these employers can the inducement of employment be
placed before prospective immigrants. The basic wage of the islands
that of field workers in the cane fields. This wage for Caucasians
at present $24 per month for twenty-six days of labor, plus
house, water, fuel, and, in practically all cases, medical attendance.
Ine average wage on the plantations is much higher than this, as one-
f of the hands employed belong to the higher class of unskilled
r are skilled workmen, whose wages range from $30 to $150
1 hese employment conditions would be sufficient to at-
tract a arge European population were Hawaii in the same location
^ Or the Bermudas> or even
indncf?ment J.S not s<> attractive as on the mainland of
use the public lands are more limited in extent ; they are
Immigration Conditions in Hawaii. 721
held for a higher price, and, in general, it is more difficult to acquire
them. The number of small freeholds is not large enough to keep an
active circulation of farms in the market. Yet the conditions are so
changing that it is not unlikely that within another decade there may
be 10,000 small farms in Hawaii. This will mean that the average
laborer who has saved a few hundred dollars will usually find a farm
for sale.
The method of assisted immigration -hitherto followed by the ter-
ritorial government has been inherited from the time when contract
labor was brought to Hawaii by private agencies. The method has
been to recruit large parties at one time, bringing them to the country
in shiploads. A few experiments with smaller parties brought directly
from the mainland has not been encouraging. The objections to
bringing large parties are numerous and are well understood. In
the first place, though there may be an actual dearth of labor in the
islands, the sudden injection of one or two thousand people into the
labor market disturbs conditions. There is reason to believe that most
large importations of labor displace sufficient labor in Hawaii even
though great care is taken to prevent this, to stimulate a migration to
California. This outflow, in some instances, almost equals the inflow.
These large importations by shiploads do not tend to create a
permanent immigration channel. The ship comes but it has no suc-
cessor. By the fact of a single vessel having been chartered it is
not made easier to bring immigrants the following year. For these
reasons the time appears to have come when a different method of
assisting immigrants should be adopted. They should, if possible,
be brought directly from their native land, but in small parties at
shorter intervals, and in such a manner as to encourage the establish-
ment of direct communication between Europe and Hawaii. At
present the most likely route for such a migration channel is via the
isthmus of Tehuantepec, and negotiations are now in progress looking
toward the encouragement of a permanent line by this route. The
objection to Tehuantepec, however, is the danger of yellow fever.
On the completion of the canal the authorities of the Territory
look forward to the Panama route as the channel through which
European immigrants will reach Hawaii. If regular steamship com-
munication is maintained between Hawaii and Europe by this route
the conditions of immigration that have hitherto obtained will be
revolutionized.
In the East, on the other hand, a new source for Caucasian immi-
grants has been discovered in Siberia. It is not unlikely that the
Siberian railway and the local authorities will be disposed to assist
a moderate immigration from that country by this route. A Russian
colony in Hawaii would probably react favorably upon economic con-
ditions in Siberia itself, establishing a new trade route and an ex-
change of products between these two countries. In the meantime
the direction of local development in Hawaii is favoring greater
diversification of industries and a different kind of settlement from
that which has heretofore predominated. The demand for produce
to provision ships and supply the increasing garrisons, the call that
the California market makes at certain seasons for vegetables and
fruits, which can be produced in Hawaii, the fact that the sugar
industry is approaching its maximum development and that few
722 The Immigration Commission.
lands suited for cane culture remain unoccupied, and that conse-
quently capital in the islands is seeking new fields of investment, all
cooperate to give an opportunity for the white settler better than has
teen offered him in the past. With these. new opportunities the senti-
ment toward immigration is changing. While the activities of the
Government in this direction will, of necessity, be governed in the
first instance by the requirements of plantation labor, the feeling
grows stronger and more general that the true interests of the sugar
industry and of the minor industries of the Territory are so nearly
identical in regard to labor that the demands of all must be consulted
in any permanent policy. The minor industries call for a home-
owning, domiciled citizen population, and it is from this population
that the labor needs of the plantations will ultimately be supplied.
The formation of this population is the present immigration problem
before the Teritory.
ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
IMMIGRANTS IN CITIES.
For the complete report on immigrants in cities see Reports of the
Immigration Commission, vols. 26 and 27.
723
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introductory ". 727
Results of investigation 727
Method and scope ... 731
Summary for seven cities. 732
Composition of population 733
Living conditions 741
Economic status 760
Assimilation 768
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. Number of. households and of individuals studied, by city. . 732
2. Number of households and of individuals studied in seven cities, by
general nativity and race of head of household 733
3. Number of households included in detailed study, by general nativ-
ity and race of head of household and by city 733, 734
4. Race distribution of households studied, by city; percentages 734
5. City distribution of households studied, by race; percentages 735
6. Total number of persons in households, by general nativity and
race of head of household and by city 736
7. Sex of persons for whom detailed information was secured, by gen-
eral nativity and race of head of household 736, 737
8. Per cent of heads of households within each specified age group, by
general nativity and race of individual 737, 738
9. Per cent of persons within each age group, by general nativity and
race of head of household 738, 739
10. Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households in
the United States under five years, five to nine years, etc., by
race of individual 740
11. Per cent of households occupying apartments of each specified num-
ber of rooms, by city 741
12. Per cent of households occupying apartments of each specified num-
ber of rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household. 741, 742
13. Per cent of households of each specified number of persons, by gen-
eral nativity and race of head of household 742, 743
14. Number and per cent of households having each specified number
of persons per room, by city • 743
15. Number and per cent of households having each specified number
of persons per room, by general nativity and race of head of
household 744
16. Number and per cent of households having each specified number
of persons per sleeping room, by city 745
17. Number and per cent of households having each specified number
of persons per sleeping room, by general nativity and race of
head of household 745, 746
18. Average number of adults per room and per sleeping room in house-
holds with foreign-born heads, by years of residence of head in the
United States and by city 746
19. Number and per cent of households regularly sleeping in all except
each specified number of rooms, by general nativity and race of
head of household 747
20. Number and per cent of households keeping boarders or lodgers, by
general nativity and race of head of household 748
725
726 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 21 Average number of boarders or lodgers per household, by general
nativity and race of head of household 749, 750
22 Number and per cent of foreign households keeping boarders or lodg-
ers, by race of head and by years head has been in the United
States -•• • ..-. 751
23. Number and per cent of apartments in which gainful occupation is
pursued, by city : - - • • v y - •-••-.• 751
24. Number and per cent of apartments in which gainful occupation is
pursued, by general nativity and race of head of household ..... 752
25 Per cent of households where water supply is used by each specified
number of households, by general nativity and race of head of
household - : - -*- - - - 753
26. Per cent of households where toilet is used by each specified number
of households,* by general nativity and race of head of household . 754
27. Per cent of apartments where care is good, fair, etc., by general
nativity and race of head of household 755
28. Number and per cent of families owning home, by general nativity
and race of nead of family 756
29. Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per
room, by city 757
30. Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per
room, by general nativity and race of head of household 757, 758
31. Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per
person, by city 758
32. Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per per-
son, by general nativity and race of head of household 759
33. Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households 16
years of age or over at time of coming to the United States who were
engaged in farming abroad, by race of individual 760
34. Per cent of males 16 years of age or over in each specified industry
or unemployed, by general nativity and race of individual 761
35. Per cent of females 16 years of age or over in each specified industry
or unemployed, by general nativity and race of individual 762
36. Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school,
and at work, by general nativity and race of individual 763
37. Yearly earnings (approximate) of males 18 years of age or over, by
general nativity and race of individual 764
38. Yearly earnings (approximate) of females 18 years of age or over, by
general nativity and race of individual 765
39. Per cent of families having an income within the year from husband,
wif<>, children, boarders or lodgers, and other sources, by general
nativity and race of head of family 766
40. Earnings per year of male heads of families, by general nativity and
race of individual 767
41. Number and per cent of male heads of households who speak English,
by general nativity and race of individual 768
42. Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households who
speak English, by years in the United States and race of individ-
769
43. Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households who
speak English, by age at time of coming to the United States and
race of individual 769
44. Number and per cent of male heads of households "who read and
who read and wnte, by general nativity and race of individual . . 770
. Number and per cent of -foreign-born male heads of households who
race oTindin 'd f ^ ** tim6 °f coming to the United States and
46. Present political condition of "foreign-bora male heads of "households
who have been in the United States five years or over and who were
of age or overat time of coming, by race of individual 772
IMMIGRANTS IN CITIES,
INTRODUCTORY.
Congestion of immigrants in large cities has long been considered
one of the most unfavorable features of the modern problem of immi-
gration. The Commission, convinced of the importance of this
phase of the problem, inaugurated an investigation of living condi-
tions among the residents of some of the most crowded quarters of
New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Cleveland, Buffalo, and
Milwaukee. The purpose of the inquiry was to determine to what
extent congestion actually prevails among immigrants in cities and
the conditions peculiar to particular cities and races, and also to
find generally the economic and social status of the city-dwelling
immigrant.
All information was secured through personal visits by agents of
the Commission.0 The investigation covers 10,206 households, com-
prising 51,006 individuals. Emphasis must be placed upon the fact
that this is a study of congested or poor localities, and comparison
of races should be made with this limitation in mind.
Many social workers and tenement-house reformers have made
studies of individual families in congested districts, most of which
represent extreme cases of poverty. The present investigation
includes a great many households that live in poverty and amid
more or less insanitary surroundings; a study of the individual
schedules reveals the presence of highly objectionable conditions in
many families. The Commission's agents, however, did not confine
themselves to records of the poorest families, but obtained sched-
ules from all the households within a neighborhood selected for
study. Thus the report tends to modify impressions based on studies
of extreme cases, and brings out the fact that a large majority of the
immigrants in cities lead a decent, hard-working life, in homes that
are clean, though in many cases poor, and that the undesirable con-
ditions prevailing in congested quarters often are not brought about
by the residents, but largely in spite of them.
RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION.
The most important results of the investigation are summarized in
the pages following. In view of the fact that this study is limited to
congested and poor districts of the cities investigated, it is important
to keep in mind that the report does not represent conditions outside
of such districts, and that comparisons by race apply only to those
representatives of each race who live in the poorer sections of the cities.
1. The search for immigrant races in congested districts revealed
the fact that the population of such districts consists predominantly
a For schedule forms see Vol. II, pp. 653-662 and 668-673.
727
728 The Immigration Commission.
of races of recent immigration. Races of the older immigration and
their descendants are represented for the most part only by the rem-
nants of an earlier population, whose economic progress has not
kept pace with that of their fellows who have moved to better sur-
roundings. In all seven of the cities studied the Russian Hebrews
and South Italians are among the principal races in congested dis-
trict* In the cities on the Great Lakes the Poles, Bohemians, and
other Slavic races are relatively much more numerous than in the
Atlantic coast cities.
In the districts studied the most important races numerically
are the South Italian, Hebrew, Polish, Slovak, Syrian, and Lithu-
anian among the more recent immigrant races, and the Irish, Bohe-
mian, and German among the races which have been coming to this
country for a longer period of time. Comparatively few households
whose heads are native-born of native father were found in the
districts canvassed.
2. Forty-eight of everv 100 foreign-born male heads of households
studied have come to tne United States within the past ten years,
and 21 of every 100 have come within five years. Of the races
represented by 100 or more male heads of households the Magyars
have the largest per cent of arrivals within the past ten years, 84 in
100 having come within that time. The negroes (foreign-born) have
the next largest proportion. These are followed in order by the
Syrians, Slovenians, Lithuanians, Slovaks, Russian Hebrews, Poles,
Hebrews other than Russian, South Italians, Bohemians and Mora-
vians, Germans, Irish, and Swedish, only 10 Swedes in 100 having
come within the last ten years.
3. Immigration to the United States has been, on the part of
male heads of households in the districts studied, largely a migra-
tion from country to city of people unfamiliar with urban con-
ditions. Thirty-nine of every 100 who were 16 years of age or
over at the time of coming to the United States were engaged in
farming in the country of their former residence. Of the races rep-
resented by 100 or more persons the Irish show the highest proportion
who were farmers abroad — 69 in every 100. Then follow the Lithua-
nians, with 67 in 100, the Poles with 64 in 100, the Slovaks with 61,
the Slovenians with 57, the Magyars with 45, and the South Italians
with 44. Bohemians, Germans, and Syrians were farmers in less
than one-fourth of all cases. Few Hebrews, Russian and other,
were on farms in Europe.
4. Nearly one-tenth of all the families investigated own their homes.
The proportion varies from 1 family in 200 in New York to 1 family
in 5 in Milwaukee. In general much larger proportions of the older
immigrant races than of those of recent immigration are home
Among recent immigrant races represented by 100 or more
families, the Slavic races have high proportions of home owners;
among races of older immigration the Germans have the highest pro-
portion, approximately 1 in 4.
5. Twentv-six households in every 100 studied keep boarders or
The proportion is smallest in Milwaukee and largest in
fTli * ^.evJ.Yor^ the lamest city, the proportion among
ouseholdfl studied is 25 in 100. Tie proportion is smaller in native-
orn white households than in foreign households. Considering
Immigrants in Cities. 729
all immigrants regardless of race, it will be found that the proportion
of households with boarders or lodgers is only about half as great
among immigrants who have lived in the United States ten years or
more as among the more recent immigrants.
6. Forty-five in every 100 of the homes studied are kept in good
condition, and 84 in every 100 are kept in either good or fair condi-
tion. The proportion of clean homes is higher among the native-
born whites than among the immigrants, and much higher among
the white race as a whole than among the negro. As a rule the races
of the older immigration have a higher proportion of well-kept apart-
ments than have the recent immigrant races, but in general the pro-
portion of well-kept homes is high. The neglected appearance of a
great many of the streets is a result of indifference on the part of the
city authorities about keeping out-of-the-way districts clean rather
than of carelessness on the part of the residents. In frequent cases
the streets are dirty while the homes are clean.
7. Sanitary equipment depends primarily on the city. The dis-
tricts investigated in Philadelphia and Cleveland make the least
satisfactory showing in this respect. Some of the races, however,
such as the South Italians and Syrians among recent and the Irish
among older immigrants, are not so well provided with sanitary equip-
ment as are other races.
8. In the households investigated the average number of persons
per 100 rooms is 134, and per 100 sleeping rooms 232. The cities
may be arranged in regard to crowding in the following order:
Boston, 144 persons per 100 rooms; Philadelphia, 141; Cleveland,
140; New York, 139; Buffalo, 133; Chicago, 126; Milwaukee, 114.
Density of Copulation, or congestion per acre, is not the only factor
in determining the degree of crowding per room. Well-regulated
tenement houses are better adapted to the needs of a crowded city
than are private houses converted for the use of several families.
Enlightened tenement-house laws, effectively enforced, minimize
the unavoidable evils which arise from the crowding together of
large numbers of families.
Congestion per room is considerably greater in foreign than in na-
tive households,, whether white or negro. Considering only immigrant
'races represented by 100 or more households, it is found that the
degree of congestion is greatest among the Slovenians, with whom
the average number of persons per 100 rooms reaches 172; with the
South Italians the average is 166; with the Slovaks, 161; with the
Poles, 155; with the Magyars, 153; with the Lithuanians, 151, and
with the Russian Hebrews, 147. The low averages are found among
the Swedes, with whom the average number of persons per 100
rooms is 93, and among the Germans, with whom tne average is 99.
9. Rent among households studied is considerably higher in the
Atlantic coast cities than in the cities on the Great Lakes. Rents
are highest in New York, where the average per room is $3.89 per
month, and lowest in Cleveland, where the average per room is $2.03.
It is of interest in this connection that the average number of persons
per 100 rooms is about the same in the two cities, 139 in New York
and 140 in Cleveland.
72289°— VOL 1—11 47
730 The Immigration Commission.
The races which pay very high rents per room are the Greek,
Syrian, Hebrew (Russian and other), foreign-born negro, and South
Italian, none of which averages as low as $3.25 per month per room.
The races which pay especially low rents are the Polish, Slovenian,
and Slovak, none of which pays, on an average, as high as $2.25
per room. It will be recalled that relatively large numbers of the
Slavic races studied are in the cities on the Great Lakes, where rents
are comparatively low; these races, however, will generally be found
to pay relatively low rents per room in all the cities where they have
been studied.
Households of immigrants as compared with native-born white
households pay, on the whole, higher rents per room but considerably
lower rents per person. The lower rents per person among immi-
grants are, of course, due to the greater number of persons per room.
The larger size of the households is due in considerable degree to the
greater number of boarders and lodgers among immigrants, there
Being on an average 62 boarders or lodgers to 100 immigrant house-
holds as compared with 19 to 100 native white households.
10. A great majority of foreign-born male heads of households
who came to the United States before reaching 14 years of age are
now able to speak English and to read and write. Practically all
persons native-born of foreign father among those studied speak the
English language and are able to read and write.
Among the male heads of households studied who have been in the
United States 5 years or over and who were at least 21 years of age
at arrival in this country, 38 hi every 100 have become citizens, 16
in every 100 have taken out first papers only, and 46 in every 100
have taken no action whatever in regard to becoming naturalized.
Many factors have a tendency to retard or to encourage naturalization,
and wide differences exist among the several races in this respect.
11. The great majority of immigrants in the districts studied have
come to join relatives or friends. This statement is based on the
answers to an inquiry made in this study relative to the reasons for
coming to the United States, to the city, and to the neighborhood
investigated. The original selection of a district as a center of
settlement by members of a given race is largely a matter of chance. ,
A study of the displacement of one race by another may be of interest
m the history of a city, but as a problem of immigration the important
t is that certain races have formed colonies in American cities,
that the colonies grow as a direct result of continued immigra-
tion of members of the same races.
Of the immigrant races represented in this study by 100 or more
households, the Bohemians and Moravians, South Italians, Poles,
and Slovenians report more than three-fourths of their households as
*9 ^^Period of residence since the establishing of
in the United States in the neighborhood where they now
' 7 a C0l°ny °f their race' M ^mmi^ant races excet the
Tr h ' e
ish and Magyars report more than one-half of their households as
n° reSldenCe °Utside °f the nei*b°rho
now ive n° reSlenCe °Utsde °f the neig*b°rhood where they
Immigrants in Cities. 731
of avoiding the expense of transportation to and from work, are per-
haps the most important economic factors. Friendly relations, kin-
ship, language, religious affiliations, dietary laws and preferences,
and the greater ease of securing boarders in districts where immi-
grants of the same race are centered, are some of the most important
constituent elements of racial cohesion.
On the other hand, economic progress, education, and social ambi-
tion tend to distribute immigrants throughout a city and to hasten
their absorption into the general body of residents. When the ex-
pense of moving ceases to be of great moment, when a firm economic
footing is gained by the immigrant, he is likely to begin to look
around for a more attractive place of residence. His ability to speak
and read English, his greater familiarity with transportation facili-
ties, and the increase in his general knowledge of conditions in other
parts of the city, help him m selecting a new home. The pressure
often comes through the children who grow up as Americans and pre-
fer not to be identified with distinctly foreign sections of a city.
METHOD AND SCOPE.
In undertaking an investigation which was to cover over 10,000
households, the Commission felt that it must not attempt to investi-
gate technical details of tenement-house construction or of sanitary
conditions. It aimed simply at obtaining the most essential general
facts about the lives of the immigrants in large cities.
The investigation included sections of New York, Chicago, Phila-
delphia, Boston, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Milwaukee. No student
of congestion could omit any of the first four cities, while Cleveland
was included because it was believed that this city is in process of
transition from the state of a small town with no danger of over-
crowding to that of a large center facing the problem of congestion.
Buffalo and Milwaukee belong to the type of large cities in which
village conditions have not disappeared. Tenements are few in
either city and the usual home consists of a small house with a vard
on at least one side. In studying cities of all three types the Com-
mission's aim was to gain an idea of how the immigrants fare in
various city environments.
Within each city the unit of investigation was a block or, more
accurately, a frontage; that is, one side of a street between two other
streets. The plan was to select a certain number of such blocks and
then to secure information from every family living within their
limits. The blocks were selected on the double principle of conges-
tion and racial homogeneity; that is, an effort was made to study in
each city the most crowded blocks inhabited as nearly as possible by
members of one race. In determining congestion, two elements were
taken into consideration — the number of households per lot and the
general condition of the houses, the blocks inhabited by the largest
number of households per lot and consisting of the poorest repre-
sentative dwellings being chosen for study. It was comparatively
easy to find the most congested districts; the building and healtn
departments of the cities, charitable institutions, and social settle-
ments are well informed as to the location of these districts. The
greatest difficulty was experienced in finding racial uniformity in the
population of the blocks. Under the constantly changing conditions
732
The Immigration Commission.
of the cities it is no easy matter to find blocks inhabited largely by
one race and in some instances a block tentatively selected as being
inhabited by members of one race proved on closer examination,
to be distinctly cosmopolitan, or inhabited by another race the
members of which had recently displaced the previous residents.
In some cases the final canvass disclosed that the race that was
believed to predominate in a certain district formed in reality
only a minority of the households; when such districts are in-
cluded in the study it is because the race in question was not to be
found in isolated colonies in the given city. In a few cases all
the families belonging to one race and living in a limited area were
studied and families of other races were omitted. In the search for
racial uniformity the Commission's agents supplemented the informa-
tion obtained from city authorities and social workers by interviewing
physicians, district nurses, lawjers, clergymen, storekeepers, saloon
keepers, letter carriers, and janitors — in a word, all persons who were
likely to know the people in their neighborhood. Much difficulty was
encountered in finding blocks inhabited by Germans, Irish, and
Swedes, who are older immigrants and have had opportunities of
scattering throughout the cities. As regards households whose heads
are native-born white of native father, it proved to be impossible to
study these in homogeneous blocks. The only such blocks discov-
ered represented an economic level far in advance of that of the other
families investigated, and since it was felt that Americans of native
\vliite parentage should be included in the study for purposes of
comparison, in some cities selected families living in poorer neighbor-
hoods were visited by the agents. It is a significant fact that the
search for American families in crowded districts of American cities
was attended with considerable difficulty.
As the investigation covered but 10,206 households comprising
51,006 individuals, the population studied constitutes an insignifi-
cant proportion of the eight or more millions of inhabitants of the
seven cities studied. No attempt is made to estimate the proportion
of each city's population living under the conditions studied by the
Commission. The report aims to show the worst representative
conditions found in each city.
SUMMARY FOE SEVEN CITIES.
The number of households and the number of individuals studied
in each of the seven cities are as follows:
TABLE I.— Number of households and of individuals studied, by city.
City.
Number of
households.
Number of
persons.
New York...
Chicago
Philadelphia . .
Boston
2.667
2,237
1,177
12, 478
11,567
5,996
Cleveland
Buffalo
Milwaukee
Total
1,183
687
839
• 6,013
3,561
4,180
10,206
51,006
Immigrants in Cities.
733
COMPOSITION OF POPULATION.
NATIVITY AND RACE.
The following tables present a detailed statement of the number
of households and individuals studied in the various cities and the
distribution of the households by city and by general nativity and
race. The race distribution of the households studied in the seven
cities is given in the first table following:
TABLE 2. — Number of households and of individuals studied in seven cities, by general
nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and race of head of household.
Number of
households.
Number of
persons.
Native-born of native father:
White
486
2,011
Negro
448
1,600
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
41
140
German
991
Irish
§28
1,484
Polish
20
93
Foreign-born:
643
2,822
German
567
2.428
Greek
49
235
Hebrew Russian
1.370
7,690
Hebrew Other
281
1,423
Irish
806
3,908
Italian North
77
454
Italian South
1.980
10,814
Lithuanian
337
1,990
207
1,078
Nearo
122
413
Polish
1,187
6,580
Servian
33
230
Slovak
371
1,919
116
<>U6
Swedish
148
667
Syrian
361
1,370
10, 206
51,006
Total native-born of foreign father
617
2,708
1,551
6,319
Total foreign-born
8,655
44,687
The next table classifies the households by general nativity and
race of head and by city of residence.
TABLE 3, —Number of households included in detailed study, by general nativity and race
of head of household and by city.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Boston.
Buffalo.
Chi-
cago.
Cleve-
land.
Mil-
wau-
kee.
New
York.
Phila-
del-
phia.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
123
64
26
31
105
85
52
486
251
197
448
Native-born of foreign father, by race
of father:
20
21
41
48
60
66
54
228
Irish
76
45
35
94
78
328
Polish
20
20
Foreign-born:
228
56
82
277
643
German
47
179
143
198
567
49
49
Hebrew Russian
249
72
210
115
102
480
142
1,370
Hebrew Other
50
34
23
139
35
281
Irish
205
104
117
239
141
806
Italian North
77
Italian. South...
326
212
3(14
143
iis
421
366
1,980
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 3.— Number of households included in detailed study, by general nativity and race
of head of household and by city — Continued.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Boston.
Buffalo.
Chi-
cago.
Cleve-
land.
Mil-
wau-
kee.
New
York.
Phila-
del-
phia.
Total.
Foreign-born— Continued.
171
166
337
Maffvar
27
137
43
207
122
122
Polish
104
194
441
132
150
166
1,187
33
33
Slovak-
79
247
45
371
116
116
Swedish
148
148
113
50
198
361
Grand total
1,416
687
2,237
1,183
839
2,667
1,177
10,206
Total native-born of foreign father —
Total native-born
76~
199
48~
112
105
131
55
86
86
191
169
505
78
327
617
1,551
Total foreign-born
1,217
575
2,106
1,097
648
2,162
850
8,655
Seventeen immigrant races are included in this study. Russian
Hebrews a^nd South Italians were found in considerable numbers in
the congested districts of all seven cities. Poles were found in all
cities except New York; Hebrews other than Russian in all cities
exrent Boston and Buffalo, and the Irish in all cities except Buffalo
and Milwaukee. Bohemians and Germans were studied in rour of the
seven cities. Households whose heads are native-born white of native
father were found in small numbers in all of the cities. These and
the households of the second generation of immigrant races wherever
found in sufficient numbers have been included in the detailed study
for comparative purposes.
The following table gives the race distribution of households
studied by city of residence:
TABLE 4. — Race distribution of households studied, by city; percentages.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Boston.
Buffalo
Chi-
cago.
Cleve-
land.
Mil-
wau-
kee.
New
York.
Phila-
del-
phia.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
8.7
9.3
1.2
2.6
1.7
12.5
3.2
9.4
.8
2.0
3.5
4.4
16.7
'"G'Q
4.8
44
.4
2.2
3.2
.2
C.3
5.6
.5
13.4
2.8
7.9
.8
19.4
3.3
2.0
L-f
11.6
.3
3.6
1.1
1.5
3 5
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race
of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Irish
5.4
7.0
2.7
2.0
""3.'6"
7.9
"'2.~4~
9.8
17.0
Pulish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
( ;r<-ck
6.8
10.2
8.0
4.7
10.4
7.4
Hebrew, Russian....
Hebrew, Other
Irish
3. 5
17.6
10.5
9.4
2.2
4.6
3.4
16.3
7.4
1.2
9.7
2.9
9.9
12.2
2.7
18.0
5.2
9.0
12.1
3.0
12.0
Italian, North ....
145
Italian, South ....
Lithuanian
23.0
12.1
30.9
12.1
17.6
15.8
31.1
Magyar
Negro...
Px-jfi.jv,
11.6
1.6
46
""ii'i"
Servian |;
Slovak
Slovenian .
7.3
28.2
19.7
1.5
3.5
11.2
17.9
20.9
9.8
•-•-•--
1.7
7.4
Swedish
Syrian
""&6"
""7."3"
6.6
Grand total
Sasaas^^M^:::;
100.0
1
5.4
14.1
85.9
100.0
77b~
16.3
83.7
100.0
"~- T~r
4.7
5.9
94.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
6.0
15.2
84.8
46
7.3
92.7
10.3
22.8
77.2
6.3
18.9
81.1
6.6
27.8
72.2
Total foreign-bora...
—
Immigrants in Cities.
735
Of the 10,206 households studied the South Italians form 19.4 per
cent, or nearly one-fifth. In no city do they form less than 12 per
cent of the total number of households. Russian Hebrew households,
which are second only to South Italian households in point of num-
bers, constitute 13.4 per cent of all households studied, and are repre-
sented in no city -by as few as 9 per cent of the households included
in the study.
The following table gives the city distribution of households
studied by general nativity and race of head of household:
TABLE 5. — City distribution of households studied, by race; percentages.
General nativity and race of head
of household.
Boston.
Buffalo.
Chi-
cago.
Cleve-
land.
'Mil-
wau-
kee.
New
York.
Phila-
del-
phia.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White
25.3
13.2
5.3
6.4
21.6
17.5
10.7
100.0
Negro
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
56.0
44 0
100.0
Native-born of foreign father, by race
of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
.0
.0
.0
48.8
.0
51.2
.0
100.0
German.
.0
21. 1
26.3
.0
28.9
23.7
.0
100.0
Irish
23.2
.0
13.7
10.7
.0
28.7
23.8
100.0
Polish
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
100.0
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
.0
.0
35.5
8.7
12.8
43.1
.0
100.0
German.
.0
8.3
31.6
.0
25.2
34.9
.0
100.0
Greek
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
Hebrew, Russian
18.2
5.3
15.3
8.4
7.4
35.0
10.4
100.0
Hebrew, Other
.0
.0
17.8
12.1
8.2
49.5
12.5
100.0
Irish
25.4
.0
12.9
14.5
.0
29.7
17.5
100.0
Italian, North
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
Italian South
16.5
10.7
18.4
7.2
7.5
21.3
18.5
100.0
Lithuanian
50.7
.0
49.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
Magyar
.0
.0
13.0
66.2
.0
20.8
.0
100.0
Negro......
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
.0
100.0
Polish
8.8
16.3
37.2
11.1
12.6
.0
14.0
100.0
Servian
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
Slovak . . .
.0
.0
21.3
66.6
.0
12.1
.0
100.0
Slovenian
.0
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
Swedish.. .
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
Syrian
31.3
13.9
.0
.0
.0
54.8
.0
100.0
Grand total
13.9
6.7
21.9
11.6
8.2
26.1
11.5
100.0
Total native-born of foreign father. . .
Total native-born
12.3
12.8
7.8
7.2
17.0
8.4
8.9
5.5
13.9
12.3
27.4
32 6
12.6
21.1
100.0
100.0
Total foreign-born
14.1
6.6
24.3
12.7
7.5
25.0
9.8
ioa.0
Twenty-six and one-tenth per cent, or more than one-fourth, of all
households studied are in New York City, 2 1.9 per cent are in Chicago,
13.9 per cent in Boston, 11.6 per cent in Cleveland, 11.5 per cent in Phila-
delphia, 8.2 per cent in Milwaukee, and 6.7 per cent in Buffalo. Of the
Russian Hebrew households 35 per cent are in New York, 18.2 per
cent are in Boston, and 15.3 per cent are in Chicago, the remaining
31.5 per cent being distributed through the other four cities. Of
the entire number of Polish households 37.2 per cent are in Chicago.
The South Italian households show a more uniform distribution than
either Russian Hebrews or Poles.
736
The Immigration Commission.
The table which follows classifies the population in households
according to general nativity and race of head and city of residence:
TABLE 6 — Total number of persons in households, by general nativity and race of head of
household and by city.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Boston.
Buffalo.
Chi-
cago.
Cleve-
land.
Mil-
wau-
kee.
New
York.
Phila-
del-
phia.
Total.
Native-born of native father:
White.
485
287
107
118
429
335
818
250
782
2,011
1 600
Native-born of foreign father, by race
of father:
73
67
140
220
275
289
207
991
Irish
327
222
143
390
402
1,484
Polish
Foreign-born:
1,064
232
368
1,158
2,822
184
807
648
789
2,428
Prpplr
235
235
Hebrew Russian
1,314
370
I,i25
655
552
2,929
745
7,690
255
181
109
669
209
1,423
Irish - . -
985
593
561
1,082
687
3,908
Italian North
454
454
Italian' South
1,799
1,151
1,793
812
872
2,427
1,960
10,814
974
1 016
1,990
Matrvar
167
709
202
1,078
413
413
Polish
674
1 145 '
2,315
665
820
961
6 580
Servian
230
230
Slovalc
477
1,198
244
1,919
Slovenian
666
666
Swedish
667
667
Syrian
418
204
748
1,370
Grand total
7 211
3 561
11 567
6 013
4 180
1° 478
5 096
51 006
Total native-born of foreign father... .
Total native-horn
Total foreign-born .
327
812
G 399
220
507
3 054
497
C04
10 903
216
334
5 679
3*2
811
3 3C9
664
1,817
10 (161
402
1,434
4 562
2,708
6,319
44 687
This table shows the distribution of the 51,006 persons included
in the study. The distribution of persons by city and by race does
not differ materially from the distribution of households. The popu-
lation studied in New York and Chicago comprises only a little Less
than half of the total. Persons in households whose heads are immi-
grants form 87.6 per cent of the total population studied.
SEX.
The table next submitted gives the sex of the persons studied, by
general nativity and race of head of household:
TABLE 7.— Sex of persons for whom detailed information was secured, by general nativity
and race of head of household.
General nativity and race of head of
Number.
Per cent o
f each sex.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Male.
Female.
Native-born of native father:
Negro
79 c
1,005
1,997
49.7
50.3
Bohemian and Moravian
'•••ruian. ...
Irish
74
511
66
478
1,576
140
989
46.0
52.9
51.7
54.0
47.1
48 3
Polish....
716
43
738
50
1,454
93
49.2
46.2
50.8
53.8
Immigrants in Cities.
Y37
TABLE 7. — Sex of persons for whom detailed information was secured, by general nativity
and race of head of household — Continued.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Number.
Per cent of each sex.
Male.
Female.
Total
Male.
Female.
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
1,421
1,212
188
3,797
704
1,942
279
5,882
1,185
659
229
3,675
215
1,074
409
327
712
1,395
1,202
37
3,678
708
1,900
175
4,728
731
416
170
2,845
15
843
257
332
645
2,816
2,414
225
7,475
1,412
3,842
454
10, 610
1,916
1,075
405
6,520
230
1,917
666
659
1,357
50.5
50.2
83.6
50.8
49.9
50.5
61.5
55.4
61.8
61.3
56.5
56.4
93.5
56.0
61.4
49.6
52.5
49.5
49.8
16.4
49.2
50.1
49.5
38.5
44.6
38.2
38.7
43.5
43.6
6.5
44.0
38.6
50.4
47.5
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian North
Italian South
Lithuanian . . .
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian ....
Grand total
26,971
23, 271
50, 242
53.7
46.3
Total native-born of foreign father
1,344
3,061
23, 910
1,332
3,188
20, 083
2,676
6,249
43,993
50.2
49.0
54.3
49.8
51.0
45.7
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
In the households of the native-born white of native father, females
are slightly in excess of males; in the households of immigrants
males are considerably in excess of females. Eleven immigrant races
are here represented by 1,000 or more persons each. Of these the
Hebrews, Russian and other, and the three races of the older immi-
gration, the Bohemians. Germans, and Irish, show males and females
in almost equal proportions; the Syrians show males in a little higher
proportion than females; and the South Italians, Lithuanians, Mag-
yars, Poles, and Slovaks report a marked excess of males.
AGE.
The two tables which follow show the age composition of house-
holds included in this study. The per cent of heads of households
within each specified age group is shown by general nativity and race
of individual in the first of these :
TABLE 8. — Per cent of heads of households within each specified age group, by general
nativity and race of individual.
General nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent within each specified age group.
Under 20.
It
20 to 29.
30 to 44.
45 to 59.
60 or over.
Native-born of native father:
White
484
444
41
228
326
20
0.2
.7
.0
.4
.0
.0
22.1
17.3
53.7
27.2
20.9
65.0
42.8
52.0
36.6
49.6
50.0
35.0
26.4
23.4
7.3
20.6
24.8
.0
8.5
6.5
2.4
2.2
4.3
.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish
Polish...
738
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 8.— Per cent of heads of households within each specified age group, by general
nativity and race of individual — Continued.
Number
reporting
Perc
:ent withir
i each spec
ified age gi
oup.
General nativity and race of individual.
complete
data.
Under 20.
20 to 29.
30 to 44.
45 to 59.
60 or over.
Foreign-born:
643
0.0
19.1
46.7
24.3
10.0
German
566
. .0
8.7
36.7
31.6
23.0
Greek
49
2.0
49.0
46.9
.0
2.0
1,368
.1
20.9
50.7
22.2
6.1
Hebrew' Other
281
.0
15.3
53.4
24.2
7.1
Irish
802
.0
8.2
45.3
29.8
16.7
Italian North
77
.0
20.8
49.4
23.4
6.5
Italian South
1,972
.0
21.9
49.8
23.4
5.0
335
.0
24.8
63.3
10.4
1.5
Magyar
207
.5
29.5
55.6
13.0
1.4
118
.0
42.4
50.8
6.8
.0
I'oli^h
1,179
.1
26.6
51.7
15.8
5.9
Servian
33
.0
69.7
24.2
6.1
.0
Slovak
369
.0
30.4
54.7
13.6
1.4
Slovenian
116
.0
28.4
62.1
9.5
.0
Swedish
147
.0
7.5
44.9
35.4
12.2
Syrian . .
357
.8
43.7
44.3
9.8
1.4
Grand total
10, 162
.1
21.9
49.2
21.6
7.2
Total native-born of foreign father
615
.2
26.8
48.5
21.3
3.3
Total native-born .
1,543
.3
22.6
47.7
23.5
5.8
Total foreign-born
8,619
.1
21.8
49.4
21.2
7 4
Of the 8,619 foreign-born heads of households included in this table,
49.4 per cent are between the ages of 30 and 44 years, 21.9 per cent
are under 30 years of age, and 28.6 per cent are 45 years of age or
over. From the corresponding per cents for heads of households
who are native-born of foreign father it will be seen that these are,
on the whole, somewhat younger than the immigrants. Among four
immigrant races one-tenth or more of all heads of households have
reached the age of 60 years. It will be seen from a later table that
these four races — the Bohemians, Germans, Irish, and Swedes — are the
races of longest residence in the United States.
The next table shows the age of persons 'in households studied,
including heads of households already shown separately. The data
are presented by the general nativity and race of the head.
TABLE 9. — Per cent of persons within each age group, by general nativity and race of head
of household.
General nativity and race of head
Number
reporting
Numbe
r within
each spe
cifled ag
e group.
of household.
complete
data.
Tnder
6.
6 to 13.
14 and
15.
16 to 19.
20 to 29.
30 to 44.
45 or
over.
Native-born of native father:
White
1 994
Negro
I1 576
3.0
6.5
20.1
21.6
15.4
Native-born ol foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
140
oo q
2.5
4.1
25.0
33.1
13.9
German
989
1.4
3.6
39.3
16.4
6.4
Irish
1 454
3.5
7.7
20.2
22.5
9.7
Polish
QO
3.9
6.7
17.5
22.4
13.3
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian.
2 816
i e ft
17.2
2.2
4.3
30.1
12.9
1.1
German
2 414
4.3
8.7
20.0
20.0
13.6
Greek
225
4.5
9.1
17.2
19.5
21.1
Hebrew, Russian...
7 475
.4
10.7
50.7
27.6
2.2
Hebrew, Other
1 412
ne
4.4
10.6
18.5
18.7
9.9
4.7
10.5
17.1
20.2
10.9
Immigrants in Cities.
739
TABLE 9. — Per cent of persons within each age group, by general nativity and race of head
of household — Continued.
General nativity and race of head
of household.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number within each specified age group.
Under
6.
6 to 13.
Hand
15.
16 to 19.
20 to 29.
30 to 44.
45 or
over.
Foreign-born— Continued .
Irish
3,842
454
10, 565
1,915
1,075
405
6,520
230
1,915
666
659
1,357
13.5
15.6
22.1
18.6
17.1
16.0
20.7
2.6
23.1
25.1
10.0
21.4
20.5
14.3
16.7
10.7
9.8
3.0
16.6
.4
14.1
11.3
20.0
15.6
4.7
3.3
3.2
1.1
1.3
1.2
2.7
.0
2.2
1.4
5.0
1.9
8.0
8.4
7.4
5.1
8.7
3.2
7.9
13.0
7.1
4.7
7.6
5.9
15.4
26.0
20.1
31.1
28.5
44.9
23.9
66.1
25.3
29.1
15.0
30.4
21.9
22.7
20.1
28.9
28.4
28.1
21.1
15.2
22.5
24.9
22.8
20.0
16.0
9.7
10.4
4.5
C.2
3.5
7.1
2.6
5.7
3.6
19.6
4.8
Italian North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
50,191
2,676
6,246
43,945
18.1
17.3
15.6
18.5
16.8
19.2
16.1
16.9
3.4
3.6
3.1
3.4
7.9
6.8
6.0
8.2
21.7
21.5
10.6
Total native-born of foreign father. .
Total native-born
20.1
21.3
21.7
21.8
24.6
21.0
11.2
13.2
10.3
Total foreign-born .
The members of immigrant households are, on the whole, younger
than the members of the households of the native-born white of native
father. Below the age of 20 years they show the larger proportions
of persons of each specified age, and in each of the higher age groups
the smaller proportions. Only among immigrant races of the older
immigration have as many as 12 per cent of the members of house-
holds reached the age of 45 years. The per cent of children under 16
years of age in the households of the several races is as follows:
Native-born of native father: Per cent-
White 36.5
Negro 23.9
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian 34. 3
German 39. 8
Irish 40.1
Polish 51.7
Foreign-born :
Bohemian and Moravian 37. 8
German 33. 2
Greek 8.8
Hebrew, Russian 42. 2
Hebrew, Other 41. 3
Irish 38.7
Italian, North 33.2
Foreign-born — Continued. Percent.
Italian, South 42. 0
Lithuanian 30. 4
Magyar 28. 2
Negro 20. 2
Polish 40. 0
Servian 3. 0
Slovak 39. 4
Slovenian : 37. 8
Swedish 35. 0
Syrian 38. 9
Grand total.. . 38.3
Total native-born of foreign father.. 40. 1
Total native-born 34. 8
Total foreign-born 38. 8
Certain of the immigrant races, the Hebrews (Russian and other),
the South Italians, and the Poles, report at least 40 per cent of the
members of their households as being under 16 years of age. Greek
and Servian households being largely composed of groups of men, the
per cents of children in the households of these races are very low.
740
The Immigration Commission.
YEARS IN THE UNITED STATES
The table next presented gives the number and per cent of male
heads of households who have been in the United States each specified
number of years :
TABLE 10. — Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households in the United
States under Jive years, five to nine years, etc., by race of individual.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States. No deduction is
made for time spent abroad.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number in the United States
each specified number of years.
Per cent in the United States
each specified number of years.
Under
5.
5 to 9.
10 to
19.
20 or
over.
Under
5.
5 to 9.
10 to
19.
20 or
over.
Bohemian and Moravian . .
German
539
457
48
1,254
249
612
72
1,887
322
186
108
1,112
32
346
114
117
333
96
47
19
358
45
16
22
321
69
92
53
247
26
58
17
1
117
105
33
14
351
86
52
19
563
128
64
32
340
4
141
59
11
120
117
86
15
376
69
132
21
651
111
22
16
297
2
87
31
38
91
221
291
""leg"
49
412
10
352
14
8
7
228
17.8
10.3
39.6
28.5
18.1
2.6
30.6
17.0
21.4
49.5
49.1
22.2
81.3
16.8
14.9
.9
35.1
19.5
7.2
29.2
28.0
34.5
8.5
26.4
29.8
39.8
34.4
29.6
30.6
12.5
40.8
51.8
9.4
36.0
21.7
18.8
31.3
30.0
27.7
21.6
29.2
34.5
34.5
11.8
14.8
26.7
6.3
25.1
27.2
32.5
27.3
41.0
63.7
.0
13.5
19.7
67.3
13.9
18.7
4.3
4.3
6.5
20.5
.0
17.3
6.1
57.3
1.5
Greek
IK'brvw, Russian
Hebrew, Other . . .
Irish
Italian North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
PoDsb
Servian
Slovak
60
7
67
5
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Total
7,788
1,604
2,122
2,162
1,900
20.6
27.2
27.8
24.4
Arranged in descending order of per cents in the United States
under ten years the figures are :
Per cent.
Servian 93. 8
Magyar 83. 9
Negro .' 78. 7
Syrian 71.1
Greek 68.8
Slovenian 66. 7
Lithuanian 61.2
Slovak 57' 6
Italian, North 57^0
Hebrew, Russian 56^ 5
Per cent.
Polish 52. 8
Hebrew, Other 52. 6
Italian, South 46. 8
Bohemian and Moravian 37. 3
German 17. 5
Irish . 11. 1
Swedish 10.3
Total foreign-born 47. 8
It must be remembered that these per cents apply only to heads
of households. The total population studied woufa show considera-
bly higher per cents of persons who have been in the United States
less than ten years.
Immigrants in Cities.
741
LIVING CONDITIONS,
CONGESTION.0
Tho table which follows shows, by city, the per cent of households
occupying apartments of each specified number of rooms:
TABLE 11. — Per cent of households occupying apartments of each specified number of
rooms, by city.
City.
Total,
number
of house-
holds.
Average
number
of rooms
per
apart-
ment.
Per cent of households occupying apartments of each
specified number of rooms.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 or
more.
New York
2,667
2,237
1,177
1,416
1,183
687
839
3.37
4.09
3.62
3.52
3.64
3.90
4.33
0.3
.7
8.2
6.4
1.8
3.8
1.1
10.2
8.5
20.6
15.6
16.3
17.8
6.4
51.3
16.3
24.0
31.6
31.8
20.8
21.8
31.8
48.7
22.0
27.8
28.7
27.4
27.2
5.4
12.9
9.0
11.4
13.5
14.6
25.1
0.6
9.8
10.3
3.7
4.9
9.6
11.8
0.5
3.1
5.9
3.5
3.0
6.1
6.6
Chicago
Philadelphia
Boston
Cleveland
Buffalo
Milwaukee
Total
10,206
3.72
2.6
12.7
31.0
32.8
11.5
6.2
3.3
Of the 10,206 households 31 per cent occupy apartments of three
rooms and 32.8 per cent occupy apartments of four rooms. Only
15.3 per cent are in apartments of fewer than three rooms and 21
per cent in apartments of more than four rooms. The average size
of apartment in Milwaukee and Chicago is between four and five
rooms. In the other five cities it is between three and four rooms.
The averages for the four cities on the Great Lakes are larger than for
the three Atlantic coast cities.
The information with regard to size of apartments is presented in
the next table by general nativity and race of head of household:
TABLE 12. — Per cent of households occupyinq apartments of each specified number of
rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Total
number
of house-
holds.
Average
number
of rooms
per
apart-
ment.
Per cent of households occupying apart-
ments of each specified number of rooms.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 or
more.
Native-born of native father:
White
486
448
41
228
328
20
643
567
49
1,370
281
806
77
4.47
3.61
3.73
4.53
4.31
3.80
3.65
4.30
2.88
3.82
3.69
4.27
4.26
1.0
5.1
.0
.4
1.5
.0
.9
.9
18.4
1.0
1.8
1.1
1.3
3.1
3.1
4.9
3.1
4.3
5.0
5.9
5.6
28.6
9.6
11.4
5.2
5.2
23.7
37.9
36.6
19.7
30.8
35.0
42.6
22.2
24.5
32.1
39.1
29.9
15.6
30.9
44.0
43.9
32.0
29.0
40.0
37.9
35.1
10.2
32.0
24.9
30.3
45.5
19.1
3.1
12.2
23.2
14.9
15.0
5.8
18.2
16.3
18.0
15.7
12.7
14.3
14.2
3.6
.0
14.9
10.4
5.0
4.7
11.3
.0
4.6
3.2
13.2
13.0
8.0
3.1
2.4
6.6
9.1
.0
2.2
6.7
2.0
2.7
3.9
7.7
5.2
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race
of father:
Bohemian and Moravian . . .
German
Irish
Polish .
Foreign-born:
BohemianandMoravian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew Other
Irish
Italian, North
a Congestion depends on many conditions other than the number of persons per room and per sleeping
room. Most of these conditions are not susceptible of statistical measurement and no definite line can
be drawn where overcrowding begins. In this section of the report the terms ' ' congestion " and " degree
of congestion" are expressly restricted to a comparison of the number of persons or adults per room and
per sleeping room,
742
The Immigration Commission,
TABLE 12 —Per cent of households occupying apartments of each specified number of
rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household— Continued.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Total
number
of house-
holds.
Average
number
of rooms
per
apart-
ment.
Per cent of households occupy!^.- rpart-
ments of each specified number c: rooms.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 or
more
Foreign-born— Continued.
Italian, South
1,980
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
3.28
3.90
3.41
3.28
3.58
4.61
3.21
3.34
4.85
2.61
3.3
1.5
1.4
.0
3.5
3.0
1.6
1.7
.0
15.8
23.2
5.3
21.7
.0
15.8
3.0
22.4
22.4
2.7
34.3
30. 9
21.4
30.4
72.1
19.5
6.1
37.2
41.4
6.8
31.0
23.3
51.3
36.2
27.9
47.2
51.5
33.4
16.4
36.5
14.1
7.7
16.6
4.8
.0
9.5
27.3
3.0
12.1
18.9
2.8
3.7
3.9
3.4
.0
3.5
.0
2.2
5.2
29.7
.8
1.7
.6
1.9
.0
1.9
9.1
.3
.9
5.4
1.1
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
10,206
617"
1,551
8,655
3.72
4.34
4.17
3.64
2.6
12.7
31.0
32.8
11.5
6.2
3.3
•
7.5
6.4
2.7
Total native-born of foreign father
Total native-born
1.0
2.2
2.7
3.9
3.4
14.1
27.2
29.2
31.3
31.4
34.9
32.4
17.8
14.0
11.0
11.2
9.9
5.5
Total foreign-born
Households of immigrants occupy smaller apartments, on the
whole, than do native households of native white or foreign parentage,
but slightly larger than do negroes of native birth. The per cents
of foreign households in apartments of one, two, three, and four
rooms are higher than the corresponding per cents of households of
the native-born white of native father, and the per cents in apart-
ments of each specified size above four rooms are smaller than the
corresponding per cents of the households of the native white of
native father. On the whole, the Syrians occupy the smallest apart-
ments and the Swedes the largest.
The per cent of households of each specified number of persons is
shown, by general nativity and race of head of household, in the table
following:
TABLE 13. — Per cent of households of each specified number of persons, by general nativity
and race of head of household.
General nativity and
Total
num-
Average
number
Per
cento
f hous
jholds
of eacl
i speci
led nu
mbcr
)f pers<
>ns
race ol head of house-
hold.
ber of
house-
holds.
of per-
sons per
house-
hold.
'•
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10 or
more.
Native-born of native
father:
486
4 14
Negro
Native-born of for-
eign father, by race
of father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
German. .
448
41
228
3.57
3. -11
4 "^4
5.1
2.4
27.0
24.4
26.6
29.3
22.0
16.7
24.4
14.0
10.7
14.6
10.3
6.3
2.4
3.9
2.9
2.4
3.9
2.7
.0
1.6
1.8
.0
1.4
.2
.0
Irish...
328
4 V>
20.6
14.5
13.6
14.0
6.1
4.8
3.1
1.3
Polish...
20
4«e
19.2
18.9
19.2
12.5
6.1
3.1
1.8
2.4
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and
Moravian
German
643
567
4.39
400
1. 7
16.2
20.0
20.5
20.0
17.3
30.0
17.4
5.0
13.1
10.0
6.5
.0
4.5
.0
1.7
5.0
1.1
•k
49
4 on
10. 9
19.0
16.6
9.0
5.6
4.4
2.1
2.5
Hebrew, Kusslan.
1,370
5.61
.4
8.3
18.4
11.2
6.1
14.5
10.2
16.4
6.1
15.0
6.1
12.3
8.2
10.4
4.1
6.9
8.2
4.6
Immigrants in Cities.
743
TABLE 13. — Per cent of households of each specified number of persons, by general nativity
and race of head of household — Continued.
General nativity and
race of head of
household.
Total
num-
ber of
house-
holds.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
house-
hold.
Per cent of households of each specified number of persons.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10 or
more.
Foreign -born— Contd.
Hebrew, Other...
Irish
281
806
77
1,980
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
5.06
4.85
5.90
5.46
5.91
5.20
3.39
5.54
6.97
5.17
5.74
4.51
3.80
2.5
3.7
.0
.5
.3
1.4
4.9
1.2
.0
.8
.0
4.1
.6
10.7
15.6
5.2
8.1
7.7
13.0
24.6
10.0
12.1
9.4
6.9
9.5
21.1
14.6
15.9
11.7
12.8
8.6
14.0
32.0
11.7
12.1
13.5
16.4
16.9
27.4
14.6
14.8
18.2
17.7
9.2
19.8
19.7
15.0
3.0
13.2
16.4
21.6
23.3
19.9
13.5
19.5
16.5
16.0
16.4
9.0
15.0
6.1
21.6
16.4
17.7
14.1
12.8
11.4
9.1
14.0
17.8
8.2
6.6
12.9
12.1
18.1
10.3
14.9
7.8
9.3
9.8
9.1
11.8
16.6
8.7
1.6
12.3
12.1
10.0
10.3
10.8
3.3
8.5
6.8
11.7
8.5
13.1
3.4
.8
9.6
21.2
7.5
8.6
4.7
1.4
3.2
4.5
6.5
4.6
6.5
7.7
.8
6.1
3.0
3.8
3.4
.0
1.1
3.9
4.0
9.1
5.5
4.2
7.2
.0
6.2
18.2
2.2
11.2
.0
.0
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total....
Total native-born of
foreign father
Total native-born. . . .
Total foreign-born
10, 206
617
1,551
8,655
5.00
1.7
2.8
3.0
1.5
13.0
16.4
20.6
11.6
15.7
16.6
17.7
18.8
16.2
15.9
12.5
9.4
7.2
- ' —
3.4
3.4
7.8
4.2
3.9
1.9
1.3
4.3
4.39
4.07
5.16
20.4
22.4
14.5
17.2
14.3
16.1
12.2
9.9
13.0
6.0
4.4
10.3
2.1
1.9
4.G
The average number of persons in households studied is 5; the aver-
age in immigrant households is 5.16 persons, in households of the
native-born of foreign father 4.39 persons, and in the households of
the native-born white of native father 4.14 persons. Thirty-nine
and six-tenths per cent of the households of the native-born of foreign
father and 42.8 per cent of the households of the native-born white of
native father, as contrasted with 27.6 per cent of the households of
immigrants, consist of fewer than 4 persons, while 25.6 per cent of
the households of the native-born of foreign father and 21.1 per cent
of the native white of native father, as against 40 per cent or foreign
households, are composed of 6 persons or more.
The number and per cent of households which average each
specified number of persons per room are shown in the two tables
following. The first table presents the figures by city:
TABLE 14. — Number and per cent of households having each specified number of persons
per room, by city.
City.
Total
number
of house-
holds.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
room.
Number of households hav-
ing each specified number
of persons per room.
Per cent of households hav-
ing each specified number
of persons per room.
lor
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
1 or
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
New York
2,667
2,237
1,177
1,416
1,183
687
839
1.39
1.26
1.41
1.44
1.40
1.33
1.14
2,137
1,696
955
1,174
973
523
569
618
383
430
461
313
213
121
89
39
138
101
47
55
21
13
7
35
26
6
11
2
80.1
75.8
81.1
82.9
82.2
76.1
67.8
23.2
17.1
36.5
32.6
26.5
31.0
14.4
3.3
1.7
11.7
7.1
4.0
8.0
2.5
0.5
.3
3.0
1.8
.5
1.6
.2
Chicago
Philadelphia..
Boston
Cleveland
Buffalo
Milwaukee
Total
10, 206
1.34
8,027
2,539
490
100
78.6
24.9
4.8
1.0
744
The Immigration Commission.
The average number of persons per room in households studied
is 1 34 The average is highest in Boston, where it reaches 1.44
persons per room. The largest per cents of households in which
the number of persons per room is comparatively high are in Philadel-
phia. In that city 11.7 per cent of the households studied show at
least three persons per room and 3 per cent show at least four per-
sons per room. , , , , . .
In the next table the number and per cent of households which
have each specified number of persons per room are shown by gen-
eral nativity and race of head of household:
TABLE 15.— Number and per cent of households having each specified number of persons
per room, by general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and race of
head of household.
Total
number
of house-
holds.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
room.
Number of households
having each specified
number of persons
per room.
Per cent of households
having each specified
number of person j
per room.
lor
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
1 or
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
Native-born of native father:
White
486
448
41
228
328
20
643
567
49
1,370
281
806
77
1,980
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
0.93
.99
.92
.96
1.05
1.22
1.20
.99
1.67
1.47
1.37
1.14
1.38
1.66
1.51
1.53
1.03
1.55
1.51
1.01
1.72
.93
1.45
252
245
21
120
208
18
479
310
48
1,190
231
552
66
1,819
298
184
78
1.026
29
341
108
79
325
27
53
1
18
32
1
90
49
19
371
61
78
11
851
88
60
6
398
10
134
50
1
130
4
14
1
4
51.9
54.7
51.2
52.6
63.4
90.0
74.5
54.7
98.0
86.9
82.2
68.5
85.7
91.9
88.4
88.9
63.9
86.4
87.9
91.9
93.1
53.4
90.0
5.6
11.8
2.4
7.9
9.8
5.0
14.0
8.6
38.8
27.1
21.7
9.7
14.3
43.0
26.1
29.0
4.9
33.5
30.3
36.1
43.1
.7
36.0
0.8
3.1
.0
.0
.9
.0
1.1
.5
8.2
4.3
2.5
.4
2.6
10.0
3.6
5.8
.0
7.3
3.0
7.3
4.3
.0
11.6
0.2
.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
2.6
.9
.5
.0
1.4
.0
1.1
.9
.0
3.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Corman
Irish
1'ollsh
3
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
Herman
7
3
4
59
7
3
2
198
12
12
""si"
3
1
Creek. .
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew. Other
Irish
Italian, North... .
Italian, South.
Lithuanian
Magyar
Nr*J
eRro. .•
Polish
Servian
Slovak .
87
1
27
5
17
"~4"
i
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
42
n
Grand total
10,206
617
1,551
8,655
1.34
8,027
367
864
7,163
2,539
52
132
2,407
490
3
21
469
100
-
95
78.6
59.5
55.7
82.8
24.9
8.4
8.5
27.8
4.8
.5
1.4
5.4
1.0
.0
.3
1.1
Total native-born of foreign
father
1.01
.98
1.42
Total native-born . . .
Total foreign-born. .
The average number of persons per room is 1.42 among immigrant
households, 0.93 among the households of the native-born white
of native father, and 1.01 in the households of the native-born of
oreign father. Twenty-seven and eight-tenths per cent of all immi-
grant households have as many as two persons per room and 5.4 per
cent have as many as three persons per room, as contrasted with 5.6
per cent and 0.8 per cent of the households of the native-born white
of native father, and 8.4 per cent and 0.5 per cent of the households
of the native-born of foreign father. The Slovenians show the highest
• number of persons per room, but the Syrians and the South
Italians report larger per cents of households, in. which the higher
degrees of congestion prevail.
Immigrants in Cities.
745
The number and per cent of households which average each specified
number of persons per sleeping room are shown in the two tables
following. The first table presents the figures by city :
TABLE 16. — Number and per cent of households having each specified number of persons
per sleeping room, by city.
City.
Number
of house-
holds
reporting
complete
data.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
sleeping
room.
Number of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
Per cent of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
New York
2,648
2,223
1,174
1,415
1,183
682
838
2.22
2.32
2.47
2.21
2.47
2.38
2.37
1,944
1,673
896
1,014
946
488
616
614
651
494
374
442
241
286
139
175
220
118
152
89
127
24
39
86
24
57
24
54
4
11
45
9
17
10
17
73.4
75.3
76.3
71.7
80.0
71.6
73.5
23.2
29.3
42.1
26.4
37.4
35.3
34.1
5.2
7.9
18.7
8.3
12.8
13.0
15.2
0.9
1.8
7.3
1.7
4.8
3.5
6.4
0.2
.5
3.8
i!
1.5
2.0
Chicago
Philadelphia .
Boston
Cleveland
Buffalo
Milwaukee
Total
10,163
2.32
7,577
3,102
1,020
308
113
74.6
30.5
10.0
3.0
1.1
About three-fourths of all household studied report 2 or more
persons per sleeping room, 30.5 per cent report 3 or more, 10 per cent
4 or more, and 3 per cent 5 or more. The average is 2.32 persons.
Philadelphia reports as high an average as any city and larger per cents
than any other city of households having a relatively high number
of persons per sleeping room.
In the second table the number and per cent of households which
have each specified number of persons per. sleeping room are shown
by general nativity and race of head of household.
TABLE 17. — Number and per cent of households having each specified number of persons
per sleeping room, by general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and
race of head of
household.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
sleeping
room.
Number of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
Per cent of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
0.0
.0
2.4
.9
.0
.0
.8
.5
2.0
1.2
1.4
.4
.0
2.0
.3
1.0
.8
Native-born of native
father:
White.
484
447
41
228
328
20
641
567
49
1,361
281
804
76
1,968
337
205
122
1.93
1.78
2.22
2.05
2.00
2.74
2.31
2.03
2.10
2.38
2.29
2.06
2.34
2.54
2.32
• 2.43
1.90
290
224
33
143
209
19
498
339
33
1,064
205
515
62
1,657
264
162
72
91
49
10
46
68
9
192
114
7
410
79
156
19
782
83
67
21
27
11
3
12
8
3
54
47
2
130
27
33
3
275
13
24
4
4
1
2
2
1
2
59.9
50.1
80.5
62.7
63.7
95.0
77.7
59.8
67.3
78.2
70.0
64.1
81.6
84.2
78.3
79.0
59.0
18.8 '
11.0
24.4
20.2
20.7
45.0
30.0
20.1
14.3
30.1
28.1
19.4
25.0
39.7
24.6
32.7
17.2
5.6
2.5
7.3
5.3
2.4
15.0
8.4
8.3
4.1
9.6
9.6
4.1
3.9
14.0
3.9
11.7
3.3
0.8
.2
4.9
.9
.0
10.0
2.7
2.8
2.0
3.1
2.8
.9
.0
4.4
.6
2.9
1.6
Negro
Native-born of for-
eign father, by race
of father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
German
Irish
Polish
2
17
16
1
42
8
7
5
3
1
16
4
3
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and
Moravian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian.
Hebrew, Other. . .
Irish
Italian, North....
Italian, South
Lithuanian
87
2
6
2
39
1
2
1
Magyar
Negro...
72289°— VOL 1—11-
746
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 17 —Number and per cent of households having each specified number of persons
]><r deeping room, by general nativity and race of head of household— Continued.
General nativity and
race of head of
household.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Average
number
of per-
sons per
sleeping
room.
Number of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
Per cent of households having
each specified number of per-
sons per sleeping room.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
2 or
more.
3 or
more.
4 or
more.
5 or
more.
6 or
more.
1.8
.0
1.9
5.2
.0
.3
Foreign-born -Con.
Polish
1,183
33
370
116
148
354
2.72
2.09
2.63
2.99
1.92
2.05
1,015
22
320
111
80
240
561
4
162
66
21
85
227
66
21
85.8
66.7
86.5
95.7
54.1
67.8
47.4
12.1
43.8
56.9
14.2
24.0
19.2
.0
15.1
27.6
2.0
7.3
5.6
.0
5.7
13.8
.0
1.7
<i'rvi-ui
Slovak
56
32
3
26
21
16
7
6
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
Total native-born of
foreign father
6
1
10, 163
1 ' •"-—
617
1,548
8,615
2.32
7,577
3,102
133
273
2,829
1,020
308
113
74.6
30.5
21.6
17.6
32.8
10.0
3.0
1.0
.7
3.4
1.1
.5
.2
1.3
2.05
1.94
2.39
404
918
6,659
26
64
956
6
11
297
3
3
110
65.5
59.3
77.3
4.2
4.1
11.1
Total native-born
Total foreign-bora —
In households of immigrants the average number of persons per
sleeping room is 2.39; in the households of the native-born white of
native father the average is 1.93; in households of the native-born of
foreign father the average is 2.05. Of the foreign households 32.8 per
cent report at least three persons per sleeping room, 11.1 per cent at
least four persons, and 3.4 per cent at least five persons; of the house-
holds of the native white of native father only 18.8 per cent report as
many as three persons per sleeping room, 5.6 per cent as many as
four persons, and 0.8 per cent as many as five persons. The per cents
for the native-born of foreign father do not differ materially from the
per cents for the native white of native father. The Slovenians
report the highest average number of persons per sleeping room and
the largest per cents of households with each specified degree of con-
gestion per sleeping room.
The average numbers of adults per room and per sleeping room in
households with foreign-born heads, by years of residence of head in
the United States and by city, are as follows:
-Average number of adults per room and per sleeping room in housch
foreign-born heads, by years of residence of head in the United States and by
State]
.olds with
city.
i or over is considered an adult and two persons under 10 are con-
United States is meant years since first arrival in the United
City.
Average number of adults per
room in households whose
heads have resided in the
United States each specified
number of years.
Average number of adults per
sleeping room in households
whose heads have resided
in the United States each
specified number of years.
Under 5
years.
5 to 9
years.
10 years
or over.
Under 5
years.
5 to 9
years.
10 years
or over.
New York
.28
.28
.54
.52
.31
.23
1.16
1.42
1.15
1.53
1.44
1.31
1.26
1.15
1.27
1.06
1.23
1.28
1.10
1.20
1.04
1.96
2.14
2.34
2.11
2.08
2.04
2.10
1.98
2.02
2.48
1.98
2.23
2.01
2.16
1.97
2.02
2.18
1.96
1.99
2.11
2.14
Chicago
Philadelphia
Boston.
Cleveland
Buffalo....
1.32
1.29
1.16
2.08
2.09
2.04
Immigrants in Cities.
747
It will be seen that in every city the average number of adults per
room among immigrants who have lived in the United States 10
years or over is less than among immigrants whose periods of resi-
dence in the country have been shorter. This does not hold true of
the average number of adults per sleeping room. There seems to be,
in general, a tendency on the part of earlier immigrants to reserve
more rooms proportionally for other than sleeping purposes than do
more recent immigrants. In no city in any of the periods of resi-
dence does the average number of adults per room rise to 1.55 or the
average number of adults per sleeping room to 2.50.
The extent to which the households studied reserve rooms for other
than sleeping purposes is set forth in the table following:
TABLE 19. — Number and per cent of households regularly sleeping in all except each speci-
fied number of rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and race of
head of household.
Num-
ber re-
porting
com-
plete
data.
Aver-
age
num-
ber of
rooms
per
house-
hold.
Aver-
age
num-
ber of
sleep-
ing
rooms
per
house-
hold.
Number of households
sleeping in-
Per cent of households
sleeping in-
All
rooms.
All ex-
cept 1
room.
All ex-
cept 2
rooms.
All
rooms.
All ex-
cept 1
room.
All ex-
cept 2
rooms.
Native-born of native father:
White
484
447
41
228
328
20
641
567
49
1,361
281
804
76
1,968
337
205
122
4.47
3.62
3.73
4.53
4.31
3.80
3.65
4.30
2.88
3.82
3.69
4.27
4.26
3.28
3.90
3.40
3 28
2.15
2.00
1.54
2.12
2.26
1.70
1.90
2.11
2.29
2.36
2.21
2.35
2.53
2.15
2.54
2.15
1.78
2.04
3.33
1.97
1.92
2.34
1.85
11
34
98
166
7
39
97
3
247
123
27
600
112
290
30
978
161
109
66
367
23
186
60
9
157
185
205
20
80
130
13
278
235
1
418
87
295
27
423
113
48
48
497
8
111
47
68
39
2.3
7.6
.0
1.8
3.0
.0
2.7
2.6
42.9
12.9
14.6
2.7
6.6
22.7
12.2
15.6
.8
14.6
3.0
15.1
5.2
.7
42.1
20.2
37.1
17.1
17.1
29.6
15.0
38. 5
21.7
55.1
44.1
39.9
36.1
39.5
49.7
47.8
53.2
54.1
31.0
69.7
50.3
51.7
6.1
44.4
38.2
45.9
48.8
35.1
39.6
65.0
43.4
41.4
2.0
30.7
31.0
36.7
35.5
21.5
33.5
23.4
39.3
42.0
24.2
30.0
40.5
45.9
11.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian.
German
4
10
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian.
G erman
17
15
21
176
41
22
5
447
41
32
1
173
1
56
6
1
149
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian North
Italian South
Lithuanian
Magvar
Polish
1,183
33
370
116
148
354
3.58
4.61
3.21
3.34
4.85
2.61
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
10, 163
3.72
2.16
1,263
3,955
3, 376
12.4
38.9
33.2
Total native-born of foreign
father
617
1,548
8,615
4.34
4.17
• 3.64
2.14
2.10
2.17
14
59
1,204
146
410
3,545
243
C33
2,743
2.3
3.8
14.0
23.7
26.5
41.1
39.4
40.9
31.8
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
In all, 1,263 households, or 12.4 per cent, sleep in all rooms, includ-
ing the kitchen, and 38.9 per cent reserve but one room for other
than sleeping purposes. These two classes comprise more than half
of all the households studied. The per cents are much higher among
the foreign-born than among the native-born white of native father
or the native-born of foreign father, 55.1 per cent of the foreign-
born and only 22.5 per cent of the native white of native father and
26 per cent of the native-born of foreign father, sleeping in all rooms
or in all but one,
748
The Immigration Commission. *
BOARDERS AND LODGERS.
Many persons in few rooms is not so serious a matter when all are
members of the family as when strangers are included in the house-
hold The keeping of boarders or lodgers is resorted to far more
commonly by some races than by others. The relative showing of the
several races and the several cities in respect to congestion should,
therefore, be considered in the light of the tables which follow. Ap-
proximately one-fourth of all households studied keep boarders or
lodgers. The per cents by city are as follows :
Per cent.
Buffalo 18.0
Milwaukee 16. 6
Total.. . 25.8
Per cent.
New York ...................... 24.6
Chicago ......................... 30.0
Philadelphia .................... 24. 0
Boston ........................... 29.3
Cleveland ........................ 28. 9
The same data are presented in the next table by general nativity
and race of head of household.
TABLE 20. — Number and per cent of households keeping boarders or lodgers, by general
nativity and race of head of household.
[Information relating to boarders or lodgers covers only immediate time of taking schedule and not the
entire year. Boarders are persons who receive both board and lodging.]
General nativity and race of head of household.
Total
number of
househol is.
Households keeping
boarders or lodgers.
Number.
Per cent.
Native-born ol native father:
White
436
448
41
228
328
20
643
567
49
1,370
281
806
77
1,980
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
63
151
3
22
37
1
84
54
9
440
74
135
33
444
237
98
45
421
9
152
44
55
19
13.0
33.7
7.3
9.6
11.3
5.0
13.1
9.5
18.4
32.1
26.3
16.7
42.9
22.4
70.3
47.3
36.9
35.5
27.3
41.0
37.9
37.2
5.3
Negro >
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Itajian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar \V^'."::.l".
Polish
Slovak
Swedish
Syrian "V
10,206
2,630
25.8
Total native-born
617
1,551
8,655
63
277
2,353
10.2
17.9
27.2
Immigrants in Cities.
The proportion of immigrant households keeping boarders and
lodgers is 27.2 per cent; the proportion among households of the
native white of native father is 13 per cent; and the ^proportion
among households of the native-born of foreign father is 10.2 per
cent. Lithuanian households are reported as keeping boarders or
lodgers in 70.3 per cent of all cases, the highest proportion shown by
any race. Magyar households with 47.3 per cent keeping boarders or
lodgers rank second to Lithuanian households. The negroes of native
birth and eight of the 17 immigrant races report boarders or lodgers
in more than one-third of their households.
The average number of boarders or lodgers per household is pre-
sented in two ways: (1) Based on the total number of households, and
(2) based on the number of households which keep boarders or lodgers.
The data are presented first by city :
City.
Based on
total
number
of house-
holds.
Based on
number
of house-
holds
keeping
boarders
or
lodgers.
City.
Based on
total
number
of house-
holds.
Based on
number
of house-
holds
keeping
boarders
or
lodgers.
New York
0.46
.67
.55
.79
.70
1.87
2.25
2.29
2.71
2.41
Buffalo
0.35
.31
1.94
1.86
Milwaukee
Philarlplnhia
Total
Boston
.57
2.22
Cleveland
In Boston are found the highest averages of boarders or lodgers,
when computed on either basis, and in Milwaukee the lowest. The
data are given by general nativity and race of head of household in
the table following:
TABLE 21.— Average number of boarders or lodgers per household, by general nativity and
race of head of household.
(Information relating to boarders or lodgers covers only immediate time of taking schedule and not the
entire year. Boarders are persons who receive both board and lodging.]
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Total
number of
households.
Number of
households
keeping
boarders
or lodgers.
Number of
boarders
or lodgers.
Average number of
boarders or lodgers
per household —
Based on
total
number of
households.
Based on
number of
households
keeping
boarders
or lodgers.
Native-born of native father:
White.
486
448
41
228
328
20
C43
567
49
63
151
3
22
37
1
84
54
9
90
282
4
34
80
2
124
94
26
0.19
.63
.10
.15
.24
.10
.19
.17
.53
1.43
1.87
(",.55
2.16
(a)
1.48
1.74
(0)
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Irish
Polish . ...
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Greek..
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
750
The Immigration Commission.
TABLF "M —Average number of boarders or lodgers per household, by general nativity and
race of head of household— Continued.
General nativity and race of head of
household.
Total
number of
households.
Number of
households
keeping
boarders
or lodgers.
Number of
boarders
or lodgers.
Average number of
boarders or lodgers
per household-
Based on
total
number of
households.
Based on
number of
households
keeping
boarders
or lodgers.
Foreign-born— Continued .
1.370
281
806
77
1,980
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
440
74
135
33
444
237
98
45
421
9
152
44
55
19
783
112
276
89
1,008
668
330
81
1,094
38
346
164
71
34
0.57
.40
.34
1.16
.51
1.98
1.59
.66
.92
1.15
.93
1.41
.48
.09
1.78
1.51
2.04
2.70
2.27
2.82
3.37
1.80
2.60
(a)
2.28
3.73
1.29
1.79
Irish
Italian North
Lithuanian
N^CTO "
p3S
Servian
Slovak
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
10,206
2,630
5,830
.57
2.22
Total native-born of foreign father
617
1,551
8,655
63
277
2,353
120
492
5,338
.19
.32
.62
1.90
1.78
2.27
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The average number of boarders and lodgers in immigrant house-
holds keeping boarders or lodgers is 2.27; the corresponding average
in households of the native-born white of native father is 1.43 ; and the
average in households of the native-born of foreign father is 1.90.
The average number of boarders or lodgers per household, all house-
holds considered, is 0.62 among the foreign-born, and 0.19 among the
native white of native father and among the native-born of foreign
father. The Slovenians show the highest average number of boarders
and lodgers in households keeping them and the third highest average
number of boarders and lodgers based on the total number of house-
holds of the race. It will be recaUed in this connection that the
Slovenians show, on an average, larger numbers of persons per room
and per sleeping room than any other race. •
The next table shows the proportion of foreign households keeping
boarders or lodgers by race of head of household and by length of
residence of the head in the United States.
Immigrants in Cities.
751
TABLE 22. — Number and per cent of foreign households keeping boarders or lodgers, by
race of head and by years head has been in the United States.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States.]
Race of head of household.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
In the United
States under 5
years.
In the United
States 5 to 9 years.
In the United
States 10 years or
over.
Num-
ber.
Keeping
boarders or
lodgers.
Num-
ber.
Keeping
boarders or
lodgers.
Num-
ber.
Keeping
boarders or
lodgers.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Bohemian and Moravian
634
565
49
1,361
281
800
76
1,964
335
206
120
1,184
33
371
116
148
354
103
50
19
381
53
19
24
340
73
103
59
252
27
66
17
3
128
24
11
3
151
20
5
11
105
45
55
25
133
7
34
6
1
4
23.3
22.0
(a)
39.6
37.7
(a)
45.8
30.9
61.6
53.4
42.4
52.8
25.9
51.5
(0)
(a)
3.1
Ill
35
14
376
93
54
20
584
129
71
36
343
4
143
60
13
123
21
3
4
144
26
15
12
161
110
32
14
173
2
71
22
5
9
18.9
8.6
(0)
38.3
28.0
27.8
60.0
27.6
85.3
45.1
38.9
50.4
(?)
49.7
36.7
(a)
7.3
420
480
16
604
135
727
32
1.040
133
32
25
589
2
162
39
132
103
36
40
2
143
28
113
10
177
80
11
6
114
'"47"
16
49
6
8.6
8.3
»7
20.7
15.5
31.3
17.0
60.2
34.4
24.0
19.4
So
41.0
37.1
5.8
German
Greek
Hebrew Russian
Hebrew. Other -. . .
Irish
Italian, North
Italian South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian '.
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Total
8,597
1,717
640
37.3
2,209
824
37.3
4,671
878
18.8
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
This table affords a comparison of the households of equal periods
of residence in the United States with reference to the keeping of
boarders or lodgers. It will be seen that in every residence group
the Bohemians and Moravians, Germans, and Syrians report low
per cents of households with boarders or lodgers, and the Lithuanians
and Magyars report high per cents keeping boarders or lodgers. The
per cent of households keeping boarders or lodgers is only about half
as great in the group of older immigrants as in the groups of more
recent comers.
HOME WORK.
The extent to which gainful occupations are pursued within the
home is shown in the next two tables. The first gives the data by
city:
TABLE 23. — Number and per cent of apartments in which gainful occupation is pursued,
by city.
City.
Total
number
of apart-
ments.
With gainful employ-
ment.
Number.
Per cent.
New York
2.667
2,237
1,177
1,416
1,183
687
839
300
95
101
49
27
11
26
11.2
4.2
8.6
3.5
2.3
1.6
3.1
Chicago
Philadelphia
Boston
Cleveland
Buffalo
Milwaukee
Total
10,206
609
6.0
752
The Immigration Commission.
proportion of apartments in which home work is carried on is
re large. In New York it is only 11.2 per cent and in Pliila-
The .
nowhere large.
delphia only 8.6 per cent. In none of the other cities does it reach 5
per cent. Sewing and dressmaking, tailoring, and laundry work are,
m all but a small number of cases, the occupations pursued in the
homes studied. In the great majority of instances the wife of the
head of the household, or the widow, who is herself the head of the
household, is the person gainfully employed in the apartment.
The next table shows the extent to which gainful occupations
are pursued in the apartment, by general nativity and race of head
of household:
TABLE 24. — Number and per cent of apartments in which gainful occupation is pursued,
by general nativity and race of head of household.
•
General nativity and race of head of household.
Total
number
of apart-
ments.
With gainful employ-
ment.
Number.
Per cent.
Native-born of native father:
White -.
486
448
41
228
328
20
643
667
49
1,370
281
806
77
1,980
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
17
149
2
10
9
1
58
24
3.5
33.3
4.9
4.4
2.7
5.0
9.0
4.2
.0
3.2
3.9
2.1
7.8
8.2
1.5
4.8
18.0
2.3
.0
1.3
.0
4.1
6.1
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish....
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian . . .
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
44
11
17
6
163
6
10
22
27
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South. .
Lithuanian...
Magyar |"
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovenian....
5
Syrian
6
22
Grand total
10, 206
609
6.0
Total native-born
617
1,551
8,655
22
188
421
3.6
12.1
4.9
frpm? H £ 1S- ^nd m, th? aPartments of negroes much more
frequently than m those of other races. In one out of every three
omes of negroes of native birth employment is reported. The per
cent of aoartments with home work among the foreign-born nezroes
is much less than this, though high in contrast to other rfces
ark" TPlTT* amonS ne/™s is almost invariably laundry
of nativP f^7 lP-6r Ceinto°f the h°mes of the Dative-born white
rn of fo^ f ^ ^ °nly 3i6 Per Cent Of the homes of th° Dative-
E foreign father has employment been found.
Immigrants in Cities.
753
CARE AND EQUIPMENT OF HOME.
The following table shows the per cent of households where the
water supply is used by each specified number of households. The
presentation is by general nativity and race of head of household.
TABLE 25. — Per cent of households where water supply is used by each specified number of
households, by general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and race
of head of household.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Per cent of households where water supply is used by each speci-
fied number of households.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
0.6
1.8
.0
o
6.
7.
0.0
1.6
.0
o
8.
0.0
.9
.0
o
9.
0.2
.0
.0
o
12.
0.0
.0
.0
o
15.
0.0
.0
.0
o
16.
0.0
.0
.0
o
18.
0.0
.0
.0
o
36.
0.0
.0
.0
o
Native-born of native fa-
ther:
White..
485
446
41
228
328
20
643
567
49
1,369
281
805
77
1,978
337
207
122
1,187
33
371
116
148
361
89.9
74.2
92.7
93.0
85.4
75.0
95.0
94.7
77.6
97.4
92.9
82.1
92.2
73.5
98.8
82.6
100.0
78.0
100.0
75.5
68.1
100.0
49.9
3.5
8.3
4.9
4.4
4.9
10.0
3.6
2.8
16.3
1.4
1.4
7.0
7.8
10.3
1.2
10.6
.0
11.3
.0
11.1
29.3
.0
38.0
3.7
6.3
2.4
1 3
1.9
1.8
.0
1 3
0.2
5.2
.0
o
Negro
Native-born of foreign fa-
ther, by race of father:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
German
Irish .
2.7
15.0
1.1
.2
.6.1
.6
5.5
.0
.2
1.4
.0
.4
1.2
.0
.0
.9
.0
1
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Mora-
vian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian.*
Hebrew. Other
1.4
2.0
.0
2.3
.0
2.9
.0
3.0
.0
4.6
1.7
.0
8.6
3.9
8.2
.0
6.0
.0
3.4
.0
2.5
.0
3.5
.9
.0
1.7
.4
.5
.0
.6
.0
.5
.0
.7
.0
1.3
.0
.0
1.7
.6
.6
1.0
.5
.0
.2
.0
1.7
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
1.9
.0
.0
.3
.7
.2
1.6
.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.3
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.8
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
.8
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
1.9
.0
.0
.0
1.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
.0
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
,0
.0
"S"
.0
.0
.0
1.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
TF
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak..
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total..
10, 199
617
1,548
8,651
83.8
88.3
84.8
83.7
7.8
4.9
5.4
8.2
2.3
2.6
4.0
2.0
3.0
3.4
2.5
3.1
Total native-born of for-
eign father.
.0
.5
.1
.0
.3
2
.0
.1
.3
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.2
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Eighty-three and eight-tenths per cent of all households studied
have separate water supply, 13.1 per cent share water supply with
from one to three other households, and the remaining 3 per cent share
it with four or more households. The homes of the native-born white
of native and of foreign parentage have, on the whole, better facilities
in regard to water supply than have the homes of immigrants. The
homes of negroes of native birth are relatively ill-equipped. In
practically all cases investigated the water supply was found to be
either a faucet within the house or a yard hydrant. The great
majority of households with separate water supply were found to have
a kitchen faucet.
The per cent of households where toilet accommodations are used
by eacn specified number of households is shown by general nativity
and race of head of household in the table on the next page.
754
•I
The Immigration Commission.
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Immigrants in Cities.
755
Only 30.6 per cent of all households studied have separate toilet
accommodations; the per cent is 28.4 among immigrants, 44.9
among the native-born of foreign father, and 53.7 among the native-
born white of native father. Among negroes of native birth the per
cent is very slightly higher than among immigrants. Nearly one-half
of all the households studied share toilet accommodations with a
second household; the percentages are 49. 6 among the immigrants, 37.7
among the native-born of foreign father, and 31.5 among the native-
born white of native father. Twenty and seven-tenths per cent or
about one-fifth of all households have access only to toilet accommo-
dations used by three or more households. In all cities except Phila-
delphia and Cleveland practically all toilets used by the households
studied are nominally flush.
Households are classified in the next table according to the degree
of cleanliness and order which characterized the home at the time of
the agent's visit. The data are shown by the general nativity and
race of head of household :
TABLE 27. — Per cent of apartments where care is good, fair, etc., by general nativity and
race of head of household.
Number
for which
Per cer
it of apartnu
;nts where a
ire is—
household.
informa-
tion was
secured.
Good.
Fair.
Bad.
Very bad.
Native-born of native father:
White
482
58.3
33.8
6.8
1.0
Negro
446
34.5
38.8
17.9
8.7
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
40
82.5
10.0
5.0
2.5
German
225
73.3
24.0
1.8
.9
Irish
324
40.7
46.3
11.4
1.5
Polish
20
65.0
30.0
5.0
.0
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
634
65.8
30.3
3.8
.2
German
662
71.5
23.1
4.6
.7
Greek
49
12.2
67.3
20.4
.0
Hebrew Russian
1,359
45.5
38.9
13.0
2.6
Hebrew Other
278
41.0
41.4
14.0
3.6
Irish
792
37.5
44.7
14.0
3.8
Italian North
75
49.3
36.0
13.3
1.3
Italian, South .
1,968
30.9
46.5
19.0
3.6
Lithuanian
334
31.7
47.3
17.7
3.3
Magyar .
206
46.1
43.7
8.3
1.9
Negro
122
36.1
45.9
13.9
4.1
Polish
1,183
51.1
32.0
13.9
3.0
Servian
33
36.4
27.3
30.3
6.1
Slovak
370
52.2
30.3
10.8
6.8
116
30.2
49.1
20.7
Swedish
148
75.7
21.6
1.4
1.4
Syrian
357
26.1
58.3
13.4
2.2
Grand total
10, 123
45.2
39.0
12.9
2.9
Native-born of foreign father
609
56.3
35.1
7.2
1.3
1,537
50.6
35.8
10.2
3.4
Foreign-born
8,586
44.2
39.6
13.4
2.8
The care of the home is, on the whole, better in households of the
native-born white of native and foreign parentage than in foreign
households. In considerably more than half of the households of
native birth exclusive of negroes the care of the apartment is good;
among the negroes of native birth there is a relatively large propor-
tion of badly kept homes. Swedes, Germans, and Bohemians and
Moravians are among the races with high proportions of well kept
homes.
756
The Immigration Commission.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND RENT.
/
The proportion of families owning their homes, by city, is as follows:
Wow Vnrlr
Per cent.
0.5
Buffalo
Percent
17.5
.N 6W I OrK
16.3
Milwaukee
19.8
7.4
4 4
Total
9. 7
Cleveland . .
15.7
The number and per cent, according to general nativity and race of
head of family, are given in the next table :
TABLE 28. — Number and per cent of families owning home, by general nativity and race
of head of family.
General nativity and race of head of family.
Total num-
ber of
families.
Owning home.
Number.
Per cent.
Native-born of native father:
White
501
486
43
1
231
3
316
3
21
1
649
1
1
3
578
28
1.428
281
782
88
2,184
346
217
110
1,207
13
384
117
144
359
21
3
7
4.2
.6
16.3
(a)
16.9
W 7.0
W .0
(a)
17.9
(a)
(a)
(a)
25.8
.0
6.4
5.7
12.5
10.2
6.1
6.6
4.6
.0
17.0
(a)
9.9
11.1
19.4
.6
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
Canadian (other than French)
German .
39
Hebrew
Irish
22
Italian. South . .
Polish..
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
116
Canadian (other than French)
Croatian
English
German
149
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
91
16
98
9
134
23
10
"'265'
Hebrew, Other...
Irish
Italian, North. ..
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro . . .
Polish....
Servian
Slovak
38
13
28
2
Slovenian...
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
10, 526
1,024
9.7
Total native-born of foreign father. . .
619
1,606
8,920
68
92
932
11.0
5.7
10.4
Total native-born . . .
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Approximately one-tenth of aU families studied own their homes.
3 proportion of home owners among the native-born white of
live father is considerably less than half as great as amono- immi-
the proportion among the native-born of foreign father is a
;tle greater than among the foreign-born. Qf the immigrant races
ermans report the largest proportion of home owners; the
ish rank second in this respect, the Bohemians and Moravians
Immigrants in Cities.
757
third, and the Polish fourth. It should be recalled that the house-
holds of all four races named are found, for the most part, in the
cities on the Great Lakes where property is lower in value and there-
fore more easily acquired than in the cities farther east.
Households are classified in the following table according to the
amount of rent they pay per month per room. The tabulation is
by city.
TABLE 29. — Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per room, by
city.
City.
Number
paying
rent and
reporting
amount.
Average
rent per
room.
Per cent paying—
Under
lit
Under
$2.
Under
$3.
Under
$4.
Under
$5.
Under
$6.
New York
2,558
1,774
986
1.292
943
509
611
$3.89
2.31
2.71
3.13
2.03
2.18
2.12
0.0
.0
.2
.0
.5
.4
.0
0.2
21.5
8.9
8.8
42.0
26.5
38.6
9.7
82.5
56.1
39.3
91.2
82.7
87.6
54.5
98.8
84.8
71.1
98.7
94.5
98.7
82.2
99.8
96.3
89.6
99.5
98.0
99.2
96.1
99.9
99.1
95.8
99.7
99.0
99.7
Chicago
Philadelphia
Boston
Cleveland
Buffalo . ...
Milwaukee
Total
8,673
2.86
.1
15.6
52.9'
79.8
92.5
98.0
Rents are higher in the Atlantic coast cities than in the cities on
the Great Lakes, and especially high in New York. The average
rent per room paid by New York households is $3.89. In only 9.7
per cent of all cases do New York households pay under $3 per room
and in only 54.5 per cent do they pay under $4 per room. Kents are
lowest in Cleveland, where 91.2 per cent of all households pay under
$3 per room and 98.7 per cent pay under $4. It is of interest to
recall in this connection that the average number of persons per room
is practically the same for the two cities.
Households are classified in the table which follows according to
the amount of rent paid per month per room, by general nativity
and race of head of household :
TABLE 30. — Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per room, by
general nativity and race of head of household.
[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race of
head of household.
Number
paying
rent and
reporting
amount.
Average
rent
per
room.
Per cent; paying—
Under
$1.
Under
$2.
Under
$3.
Under
$4.
Under
S5.
Under
$6.
Native-born of native father:
White
444
394
31
178
278
18
$2.51
3.00
2.83
2.42
2.59
1.60
0.0
.0
.0
.6
.4
(°)
23.0
.8
12.9
23.0
21.6
(«)
64.2
41.4
35.5
67.4
59.0
(«)
89.6
92.1
93.5
92.1
87.4
(°)
97.7
99.5
100.0
98. 9
97.5
(«)
99.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
98.2
(°)
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish
Polish...
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
758
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 30.— Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per room,
general nativity and race of head of household — Continued.
Genera! nativity and race of
head of household.
Number
paying
rent and
reporting
amount.
Average
rent
per
room.
Per cent paying—
Under
$1.
Under
$2.
Under
$3.
Under
$4.
Under
$5.
Under
$6.
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
513
399
49
1,177
239
684
68
1,746
300
195
120
934
32
321
99
117
337
$2.63
2.62
4.59
3.51
3.52
2.58
2.41
3.28
2.46
2.55
3.38
2.13
2.47
2.24
2.20
2.49
3.60
0.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.6
.0
.0
.0
25.7
22.1
.0
4.8
3.8
20.3
5.9
5.8
12.0
32.8
.0
35.8
6.3
37.1
17.2
12.8
5.0
56.7
53.6
8.2
33.1
32.6
59.5
86.8
37.3
82.3
74.4
9.2
50.9
75.0
82.9
85.9
74.4
27.6
98.4
87.5
24.5
55.6
61.5
89.8
98.5
68.1
96.3
89.7
88.3
64.2
96.9
92.2
97.0
100.0
45.7
99.8
98. 2
44.9
84.4
77.8
98.5
98.5
85.5
100.0
94.9
100.0
67.5
100.0
98.4
100.0
100.0
77.7
100.0
99.7
65.3
97.7
98.3
99.9
98.5
95.0
100.0
99.5
100.0
67.6
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
92.9
Greek
Hebrew Russian
Hebrew Other
Irish '
Italian North
Italian South
I^ithuaniv
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish. ...
Syrian
Grand total
8,673
2.86
.1
.4
.1
.1
15.6
2JU~
16.6
15.5
52.9
79.8
sJuT
90.5
77.8
92.5
9872~
99.2
91.4
98.0
Total native-born of foreign father.
Total native-born
505
1,343
7,330
2.51
2.64
2.90
61.8
56.6
52.2
99. 0
99.3
97.7
Total foreign-born
The average rent per room exceeds $3.25 only among the house-
holds of immigrants of the following races: Greek, Russian Hebrew,
Hebrew other than Russian, South Italian, Negro, and Syrian. The
average rent per room falls below $2.25 only among the second genera-
tion Poles, the Poles of foreign birth, the Slovaks, and the Slovenians.
Ihe households of immigrants pay, on an average, a higher rent per
room than do native households exclusive of negroes, the amounts
being $2.90 and $2.51, respectively; 77.8 per cent of the foreign-born,
9 per cent of the native-born of foreign father, and 89.6 per cent of
the native wlute of native father pay under $4; 52.2 per cent 61 8
per cent, and 64.2 per cent, respectively, pay less than $3.
In the next two tables households are classified according to the
amount of rent they pay per month per person. In the first table
the data are presented by city.
TABLE 31.— Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per person, by
City.
Number
of house-
holds
paying
rent and
reporting
amount.
Average
rent per
person.
Per cent paying—
Under
$1.
Under
$2.
Under
$3.
Under
34.
Under
$5.
Under
$6.
New York...
2.558
1,774
986
1,292
943
509
611
$2.79
1.74
1.89
2.12
1.37
1.52
1.81
0.1
6.7
6.3
3.4
17.4
14.9
11.8
15.4
57.3
53.3
42.1
75.4
66.6
51.7
50.4
82.2
78.2
69.6
92.2
85.9
77.6
72.8
93.5
88.6
86.8
97.7
92.9
89.2
84.8
96.7
94.8
93.2
98.8
97.1
94.3
91.9
99.0
97.5
96.0
99.8
98.6
97.2
ChfcMB....
Philadelphia ..'.'.
Cleveland...
Buffalo
Milwaukee
Total
8,673
2.06
6.2
44.3
71.5
85.9
92.5
96.2
Immigrants in Cities.
759
It will be seen that in all cities rent per person is much lower than
rent per room. Forty-four and three-tenths per cent of all house-
holds pay under $2 and 85.9 per cent pay under $4. The average
rent per person is higher in the Atlantic coast cities than in the cities
on the Great Lakes; it is highest in New York and lowest in
Cleveland.
The next table shows the per cent of households paying each
specified rent per month per person, by general nativity and race of
head of household:
TABLE 32. — Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per person, by
general nativity and race of head of household.
General nativity and race of head
of household.
Number
paying
rent and
reporting
amount.
Average
rent per
person.
Per cent paying—
Under
$1.
Under
$2.
Under
$3.
Under
$4.
Under
16.
Under
$6.
Native-born of native father:
White
. 444
394
31
178
278
18
513
399
49
1,177
239
684
68
1, 746
300
195
120
934
32
321
99
117
337
$2.60
3.11
3.09
2.42'
2.54
1.35
2.09
2.38
2.75
2.33
2.55
2.15
.7u
.91
.59
.64
.25
.34
.64
.37
.29
2.60
2.45
2.3
1.0
.0
4.5
3.6
(a)
8.8
4.3
4.1
1.4
.0
3.8
2.9
5.3
3.7
14.4
.0
20.4
.0
18.4
8.1
.0
2.1
26.8
14.2
9.7
29.8
35.6
(a)
41.1
30.8
8.2
31.9
26.8
39.0
61.8
50.8
72.0
62.1
6.7
76.3
62.5
76.6
85.9
16.2
30.6
54.7
39.1
38.7
56.2
59.4
(a)
70.6
59.1
36.7
68.1
57.3
67.0
85.3
80.4
90.3
84.6
35.8
92.4
78. 1
93.8
93.9
53.0
62.6
74.5
58.1
64.5
71.3
81.3
(a)
88.1
75.9
',5. 5
86.7
80.8
83.0
100.0
91.5
95.7
92.8
62.5
97.2
93.8
98.8
100.0
82.1
80.4
84.2
74.6
77.4
81.5
90.6
(a)
93.8
84.7
87.8
94.1
88.7
90.2
100.0
96.6
98.7
95.9
74.2
98.9
100.0
99.4
100.0
92.3
92.0
89.6
86.3
93.5
93.8
94.6
(a)
97.1
92.2
89.8
97.1
93.3
95.2
100.0
98.7
99.3
97.9
87.5
99.7
100.0
99.7
100. 0
97.4
96.1
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish .
Polish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak ...
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
8,673
2.06
6.2
44.3
71.5
85.9
92.5
96.2
Total native-born of foreign father.
Total native-born
585
1,343
7,330
2.47
2.69
1.97
4.2
2.6
6.9
33.1
25.5
47.8
58.1
51.4
75.1
77.2
70.7
88.7
86.9
82.4
94.4
94.5
90.5
97.3
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Attention has been called to the fact that immigrant households
pay, on the whole, higher rents per room than native households
exclusive of negroes. From this table it will be seen that the rent
per person among foreign households is in general considerably lower
than among the native households of the white races. The explana-
tion lies in the fact that the households of immigrants are larger in
proportion to the number of rooms they occupy than the households
of the native-born in question. That their size is increased in an
effort to reduce rent is suggested by the relatively high average of
boarders and lodgers among them. It will be recalled that there
are 62 boarders or lodgers to every 100 households as compared with
19 to every 100 households of the native-born households exclusive
of negroes.
760
The Immigration Commission.
ECONOMIC STATUS.
OCCUPATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND ABROAL*.
Something of the equipment of immigrants for industrial life in
America is indicated by the following table, which shows for male
heads of households who were 1 6 years of age or older at the time of
their arrival in the United States the number and per cent who
were engaged in farming in the country of their former residence.
TABLE 33. — Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households 16 years of age
or over at time of coming to the United States who were engaged informing abroad, by
race of individual.
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Engaged in farming
abroad.
Number.
Per cent.
Bohemian and Moravian
452
345
47
1.082
183
468
71
1,668
310
182
99
936
32
312
114
99
301
109
79
29
39
10
324
50
732
208
82
7
605
25
189
65
17
65
24.1
22.9
61.7
3.6
5.5
69.2
70.4
43.9
67.1
45.1
7.1
64.6
78.1
60.6
57.0
17.2
21.6
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Total
6,701
2,635
39.3
Nearly two-fifths of the male heads of households 16 years of age
or older at the time of arrival in this country were engaged abroad
in farming. The per cents of farmers in races represented in the table
by 100 or more persons appear below in descending order:
Per cent
69.2
Lithuanian 67 1
Polish I! 64^6
Slovak 60.6
Slovenian 57 0
Magyar m. \~ \\ 45^
Per cent.
Italian, South 43. 9
Bohemian and Moravian '..'. 24. 1
German 22. 9
Hebrew, Other. ...... '. '. ', '. ~ ." ." ." ." ." 5 ' 5
Hebrew, Russian 3. 6
The present occupations of members' of households studied are
shown in the three tables which follow. Males 16 years of age or
Immigrants in Cities.
761
TABLE 34. — Per cent of males 16 years of age or over in each specified industry or unem-
ployed, by general nativity and race of individual.
[The main headings used in this table follow the classifications of the United States Census with these mod-
ifications: General Labor is here separate from Domestic and Personal Service; Fishing, Mining, and
Quarrying are each separate from Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits; Trade and Transportation
are distinct from each other. This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The totals,
however, are for all races.]
General nativity and
race of individual.
|
ft
M
L
&
r
X
Per cent—
4
IM
fj
H
'E 3
%*
^
If
9*3
73 W
a*
H
SI-
fit
bi.
H
0
a
If
If
?f
a
a
o
w «
w 5
o T?
j-i c/2
ft
a
A
m
a
1
a
%
1
<;
Native-born of
native father:
White
728
443
132
417
143
645
145
164
2/
23
618
539
172
1,849
349
727
102
3,062
602
468
143
1,804
177
514
274
135
408
0.1
.9
.5
1.9
.0
.0
.0
1.2
.0
.0
.3
.6
.0
.1
.3
.0
1.0
.8
.7
.2
.0
.6
.0
.8
.0
1.5
.0
8.0
34.8
1.1
4.1
.7
6.5
13.8
1.8
.0
.0
3.2
6.7
31.4
2.5
8.0
8.4
7.8
9.3
10.0
3.0
56.6
3.8
3.4
2.7
2.2
5.9
6.1
40.9
12.6
69.2
54.7
32.2
33.8
38.6
68.3
44.4
56.5
69.6
58.3
. 32.6
55.1
41.3
'29.2
68.6
28.8
68.3
77.6
5.6
65.0
21.5
63.4
83.2
60.0
25.5
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
.6
3.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.0
.2
.4
.0
.6
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
6.5
8.6
3.3
5.8
2.1
8.8
6.2
6.1
3.7
.0
2.8
6.9
.0
.5
2.0
21.2
4.9
31.9
3.5
8.1
4.9
9.1
50.8
6.4
1.1
3.0
1.5
2.1
.7
2.2
.7
.0
1.2
3.4
.0
.0
.0
1.0
1.1
.0
i.e
2.6
.4
2.9
1.5
.5
1.1
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
1.5
.2
14.6
10.6
12.1
16.8
42.0
14.1
16.6
3.7
22.2
26.1
12.3
10.2
32.6
33.6
35.2
6.5
7.8
12.8
5.5
1.1
8.4
6.4
7.3
6.0
1.5
11.1
55.4
22.7
28.9
7.1
12.2
6.3
29.3
10.3
4.3
3.7
17.4
4.4
6.7
2.9
2.8
4.6
25.6
4.9
9.4
7.8
3.2
21.0
8.4
15.3
Ki.l
7.7
14.1
5.4
0.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
Wo
.0
.0
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.0
2.7
3.3
3.1
'5.6
5.1
5.5
11.6
11.1
.0
6.5
9.6
.6
2.7
5.4
8.4
2.0
4.2
3.7
5.1
2.8
5.3
1.7
4.3
4.4
3.0
5.9
1.2
.0
1.1
.7
11.2
1.1
4.8
2.4
11.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.0
.6
.0
.0
.3
.0
.2
.7
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
Negro
Native-bora of
foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and
Moravian
German
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, South...
Polish
Slovak
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and
Moravian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Rus-
sian
Hebrew, Other..
Irish
Italian, North . .
Italian, South...
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total...
Total native-born of
foreign father
Total native-born . . .
Total foreign-born . . .
14,911
.5
7.5
5.1
10.3
6.9
47.2
46.1
39.8
49.1
.3
. 2
.1
.4
11.9
6.2
6.6
13.2
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.0
15.3
16.4
15.1
15.3
10.9
.1
4.7
.6
1,777
2,948
11,963
.6
.5
.5
16.5
19.9
8.6
.0
(°A
5.1
4.5
4.7
2.5
1.8
.3
a Less than 0.05 per cent.
Almost one-half of the 14,911 males represented in this table are
engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. About 15 per
cent are engaged in trade, 11 per cent in transportation, and 12 per
cent in general labor. In this city population, agriculture, mining,
and fishing are, of course, scarcely represented. The tendency of the
Syrians and Hebrews to engage in trade, and of the negroes to engage
in domestic and personal service, is evident. On the whole, the
foreign-born appear in general labor and manufacture to a greater
extent than do the native-born,
72289°— voi, 1—11 49
762
The Immigration Commission.
Females 16 years of age or over are classified in the following
table according to the kind of employment in which they were
engaged within the year ending with the taking of the schedule. The
tabulation is by general nativity and race of individual.
TABLE 35. — Per cent of females 16 years of age or over in each specified industry of unem-
ployed, by general nativity and race of individual.
[The main headings used in this table follow the classifications of the United States Census with these
modifications: General Labor is here separate from Domestic and Personal Service; Fishing, Mining, and
Quarrying are each separate from Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits; Trade and Transportation
are distinct from each other. This table includes only races with 20 or more females reporting. The
totals, however, are for all races.]
General nativity and race of
individual.
Number reporting com-
plete data.
Fer cent-
's
3
If
§*
5
3j
c3'£
o <3
tg M
P
•H cfl
pi
||
i"8?
al^
a-
C9
a
0
la 05
sf
o fe
(- W
p<
£
o5
rt
d
!
A
A
-n
«4
1
<s
Native-born of native father:
White
588
580
225
23
475
138
570
134
33
204
36
44
661
31
27
542
31
1,750
351
842
94
2,244
400
242
94
1,291
412
125
150
391
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.0
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
\ .0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.3
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
.0
.0
12.4
75.0
3.1
13.0
10.1
.7
11.9
3.7
81.8
8.8
5.6
4.5
12.4
25.8
18.5
18.6
3.2
3.9
6.3
21.3
2.1
2.1
10.3
13.6
64.9
11.5
16.5
3.2
16.7
2.8
16.5
2.9
52.9
4.3
26.1
34.8
25.8
30.6
.0
45.6
41.7
25.0
27.2
3.2
7.4
7.2
.0
18.3
17.4
3.1
23.4
20.5
13.8
15.3
1.1
7.4
11.2
4.8
8.7
10.2
0.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0.5
.5
.0
.0
.2
1.4
.9
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.4
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
7.8
.7
9.3
.0
10.1
36.2
6.8
2.2
.0
5.4
5.6
25.0
2.3
.0
.0
3.0
.0
7.0
5.7
3.0
.0
2.7
1.8
.0
.0
2.0
.7
.0
3.3
28.1
0.7
.2
.0
.0
.8
.0
2.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
(a)
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.7
.0
60.2
20.2
33.8
82.6
52.2
21.0
50.9
57.5
18.2
36.8
47.2
38.6
57.9
71.0
74.1
71.2
96.8
70.1
69.2
72.4
74.5
74.0
74.0
70.2
34.0
78.4
71.4
92.0
70.7
58.6
1.7
.5
.9
.0
.4
5.8
.9
2.2
.0
2.5
.0
4.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
1.4
.0
.0
w.»
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.3
Negro .
Native-born of foreign father,
by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian.
English
German .
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, South...
Negro
Polish
Slovak
Swedish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian.
Canadian (other than
French)
English
German...
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other...
Irish
Italian, North..
Italian, South.
Lithuanian
Magyar
Neero
1'oHsl,""
siovak.::::
Slovenian .
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
Total native-born of foreign
father
12,816
—
1,930
3,098
9,718
.2
=
.3
.2
.2
12.5
=
9.5
22.3
9.4
16.6
(«)
.2
5.1
.2
64.7
.5
31.6
23.4
14.5
.0
W.o
.5
.5
.1
9.7
7.7
4.2
1.1
.8
.1
45.9
43.8
71.4
1.4
1.3
.2
Total native-born.
Total foreign-born
o Less than 0.05 per cent.
Immigrants in Cities.
763
Children between the ages of 6 and 15 are classified in the next
table according to whether they were in school, at home, or at work
within the year ending with the agent's visit.
TABLE 36. — Per cent of children 6 and under 16 years of age at home, at school, and a
work, by general nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
Per cent—
complete
data.
At home.
At school.
At work.
Native-born of native father:
White
935
9 2
85 3
5 5
Negro
215
4.7
93.0
2 3
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
521
6 0
82 5
11 5
German
445
8 3
83 4
8 3
Hebrew . .
1 149
5 4
90 5
4 1
Irish
903
8 3
85 8
5 9
Italian, North f .
44
6 8
86 4
6 8
Italian South
1 272
6 5
88 4
5 1
Lithuanian
'l46
11 0
86 3
2 7
Magyar
43
16 3
81 4
2 3
Polish
997
15 4
71 9
12 6
Slovak . .
212
19 3
73 G
7 1
Slovenian
63
17.5
79 4
3.2
Swedish
158
9 5
85 4
5 1
Syrian
144
2.1
95.1
2.8
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
89
4 5
83 \
12 4
German
44
22.7
72 7
4 5
Hebrew, Russian.
872
5 2
87 5
7 3
Hebrew Other
147
4 1
85 0
10 9
Italian, North .
36
2 8
91 7
5 6
Italian South
735
7 9
79 5
12 7
Lithuanian
68
11 8
86*8
1 5
Magyar
77
11 7
85 7
2 6
Polish
237
19.0
75 5
5 5
Slovak
91
22 0
71 4
6 6
Slovenian
21
.0
100 0
.0
Syrian
91
3 3
94 5
2 2
Grand total . .
9,816
8 6
84 3
7 1
Total native-born of foreign father. ...
6,122
8.8
84 2
6 9
Total native-born
7 272
8 8
84 6
6 6
Total foreign-born
2,544
8.3
83.3
8.4
The foreign-born children are found at work to a somewhat greater
extent than the native-born. Of the second generation Polish, and
the foreign-born South Italian and Bohemian and Moravian children,
over 12 per cent are at work. Fewer than three-fourths of the sec-
ond generation Poles, the Slovaks of both generations, and the foreign-
born Germans, are at school.
764
The Immigration Commission.
EARNINGS.
The Mowing table shows the approximate yearly earnings of
lales 18 ye^s of age or over. The <fata are for the year ending at
the tiine fhe household was visited by the Commission's agent.
T.B.B ^Yearly ~"*
General nativity and
race of individual.
Number
working
or wages
and re-
porting
amount.
Average
arnings.
Number earning—
Per cent earning—
Jnder
$200.
nder
$400.
nder
$600.
nder
1,000.
Under
$200.
Jnder
$400.
nder
$600.
nder
1,000.
Native-born of native
lather:
White
547
281
120
4
3
300
48
438
57
90
8
1
16
1
493
1
1
404
59
957
176
587
79
2,137
484
412
60
1,49!
17;
438
243
11
98
$595
441
518
(«)
<•>«
541
535
413
403
8
516
(«)
538
ia)
a)
o)
613
352
461
465
535
425
368
410
346
385
365
(c)
"W
384
398
692
32
38
24
21
1
""is"
4
59
5
18
2
34
132
123
47
1
1
68
19
154
29
49
3
1
6
1
151
283
' 224
75
3
2
165
31
257
48
73
8
1
10
1
304
1
3
505
281
112
4
3
284
43
411
57
89
8
1
16
1
474
1
3
1
384
59
937
171
570
79
2,120
481
411
66
1,492
6
175
437
243
100
97
6.9
8.5
17.5
(a)
(a)
6.0
8.3
13.5
8.8
20.0
0)
°)
a)
a)
6.9
(a)
a)
(a)
3.0
3.4
9.1
9.7
8.5
13.9
17.6
12.6
14.8
15.2
22.0
(°)
(a)
26.6
17.8
16.5
.9
26.5
24.1
43.8
39.2
(a)
(a)
22.7
39.6
35.2
50.9
54.4
(a)
(0)
(a)
(a)
30.6
(0)
(a)
(a
18.3
86.4
42.2
43.8
31.2
44.3
61.6
47.9
60.9
56.1
59.6
(a)
(a)
71.1
54.3
41.6
10.5
69.4
51.7
79.7
62.5
$
55.0
64.6
58.7
84.2
81.1
(a
(a
(a
(a
61.7
(a)
?aS
(a)
49.3
89.8
75.4
75.6
58.9
77.2
89.2
86.8
90.8
89.4
88.3
(a)
(a)
93.1
86.1
86.4
29.8
94.9
92.3
100.0
93.3
ft
94.7
89.6
93.8
100.0
98.9
(a
a
(a
(a
96.1
ft
(°)
95.0
100.0
97.9
97.2
97.1
100.0
99.2
99.4
99.8
100.0
99.6
(«)
i&o
99.8
100.0
87.7
99.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of
father:'
Bohemian and Mo-
Canadian (other
than French)
English
Irish
Italian South
Polish
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Welsh
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Mo-
ravian
Canadian (other
than French)
Croatian
1
2
English
German
12
2
87
17
50
11
377
61
61
10
32f
""46
78
40
21
74
51
404
77
183
35
1,317
232
251
37
893
12J
238
101
199
53
722
133
346
61
1.906
420
374
59
1,322
6
161
377
210
34
93
Greek
Hebrew, Russian . .
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian . . .
Maevar
Negro
PoBsh
Russian
Ruthenian . .
Servian .
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
12
Syrian
68
Grand total
Total native - born o
foreign father
10,34
• ' r " V
1,086
1,014
8,431
413
-i
52
53
385
1,435
4,887
7,967
10, 122
13.9
47.2
77.0
97.8
128
190
1,245
379
634
4,253
674
1,181
6,786
1,029
1,815
8,307
11.8
9.9
14.8
34.9
33.1
50.4
62.1
61.7
80.5
94.8
94.8
98.5
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
oNot computed, owing to small number involved.
Over 10,000 males 18 years of age or over were studied with respect
to earnings. The average earnings were found to be $413 a year, or,
putting the matter another way, nearly one-half received less than
$400. The native-born, especially the native-born white of native
father, are considerably better paid than the foreign-born. Among ths
Immigrants in Cities.
765
foreign-born, the Bohemians and Moravians, Germans, Irish, and
Swedes have much higher earnings than the other races.
Similar data are presented for females 18 years of age or over in
the following table:
TABLE 38. — Yearly earnings (approximate} of females 18 years of age or over, by general
nativity and race of individual.
General nativity and
race of individual.
Number
working
for wages
and re-
porting
amount.
Average
earnings.
Number earning —
Per cent earning—
Under
$200.
Under
$300.
Under
$400.
Under
$500.
Under
$200.
Under
$300.
Under
$400.
Under
$500.
Native-born of native
father:
White
159
161
, 94
3
1
3
148
47
191
1
25
63
3
9
1
13
230
6
1
6
1
106
281
65
180
13
341
49
61
16
1
165
1
1
1
84
6
40
18
$278
207
315
(a)
w
w
317
327
294
"&
211
(')
a
(a)
327
300
(a)
\a/
\a)
(a)
204
259
230
213
232
179
191
198
121
(0)
168
a)
a)
a)
208
(a)
221
218
54
90
22
1
94
125
42
2
1
2
75
19
97
1
15
49
3
8
1
6
112
5
1
3
1
83
170
47
133
11
287
44
50
15
1
147
1
123
149
66
3
1
2
105
34
143
1
20
62
3
9
1
9
156
6
1
6
1
95
237
60
162
11
318
48
55
15
1
162
1
1
1
81
4
35
17
143
157
82
3
1
3
130
42
162
1
24
63
3
9
1
10
200
6
1
6
1
104
261
62
173
11
330
49
58
15
1
164
1
1
1
84
6
37
18
34.0
55.9
23.4
(a '
(°
25 0
19.1
29.3
(a)
32.0
44.4
i
(a
(a
32.6
(a)
1
61.3
34.5
46.2
49.4
(°)
66.3
57.1
52.5
(a)
S}8
<«)
a
e
42.9
(0)
52.5
(a)
59.1
77.6
44.7
(a) 1
Ff
(o)
50.7
40.4
50.8
(a)
60.0
77.8
a
' a
a
a
47.8
a
a
a
a
78.3
60.5
72.3
73.9
(0)
84.2
87.8
82.0
M
(a)
89.1
(0)
(a
(°
77.4
(a)
75.0
(0)
77.4
92.5
70.2
(a)
M
(a)
70.9
72.3
74.9
(a)
80.0
98.4
a
a
a
a
67.8
0)
1
a)
89.6
84.3
92.3
90.0
(a)
93.3
98.0
90.2
(°)
w
98.2
(a)
(a)
(a)
96.4
(0)
87.5
(0)
89.9
97.5
87.2
(0)
w
(a)
87.8
89.4
84.8
(a)
96.0
100.0
a)
a)
•1
•1
87.0
3
i
98.1
92.9
95.4
96.1
(0)
96.8
100.0
95.1
ij
9.4
100.0
(0)
92.5
(a)
Negro .
Native-born of foreign
father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Mo-
ravian ..
Canadian (other
than French)
Danish
English..
2
37
9
56
1
8
28
2
3
German
Hebrew
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Polish
Scotch
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
4
75
5
1
3
1
65
97
30
89
9
226
28
32
14
1
102
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Mo-
ravian
Canadian (other
than French)
Croatian
English
French
German
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other...,
Irish.
Italian, North
Italian, South.
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Norwegian
Polish
Roumanian
Ruthenian
Scotch
1
36
2
21
8
1
65
2
30
14
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Svrian
Grand total
2,595
239
292
275
219
1,163
173
317
846
1,763
.. .- — ,. .
321
540
1,223
2,205
—
459
731
1,474
2,424
534
834
1,590
44.8
28.7
34.4
50.6
67.9
85.0
93.4
Total native - born of
foreign father
602
922
1,673
53.3
58.6
73.1
76.2
79.3
88.1
88.7
90.5
95.0
Total native-born .
Total foreign-born
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The women earn, as a rule, not much more than half as much as
men earn. Two-thirds earn less than $300 a year. Here, as among
the men, the foreign-born are at a disadvantage when compared with
the native-born exclusive of the negroes. Of the six immigrant races
766
The Immigration Commission.
represented by 100 or more women, the South Italian and Polish
report the average earnings of women at work as less than $200. Of
the South Italian women, 66.3 per cent are reported as earning less
than $200 a year.
FAMILY INCOME.
The information relative to income was secured for the year
ending with the agent's visit. " This study is confined to selected
families. Only those families are included whose incomes represent
wa^es and not profits and whose financial arrangements are not
complicated by the presence of other families within the home.
From the comprehensive study made by city in the complete report
on immigrants in cities only two tables are selected for presentation
here. The first shows the per cent of families which have derived
their income for the year, wholly or in part, from each of five specified
sources.
TABLE 39. — Per cent of families having an income within the year from husband, wife,
children, boarders or lodgers, and other sources, by general nativity and race of head of
family.
(This table includes only races with 20 or more families reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.
Families are excluded which report income as "none."]
General nativity and race of head of
family.
Number
of selected
families.
Per cent of families having an income from —
Earnings of —
Earnings
or con-
tributions
of chil-
dren.
Pay-
ments of
boarders
or lodgers.
Other
sources.
Husband.
Wife.
Native-born of native father:
White..
374
179
33
169
222
472
431
721
149
599
53
1,269
260
182
37
959
308
100
113
34
86.6
73.2
100.0
83.4
86.9
81.4
77.0
85.3
77.9
77.5
88.7
93.8
96.2
90.1
94.6
90.9
93.5
98.0
77.9
85.3
16.0
64.2
45.5
16.0
20.3
34.7
20.2
7.8
12.1
19.0
13.2
16.8
6.5
22.5
67.6
10.7
14.6
.0
20.4
11.8
21.9
9.5
6.1
25.4
24.8
33.5
42.0
35.6
34.2
41.9
28.3
21.6
8.8
9.3
5.4
21.9
14.9
11.0
36.3
8.8
14.4
32.4
6.1
11.8
12.6
15.3
10.7
43.0
31.5
17.5
56.6
27.0
77.3
52.7
51.4
38.1
44.8
36.0
42.5
2.9
9.4
5.6
3.0
10.1
6.8
9.3
22.0
9.3
8.7
7.8
7.5
5.0
4.2
4.9
5.4
13.9
10.7
8.0
12.4
11.8
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German.
Irish.
Foreign-bora:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other....
Irish
Italian, North...
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Pofish
Slovak
Slovenian .
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total
6,700
87.0
17.7
26.0
30.3
9.4
Total native-born of foreign father
441
994
5,706
86.6
84.2
87.4
20.6
26.8
16.1
23.1
20.2
27/0
11.8
16.5
32.7
7.7
7.9
9.6
Total native-bom...
Total foreign-bora
In 13 per cent of the families the husband contributes- nothino- to
the family income. In 17.7 per cent of the families at least part
e income is earned by the wife, and in 26 per cent of the cases
the children. Over 30 per cent of the families keep boarders
The foreign-born depend less on the earnings of the
Immigrants in Cities.
767
wife than do the native-born of foreign father, but they derive more
from the earnings of their children and from keeping boarders or
lodgers. In the case of four immigrant races, the North Italians,
Lithuanians, Magyars, and negroes, more than half the families receive
income from boarders or lodgers. Two-fifths of the German and
Irish families are helped by the children*
The next table classifies all husbands at work according to the
amount of their earnings for the year. The data are presented in
cumulative form.
TABLE 40. — Earnings per year of male heads of families, by general nativity and race of
individual.
General nativity and race of in-
dividual.
Number
working
for
wages.
Average
earnings.
Per cent earning—
Under
$100.
Under
$200.
Under
$400.
Under
$600.
Under
$800.
Under
$1,000.
Native-born of native father:
White
324
131
33
141
193
384
332
615
116
464
47
1,190
250
163
35
872
288
98
88
29
$657
465
632
674
601
552
630
463
484
557
449
390
419
390
369
379
402
433
703
356
1.5
2.3
.0
.0
2.6
1.6
.0
1.8
.9
1.1
.0
2.1
3.2
3.7
2.9
4.7
5.6
4.1
.0
6.9
3.7
7.6
3.0
1.4
7.8
6.0
2.7
9.1
6.9
6.3
17.0
13.9
11. 6>
14. 1*
14.3
19.0
16.7
8.2
1.1
13.8
15.7
38.2
18.2
9.9
24.4
27.9
16.3
40.0
40.5
28.4
38.3
57.2
46.0
58.3
62.9
55.8
49.7
38.8
9.1
72.4
42.0
77.1
42.4
39.0
51.8
60.4
46.1
75.3
71.6
56.3
68.1
87.5
86.0
86.5
88.6
85.6
83.3
86.7
28.4
89.7
75.3
96.9
75.8
78.0
80.8
87.0
80.4
95.1
94.0
87.1
100.0
97.6
98.4
96.9
97.1
97.5
99-7
98.0
75.0
96.6
90.1
100.0
100.0
90.8
92.7
95.8
94.0
98.4
97.4
96.3
100.0
99.1
99.2
99.4
100.0
99.4
100.0
100.0
86.4
100.0
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by
race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German.
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro
Polish...
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
Grand total ,
5,825
475
2.4
10.8
41.2
72.2
92.0
97.3
Total native-born of foreign father.
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
382
837
4,988
625
612
452
1.3
1.6
2.5
5.2
5.0
11.7
19.6
21.0
44.6
47.6
50.1
75.9
79.6
80.6
93.9
92.7
92.8
98.1
The earnings of the 5,825 male heads of families average $475
for the year covered by this study. The average earnings of the
husbands of every race of native birth, except the negroes, is over
$600. The average earnings of all foreign-born husbands is only
$452. About three-fourths of the foreign-born, as contrasted with
less than one-half of the native-born exclusive of negroes, earn less
than $600, and about 45 per cent of all foreign-born husbands earn
under $400. Among immigrants the highest incomes from earnings
of husbands are those of the Swedes; the second highest are those
of the Germans.
768
The Immigration Commission.
ASSIMILATION.
ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH.
It will be seen from the following tables that the ability of the
immigrant to speak English is largely dependent upon his age at the
time of arrival in the United States and on the length of his residence in
the United States. The first table shows the number and per cent
of all male heads of households who can carry on conversation at
least fairly well in the English language.
TABLE 41. — Number and
d per cent of male heads of household
general nativity and race of individual.
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races.]
households who speak English, by
General nativity and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number
who speak
English.
Per cent
who speak
English.
Native-born of foreign father, by race of father:
Bohemian and Moravian
41
40
97.6
German
195
195
100 0
Polish..
18
18
(a)
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
539
215
39 9
German
455
324
71 2
Greek . . .
48
35
72 9
Hebrew, Russian
1,252
611
48 8
Hebrew. Other
248
146
58 9
Italian, North...
72
\\
15 3
Italian, South...
1 877
643
34 3
Litmianian
'322
123
38 2
Magyar...
185
63
34 1
Polish t
1,104
401
36 3
Servian V..
32
g
25 0
Slovak
345
185
53 6
Slovenian
114
80
70 2
Swedish
117
107
91 5
Syrian
325
198
60 9
Grand total
7 289
3 403
46 7
Total native-born of foreign father . . .
254
oco
Total foreign-born
7 ftRri
3i.rfv
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Less than one-half of the foreign-born male heads of households
represented m this table speak English. In the following races this
proportion falls below two-fifths; Bohemian and Moravian, North
Italian South Italian, Lithuanian, Magyar, Polish, and Servian.
Among the Swedish only is the percentage high. Practically all of the
native-born of foreign father speak English.
From the complete report on immigrants in cities it will be found
g most races the women are able to speak English in con-
siderably lower proportions than the men; the almost universal em-
it of the men outside the home naturally increases their con-
b the ^ ng ^™™ ™* their °PP°rtunities
Panted ability to speak English is related to
TLtableincludes only male
Immigrants in Cities.
769
TABLE 42. — Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households who speak
English, by years in the United States and race of individual.
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races. By years in the United States is meant years since
first arrival in the United States.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number in the
United States
each specified
number of years.
Number who
speak English,
by years in the
United States.
Per cent who
speak English,
by years in the
United States.
Under
5.
5 to 9.
10 or
over.
Un-
der 5.
5 to 9.
10 or
over.
Un-
der 5.
5 to 9.
10 or
over.
Bohemian and Moravian
539
455
48
1,252
248
72
1,877
322
185
1,104
32
345
114
117
325
96
47
19
358
45
22
320
68
92
242
26
58
17
1
114
95
33
14
351
85
19
561
128
64
339
4
140
59
11
117
338
375
15
543
118
31
996
126
29
523
2
147
38
105
94
6
10
9
97
13
32
17
13
168
44
1
143
42
27
95
2
67
36
9
68
177
297
13
346
89
10
468
65
17
283
2
103
29
98
71
6.3
21.3
2%
28.9
.0
10.0
23.5
20.7
9.5
15.4
25.9
w
(a)
51.8
33.7
51.5
#,
51.8
(0)
25.5
32.8
42.2
28.0
(0)
47.9
61.0
(°)
58.1
52.4
79.2
(«)
63.7
75.4
32.3
47.0
51.6
58.6
541
(a)
70.1
76.3
93.3
75.5
59.4
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
Hebrew, Other
Italian, North
Italian South
32
16
19
23
4
15
15
Lithuanian
Magyar
Polish
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish
Syrian
59
Total
7; 035
1,525
2,030
3,480
318
764
2,068
20.9
37.6
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Of • 1,525 heads of households who have been in the United States
less than five years, 318, or 20.9 per cent, speak English. The pro-
portion among those who have been here from five to nine years is
37.6 per cent, while among those who have been here ten years or
more it is nearly 60 per cent. All races show a marked increase
in the ability to speak English with an increase in the length of
residence in this country.
The next table relates ability to speak English to age at time of
coming to the United States. The table includes only male heads
of households, who are classified according to whether they were
under or over 14 years of age at the time of their arrival in this
country.
TABLE 43. — Number and^ per cent of foreign-born male heads of households who speak
English, by age at time of coming to the United States and race of individual .
[This table includes only non-English-speaking races.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number each speci-
fied age at time
of coming.
Number who speak
English, by age
at time of coming.
Per cent who speak
English, by age
at time of coming.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Bohemian and Moravian-.
539
455
48
1,252
248
72
1.877
322
185
1,104
32
345
114
117
325
59
78
480
377
48
1,209
238
71
1,749
318
183
1,033
32
331
114
106
312
56
76
159
248
35
570
136
10
535
120
61
344
8
172
80
96
187
94.9
97.4
""gs.'s"
(°)
1L
8
80.3
33.1
65.8
72.9
47.1
57.1
14.1
30.6
37.7
33.3
33.3
25.0
52.0
70.2
90.6
59.9
Greek
Hebrew Russian
43
10
1
128
4
2
71
41
10
1
108
3
2
57
Hebrew, Other .
Italian North
Italian, South
Lithuanian . .
Magyar
Polish
Slovak v.
14
13
......
12
(0)
........
Swedish
11
13
Syrian
Total
7,035
434
6,601
389
2,761
89.6
41.8
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
770
The Immigration Commission.
Nearly nine-tenths of the foreign-born male heads of households
who were under 14 years of age at the time of coming to this country
are able to speak English now, while of those who were 14 years or
over at the time of coming, scarcely more than two-fifths can speak
English. In the case of the Poles, four-fifths of those who were
children under 14 when they came now speak English, while only a
third of those who were older have learned to converse in the English
tongue.
LITERACY.
The number and per cent of male heads of households who can
read and the number and per cent who are able both to read and to
write appear in the following table.
TABLE 44. — Number and per cent of male heads of households who read and who read and
write, by general nativity and race of individual.
General nativity, and race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number who —
Per cent who —
Read.
Read and
write.
Read.
Read and
write.
Native-born of native father:
White
406
304
41
194
264
18
538
452
48
1,252
246
600
70
1,868
321
184
106
1,101
32
344
114
116
325
404
262
40
190
259
18
529
447
46
1,063
224
545
59
1,038
242
174
99
841
25
273
108
115
287
404
259
40
190
259
18
524
445
46
1,019
215
532
59
1,019
200
174
99
790
25
267
107
115
283
99.5
86.2
97.6
97.9
98.1
(0)
98.3
98.9
95.8
84.9
91.1
90.8
84.3
55.6
75.4
94.6
93.4
76.4
78.1
79.4
94.7
99.1
88.3
99.5
85.2
97.6
97.9
98.1
(0)
97.4
98.5
95.8
81.4
87.4
88.7
84.3
54.6
62.3
94.6
93.4
71.8
78.1
77.6-
93.9
99.1
87.1
Negro
Native-born of foreign father, by race of
father:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Irish...
Polish. . .
Foreign-born:
Bohemian and Moravian
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian. . . .
Hebrew, Other
Irish.
Italian, North
Italian. South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro...
PoGsh.
Servian
Slovak
Slovenian
Swedish...
Syrian ' "
Grand total
8,944
7,288
7,089
81.5
79.3
Total native-born of foreign father
517
1.227
7,717
507
1.173
6,115
507
1,170
5,919
98.1
95.6
79.2
98.1
95.4
76.7
Total native-born
Total foreign-born
o Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Out of a total of 8,944 reporting, 7,288, or 81.5 per cent, are able
to read and 7,089 or 79.3 per cent, are able to read and write.
finety-nme and a half per cent of the white persons who are native-
native fathers are able to read and write. For the native-born
father the percentage is also high for each race. Among
*%4 orn the percentage who read and write falls as low
for the South Italians, and is less than 80 for the Poles,
, and Lithuanians. Among the Bohemians and
avians, Germans, and Swedes, on the contrary, the percentage
Immigrants in Cities.
771
who can read and write is above 97. From the Commission's com-
plete report on immigrants in cities it will be seen that the per cents
of women who read and write are in general lower than the cor-
responding per cents of men.
From the complete report it will also be seen that apparently little
relation exists between the literacy of immigrants and their length
of residence in the United States. The following table, however,
indicates that the age of the immigrants at the time of their arrival
in this country is an important factor in determining their ability to
read and write:
TABLE 45. — Number and per cent of foreign-born male heads of households who read and
write, by age at time of coming to the United States and race of individual.
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number of each
specified age at
time of coming.
Number who read
and write, by age
at time of com-
ing.
Per cent who read
and write, by age
at time of com-
ing.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Under 14.
14 or over.
Bohemian and Moravian
538
452
48
1,252
246
600
70
1,868
321
184
106
1,101
32
344
114
116
325
59
78
479
374
48
1,209
236
517
69
1,739
317
182
103
1,031
32
330
114
105
312
58
77
466
368
46
981
205
455
58
932
196
172
96
728
25
254
107
104
270
98.3
98.7
97.3
98.4
95.8
81.1
86.9
88.0
84.1
53.6
61.8
94.5
93.2
70.6
78.1
77.0
93.9
99.0
86.5
German
Greek
Hebrew, Russian
43
10
83
1
129
4
2
3
70
38
10
77
1
87
4
2
3
62
88.4
(?,8
(U.4
(«)
(a
(a)
88.6
Hebrew. Other . .
Irish
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian .
Magyar
Negro
Polish
Servian. .
Slovak
14
13
(a)
Slovenian
Swedish
11
13
11
13
(a)
(a)
Syrian .
Total
7,717
520
7,197
456
5,463
87.7
75.9
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The vast majority of the 7,717 foreign-born male heads of house-
holds represented in this table were 14 years of age or over at
the time of coming to the United States. Those who came at an
early age are now able to read and write to a greater extent than are
those who were 14 years of age or over when they came. This is true
in the case of every race for which the percentages are comparable.
Thus, among the South Italians, two-thirds of those who were children
under 14 when they came are now able to read and write, while little
more than half of those who were 14 years or over at the time of coming
can now read and write.
CITIZENSHIP.
The status with respect to naturalization of immigrant heads of
households who were 21 years of age or over at the time of coming to
the United States and who therefore could become citizens only by
their own initiative, is shown in the following table. Only persons
are included who have been in this country long enough to acquire
citizenship.
772
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 46.— Present political conditon of foreign-born male heads of households who
have been in the United States 5 years or over and who were 21 years of age or over at
time of coming, by race of individual.
[By years in the United States is meant years since first arrival in the United States.]
Race of individual.
Number
reporting
complete
data.
Number-
Per cent—
Fully
naturalized.
Having first
papers only.
Fully
naturalized.
Having first
papers only.
Bohemian and Moravian T
248
225
22
607
141
210
42
1,071
174
74
26
539
5
156
73
72
134
134
164
1
204
54
154
24
339
45
9
3
192
2
28
9
62
13
48
45
4
139
34
17
5
177
19
12
1
63
54.0
72.9
4.5
33.6
38.3
73.3
57.1
31.7
25.9
12.2
11.5
35.6
(a)
V.9
12.3
86.1
9.7
19.4
20.0
18.2
22.9
24.1
8.1
11.9
16.5
10.9
16.2
3.8
11.7
(a)
10.3
19.2
42
23.9
(MTI'l'lIl
Greek
Hebrew Russian
Hebrew Other
Irish .
Italian, North
Italian, South
Lithuanian
Magyar
Negro . . .
Polish ..
Servian
Slovak
16
14
3
32
Slovenian
Swedish...
Syrian
Total
3,819
1,437
629
37.6
16.5
a Not computed, owing to small number involved.
It will be seen that little more than half of the foreign-born male
heads of households have taken out any naturalization papers. The
proportion fully naturalized is only 37.6 per cent. The proportions
vary considerably among the races, being much higher for the Ger-
mans, Irish, and Swedes than for others. Among the races repre-
sented in the table by more than 500 men, the proportions of citizens
are: Poles 35.6 per cent, Russian Hebrews 33.6 per cent, and South
Italians 31.7 per cent.
ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT ON
OCCUPATIONS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND
GENERATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS
IN THE UNITED STATES.
For the complete report on occupations of the first and second generations
of immigrants in the United States see Reports of the
Immigration Commission, vol. 28.
773
CONTENTS.
Page.
Male breadwinners 778
General laborers 779
Miners and quarrymen 782
Iron and steel workers 783
Textile-mill operatives 786
The building trades 788
Clerical pursuits 790
Salesmen, agents, and commercial travelers 793
Professional service 795
Agriculture 799
Female breadwinners 803
Servants and waitresses 804
The needle trades 806
Textile-mill operatives 810
Clerical pursuits 813
Saleswomen 815
Teachers 818
Table A: Male breadwinners 821-829
Table B: Female breadwinners 830-838
LIST OF TABLES.
TABLE 1. White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nation-
ality and general nativity: Number and per cent distribution... 778
2. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as laborers. 780, 781
3. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as miners and
quarrymen 782, 783
4. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as iron arid
steel workers 784, 785
5. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as textile-
mill operatives 786, 787
6. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed in the build-
ing trades .4 789,790
7. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as clerks,
stenographers, bookkeepers, etc 791, 792
8. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as sales-
men, etc 793,794
9. Male breadwinners employed in professional service: Number and
per cent of foreign-born'and of native white of foreign parentage
in each specified occupation 795
10. Male breadwinners employed in professional service, classified by
general nativity and occupation: Number and per cent distribu-
tion *. . 796
11. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed in professional
service 797,798
12. Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed in agricul-
tural pursuits 799, 800
775
776 The Immigration Commission.
Page.
TABLE 13 White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by general
nativity and by age periods: Total number, and number and per
cent employed as farmers 802
14 White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by general
nativity and by age periods: Total number, and number and per
cent employed as agricultural laborers 802
15. White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified ^ by
nationality and general nativity: Number and per cent distribu-
tion . - 803
16. Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as servants
and waitresses 804-806
17. Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed in needle
trades 808,809
18. Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as textile-mill
operatives 811,812
19. Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as clerks, ste-
nographers, bookkeepers, etc 814, 815
20. Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as sales-
women 816, 81 7
21. Female bread winners, classified by nationality and general nativity:
Total number, and number and per cent employed as teachers. 819, 820
A. White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nation-
ality (as determined by country of birth of parents) and general
nativity: Number and per cent in each specified occupation 821-829
B. White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nation-
ality (as determined by country of birth of parents) and general
nativity : Number and per cent in each specified occupation. . 830-838
OCCUPATIONS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND GENERATIONS OF
IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES,
The purpose of this report is to show the difference between the
first and second generations of immigrants as regards the occupations
in which they engage. The term "first generation," as here used, is
applied to those who are themselves immigrants — that is, were born
in foreign countries. The term "second generation" is applied to
those who are the native children of immigrants — that is, were born
in this country of parents who were born abroad. The report is
based upon original and unpublished data in possession of the Bureau
of the Census.
The tables presented give the number of breadwinners ten years of
age or over in each generation, classified by occupation. The term
"breadwinner " is here used to include everyone who is engaged in any
gainful occupation. It includes the banker, therefore, as well as the
bootblack. The figures are shown separately for each foreign nation-
ality which can be distinguished upon the basis of census returns, the
classification by nationality being a classification according to the
country in which the parents were born. Thus an Italian, as the term
is here used, means a person whose parents were born either both in
Italy or one in Italy and the other in the United States. An Italian
immigrant is classed as an Italian of the first generation, and it is
probable that he, like his parents, was born in Italy, although he may
have been born in some other foreign country. An Italian of the
second generation means a person born in the United States whose
parents, one or both, were immigrants born in Italy.
Of course this classification, based on the country in which parents
were born, is not equivalent to a classification by race. Austria, for
instance, includes a number of diverse races. But these can not be
distinguished on the basis of census returns. We know that compara-
tively few of the natives of Russia who migrate to the United States
are Russians in the ethnical sense of the word. The great majority
of them are racially classed as Hebrews, Poles, and Lithuanians. In
other cases, however, the country of birth practically defines the
races. This is true of such countries as Ireland, Scotland, France,
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the inhabitants of each of these
countries being mainly homogeneous as regards race. From the
classification by country of birth the census of 1900, however, made
two rather important deviations: It separated the Poles — defined
as persons who speak Polish and were born in what was formerly
Poland — from the other natives of Austria, Prussia, and Russia;
and it distinguished between the French Canadians and the English
Canadians in the case of persons born in Canada.
72289°— VOL 1—11 50 777
778
The Immigration Commission.
The subject of this report is presented first by occupations or occu-
pation groups, with a view to readily determining the differences
amono- foreign nationalities as regards their representation in certain
typical or important occupations. This forms Part I of the com-
plete report. In Part II of the complete report the occupational
classification is presented by nationalities, so as to bring together
the occupational data relating to each nationality.
The summary herewith presented consists of an abstract or con-
densation of Part I, followed by two tables (A and B), which show
the occupational classification of each nationality. Lack of space
forbids any attempt to summarize the text comment and analysis
contained hi Part II of the full report.
MALE BREADWINNERS.
The following table shows the number of male breadwinners in
the first and second generations of each of the nationalities distin-
guished in the census occupational statistics :
TABLE 1.— White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality and
general nativity: Number and per cent distribution.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
First generation
(born abroad).
Second generation
(born in United
States).
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Total
4,886,731
100.0
4, 143, 158
100.0
Austrian
153,033
71,389
191,159
168.421
82,652
439,031
51,431
1,276,046
88,440
714, 222
276, 438
171,006
183,055
191, 599
129,901
297,307
60,391
341,210
3.1
1.5
3.9
3.4
1.7
9.0
1.1
26.1
1.8
14.6
5.7
3.5
3.7
3.9
2.7
6.1
1.2
7.0
14,587
32,707
177, 787
95,338
23,097
442, 865
55, 152
1,491,839
3,880
1,090^103
16i 986
85,658
25,975
14, 598
111. 195
67. 407
34; 751
359,233
.4
.8
4.3
2.3
.6
10.7
1.3
36.0
.1
26.3
.4
2.1
.6
.4
2.7
1.6
.8
8.7
Bohemian
Canadian, English
Canadian, French.
Danish .
English and Welsh
French
German
Hungarian . .
Irish...
Italian
Norwegian
Polish
Russian
Scotch . . .
Swedish
Swiss
Other foreign
Some of these nationalities are represented by very small numbers
in the second generation as compared with the first. This is notably
true as regards the Austrians, the Hungarians, the Italians, the
Poles and the Russians. It results from the fact that the immigra-
lon of these nationalities is of comparatively recent origin, so that the
ond generation at present consists principally of children and young
persons, few of whom are old enough to take up an occupation.
As regards some of these nationalities it might be said indeed that
there is no second generation as yet, but only the beginnings of a
second generation or a second generation not yet grown up. Never-
theless the figures, meager though they are, afford some indication
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 779
of the start which the second generation is making. But in draw-
ing comparisons with the first generation the youthfulness of the
second generation should be borne in mind, it being a factor which
tends to give an undue prominence to those occupations in which
children are commonly employed.
As a result of these variations in the relative size of the two gen-
erations the racial composition of the first generation of foreign
breadwinners differs in a marked degree from that of the second.
Thus of the first generation of male breadwinners of foreign origin,
26.1 per cent are Germans and 14.6 per cent are Irish; while in the
second generation these percentages are much larger, the percent-
age of Germans ^being 36 and that of Irish, 26.3. The first genera-
tion, therefore, is 40.7 per cent Irish and German, the second 62. &
Eer cent. Accordingly the characteristics of the Irish and Germans
ave more influence upon the second generation, taken as a whole,
than upon the first.
On the other hand, the Italians, Poles, and Kussians constitute,
respectively, 5.7, 3.7, and 3.9 per cent of the first generation, as com-
pared with 0.4, 0.6, and 0.4 per cent of the second generation. In
the aggregate these three nationalities represent 13.3 per cent of the
first generation and only 1.4 per cent of the second.
Because of this difference in the racial composition of the two gen-
erations it becomes difficult to determine the significance of the dif-
ference between the two generations as regards the occupations
which they follow unless the comparison is made for each nationality
separately. This could not be done upon the basis of any published
census figures; therefore it was deemed desirable to go back to the
original data in order to make these classifications by nationality.
The results of that work are presented in this report.
In the table which is appended (pp. 821-829), the male bread-
winners in the first and in the second generations of each nationality
are classified by occupations.
The census classification distinguishes 140 different occupations
or occupation groups. In the text which follows, attention is directed
to some of the more important occupation groups, the first group
considered being that composed of persons returned by the census
as "laborers (not specified)." Other occupation groups are dis-
cussed in the order here named : Miners ; iron and steel workers ; tex-
tile-mill operatives; the building trades; clerical pursuits; salesmen,
agents, and commercial travelers ;" prof essional pursuits; agriculture.
GENERAL LABORERS.
In the United States census persons returned as laborers, or day
laborers, or general laborers, without specification of the kind of work
on which employed, were classified under the designation "laborers
(not specified)." Probably this indicates, as a rule, employment in
unskilled manual labor requiring only ordinary intelligence and
commanding comparatively low wages. About one-tenth of the total
number of male breadwinners enumerated by the census are in this'
occupation group.
Among the foreign-born, or immigrants, the percentage of general
laborers (14.4) is much higher than among the native white Ameri-
cans. But among the native white of foreign parentage the per-
780
The Immigration Commission.
centage (8.6) is not much larger than it is among the native white of
native parentage (8), the small difference suggesting that the children
of foreigners are not much more disposed or constrained to earn
their living by unskilled manual labor than are the children of
native Americans.
But this statement does not hold good of all sections and commu-
nities. In the large cities the native white whose parents were for-
eigners by birth are employed as general laborers to a much greater
extent than the native white whose parents were native Americans;
in the smaller cities and country districts there is less difference be-
tween these classes in this respect. But everywhere the proportion
of laborers is greater among the foreign-born, or immigrants, than
among either class of native white; and in general these three classes
appear to be more sharply differentiated in the city than in the
country.
The following table gives the percentage of laborers in the first and
second generations for each of the principal nationalities that can be
distinguished on the basis of census returns:
TABLE 2. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as laborers.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Laborers.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
2,516,263
10.5
Native white of native parentage
12,013,566
9,029,889
961,444
1,063,538
8.0
11.8
White of foreign parentage o
First generation (foreign-born) a
4,886,731
4, 143, 158
706, 093
357, 445
14.4
8.6
Second generation (native-born). .
First generation
167, 620
29,880
17.8
153,033
14,587
28,802
1,078
18.8
7.4
Second generation
First generation
<• 104, 096
71 389
12,655
12.2
Second generation
Canadian Fnglish
32,707
2,659
8.1
First generation... •
368,946
191 159
37, 487
10.2
Second generation
Canadian, French
177, 787
18,245
10.3
First generation...
263,759
IfiS 491
38, 131
14.5
Second generation.
Danish
95,338
12, 749
13.4
First generation. . .
105,749
10,451
9.9
Second generation . .
English and Welsh
23,097
8,251
2,200
10.0
9.5
First generation
881,896
490 noi
58, 760
6.7
Second generation ...
French
442,865
30, 499
6.4
6.9
Flrrt generation.. '
106,583
8,355
7.8
Second generation
55. 152
4,004
4,351
7.8
7.9
• Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
Occupation^ of Immigrants in the United States. 781
TABLE 2. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as laborers — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Total
Laboi
rers.
number.
Number.
Per cent.
White foreign parentage— Continued.
German
2,767 885
241 403
8 7
First generation
1 276,046
129 582
10 2
Second generation
1 491 839
111 821
7 5
Hungarian
92 320
20 029
21 7
.
First generation
88 440
19 759
22 3
Second generation
3 880
270
7 o
Irish
1 804 325
269 893
15 0
First generation
714 222
158 933
22 3
Second generation
1 090 103
110 960
10 2
Italian
293 424
93 883
32 o
First generation
276 438
91 778
33 2
Second generation
16 986
2 105
12 4
Norwegian
256 664
22 399
8 7
First generation
171 006
16 271
9 5
Second generation
85 658
6 123
7 2
Polish
203 OCO
57 313
27 4
First generation
183 055
53 232
29 i
Second generation. .
25 975
4 081
15 7
Russian
206 197
14 645
7 i
First generation
191 599
13 959
7 3
Second generation . ,
14 598
'686
4 7
Scotch
241 096
14 284
5 9
First generation
129 901
7 348
5 7
Second generation
111 195
6 936
6 2
Swedish
364 714
44 311
12 1
First generation
297 307
37 940
12 8
Second generation
67 407
6 371
9 5
Swiss
95 142
7 787
8 2
First generation
60 391
5 255
8 7
Second generation
34 751
2 532
7 3
Other foreign o
700 443
81 872
11 7
First generation a
341 210
48 098
14 1
Second generation
359 233
33 774
9 4
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian
2 914 323
491 281
16 9
o Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
In the first generation of Italians in the United States 33.2 per cent
of the male breadwinners are laborers. This is the highest percentage
of laborers shown for any class of immigrants that can be distinguished
in the census. The Poles rank second, with a percentage of 29.1;
then come the Irish and the Hungarians, each with a percentage of
22.3. It is notable that in each of these nationalities the second gen-
eration as compared with the first shows a very marked reduction in
the percentage of laborers. Thus the percentage of Italians declines
from 33.2 in the first generation to 12.4 in the second. Among the
782
The Immigration Commission.
Poles the decline is from 29.1 to 15.7; among the Irish from 22.3 to
10 2- and among the Hungarians from 22.3 to 7. In the case of the
English Canadian, Danish, English and Welsh, and Scotch the per-
centage remains about the same, or perhaps shows a slight advance
in the second generation.
MINERS AND QUARRYMEN.
Mining is an occupation which employs a large proportion of for-
eigners or immigrants. In the census of 1900, 44.3 per cent of the
total number of males reported as miners and quarrymen were of
foreign birth, or immigrants; and 61.2 per cent were of foreign
parentage, being either immigrants or the children of immigrants.
TABLE 3. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as miners and quarrymen.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Miners and quarry-
men.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
569,541
2.4
Native white of native parentage . ...
12,013,566
9,029,889
183,925
345, 276
1.5
3.8
W hite of foreign parentage o . . .
First generation (foreign-born) a
4,886,731
4,143,158
249,042
96,234
5.1
2.3
Second generation (native-born) ...
Austrian
167, 620
29,563
17.6
First generation
153,033
14,587
28,854
709
18.9
4.9
Second generation
Bohemian
104,096
1,821
1.7
First generation
71,389
32,707
1,567
254
2.2
.8
Second generation
Canadian, English..
368, 946
5,066
1.4
First generation
191,159
177,787
2,919
2,147
1.5
1.2
Second generation
Canadian, French
263, 759
2,520
1.0
First generation
168,421
95,338
1,717
803
1.0
.8
Second generation
Danish
First generation . .
105, 749
1,281
1.2
82,652
23,097
1,014
267
1.2
1.2
Second generation
English and Welsh
First generation . . .
881,896
70,017
7.9
439,031
442,865
44,918
25,099
3,958
10.2
5.7
French
generation
106,583
3.7
Second generation....
German.
55,152
1,013
1.8
First generation . . .
2,767,885
35,925
1.3
Second generation
Hungarian
1,491,839
16,887
1.1
First generation...
92,320
26,944
29.2
Second generation . .
« Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were
3,880
394
10.2
aatives of the United States.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 783
TABLE 3. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as miners and quarrymen — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Miners and quarry-
men.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Irish
1,804,325
51,313
2.8
First generation
714,222
1,090,103
22,892
28,421
3.2
2.6
Second generation
Italian...
293,424
25,999
8.9
First generation
276,438
16,986
25,465
534
9.2
3.1
Second generation
Norwegian . . .
256,664
2,596
1.0
First generation
171,006
85,658
209,030
2,180
416
1.3
.5
Second generation
Polish
15,316
7.3
First generation
183,055
25,975
14,024
1,292
7.7
5.0
Second generation.
Russian.
206, 197
7,781
3. S
First generation .
191,599
14,598
7,585
196
4.0
1.3
Second generation
Scotch . .
241,096
15,938
6.6
First generation
129,901
111,195
9,740
6,198
7.5
5.6
Second generation .
Swedish
364,714
13,821
3.8
First generation
297,307
67,407
12,434
1,387
4.2
2.1
Second generation
Swiss ...
95,142
1,612
1.7
First generation
60,391
34,751
1,115
497
1.8
1.4
Second generation
Other foreign o .. . .
700,443
33,805
4.8
First generation a
341,210
359,233
2,914,323
24,085
9,720
4oT3lb~
7.1
2.7
1.4
Second generation
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian . . .
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
Over 5 per cent (5.1) of the white male breadwinners born in for-
eign countries are employed as miners and quarrymen. For the
native white whose parents were born in foreign countries the propor-
tion employed in mining is less than half as large, being 2.3 per cent;
for native white whose parents also were natives the corresponding
percentage is only 1.5.
The nationalities which contribute most largely to this occupation
in proportion to their number are the Hungarians, Austrians, Eng-
lish and Welsh, Italians, Poles, and Scotch. For these and for all
other foreign nationalities, almost without exception, the percentage
of miners is much smaller in the second generation than in the first.
IRON AND STEEL WORKERS.
In the census classification the iron and steel workers include
employees of foundries, furnaces, and rolling mills. The total num-
ber employed in this occupation is hardly more than one-half as
784
The Immigration Commission.
great as the number employed as miners and quarrymen. Nor is the
foreign element quite as prominent as it is in mining, 35.9 per cent of
the iron and steel workers being of foreign birth, and 63 per cent
being of foreign parentage.
TABLE 4. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total num-
ber, and number and per cent employed as iron and steel workers.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Iron and steel workers.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
287,427
1.2
Native white of native parentage
12.013,566
9,029,889
94,228
180,879
.8
2.0
White of foreign parentage a
First generation (foreign-born) a
4,886,731
4,143,158
103, 214
77, 665
2.1
1.9
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian ...
167, 620
6,035
3.6
First generation
153,033
14,587
5,852
183
3.8
1.3
Second generation
Bohemian
104,096
2,277
2.2
First generation
71,389
32, 707
1,672
605
2.3
1.8
Second generation
Canadian, English
368, 946
3,741
1.0
First generation
191,159
177,787
2,171
1,570
1.1
.9
1.4
Second generation
Canadian, French
263,759
3,814
First generation
168,421
95,338
2,382
1. 432
1.4
1.5
Second generation
First generation
105, 749
952
.9
82,652
23,097
811
141
1.0
.6
Second generation
English and Welsh
First generation
881,896
19,769
2.2
439,031
442,865
11,601
8, 168
2.6
1.8
Second generation
French
106,583
1,307
1.2
Second generation
51,431
55, 152
601
706
1.2
1.3
German
First generation
2,767,885
1 97fi 04fi
49, 576
1.8
Second generation
Hungarian
1,491,839
27,400
1.8
First generation...
92,320
4,732
5.1
Second generation
Irish
3,880
53
5.3
1.4
First generation...
1,804,325
47,363
2.6
Second generation. .
Italian
1,090,103
20, 013
27, 350
2.8
2.5
First generation
293,424
276 4^S
2,697
.9
.9
1.0
Second generation ....
Norwegian .
16,986
165
First generation
256, 664
1,334
.5
Second generation
85, 658
265
.6
.3
• inciatt. also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 785
TABLE 4. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total num-
ber, and number and per cent employed as iron and steel workers — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900-Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Iron and steel workers.
Number-.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Polish
209,030
13,109
6.3
First generation
183,055
25,975
12,OCO
1,049
6.6
4.0
Second generation
Russian
206, 197
1,490
.7
First generation
191,599
14,598
1,422
68
.7
.5
Second generation
Scotch
241,096
4,340
1.8
First generation .
129,901
111,195
2,706
1,634
2.1
1.5
Second generation
Swedish
364,714
7,616
2.1
First generation
297,307
67,407
6,813
803
2.3
1.2
Second generation '
Swiss
95, 142
1,129
1.2
First generation
60,391
34,751
680
449
1.1
1.3
Second generation
Other foreign a
700,443
9,598
1.4
First generation a .
341.210
359, 233
3,974
5,624
1.2
1.6
Second generation
Nftgro; Indian, and Mongolian
2,914,323
12,320
.4
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
The 103,214 white male immigrants employed in iron and steel
works in 1900 formed 2.1 per cent of the total number of white male
immigrants in all occupations. In the second generation of bread-
winners represented by the native white of foreign parentage, the
percentage of iron and steel workers is almost as large, being 1.9; but
of the native white breadwinners of native parentage only 0.8 per
cent were reported in this industry.
As shown by the percentages in the foregoing table, the Poles
and Hungarians, in proportion to their numbers, are employed in
iron and steel works to a greater extent than any other nationality
distinguished in the census classification, and for each of these
nationalities the percentage of iron and steel workers is much smaller
in the second generation than in the first. The contrast may be
partly due to the youthfulness of the second generation, the occu-
pation here considered being one which affords comparatively few
opportunities for the employment of children.0 Those nationalities,
such as the German and Irish, which are represented by an older
second generation, include almost or quite as large a percentage of
iron and steel workers in the second generation ^as in the first.
On the whole the movement away from this occupation on the
part of the second generation is not so marked as it is in the case of
the two occupations previously considered, namely, that of general
laborers and that of miners and quarrymen. It will be found, in fact,
a The census of 1900 reported as iron and steel workers only 112 children under 14
years of age; 299 were reported as 14 years, and 744 as 15.
786
The Immigration Commission.
that there are several nationalities (French Canadian, French, Ger-
man, Italian, and Swiss) in which the percentage of iron and steel
workers is higher in the second generation than in the first. These,
however, are nationalities in which the occupation does not obtain
any very marked importance in either generation.
TEXTILE-MILL OPERATIVES.
The number of white male immigrants (male foreign-born white)
employed as textile-mill operatives at the time of the Twelfth Census
was 108,877. This represents 2.2 per cent or about one forty-fifth
of the total number of male immigrants employed in all occupations,
and 40.8 per cent or two-fifths of the total number of textile-mill
operatives of all classes.
This industry is conducted in different sections of the country,
under widely divergent conditions, and notably in the North as com-
pared with the South. In New England three-fifths (61.6 per cent)
of the male operatives in textile mills are immigrants, and more than
one-fourth are the native children of immigrants; and the indus-
try absorbs more than one-eighth of the foreign-born male bread-
winners in that section and more than one-twelfth of the second
generation. In the South, on the other hand, there are compara-
tively few immigrants in the total population, and of these only a
small percentage are employed in the textile mills, the operatives
being practically all native white of native parentage.
The following table presents a comparison of the first and second
generations of each nationality, as regards the percentage employed
in the textile mills:
TABLE 5. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as textile-mill operatives.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Textile-mill
operatives.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
266,815
1.1
Native white of native parentage
12,013,566
9,029,889
95, 503
169, 671
.8
1.9
White of foreign parentage a
First generation (foreign-born) «
4,886,731
4, 143, 158
108,877
60,794
2.2
1.5
Second generation (native-born)
First generation
167, 620
1,394
.8
Second generation . .
153,033
14,587
1,284
110
.8
.8
Bohemian
First generation
104,096
432
.4
Second generation....
71,389
32,707
375
57
.5
.2
Canadian, English
First generation . .
368,946
4,044
1.1
Second generation
Canadian, French
177,787
1,615
.9
First generation
263,759
42,529
16.1
Second generation '.I'.'.'.'.'.'.
108,421
95,338
32,174
10,355
19.1
10.9
» Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents
were natives of the United States.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 787
TABLE 5. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total num-
ber, and number and per cent employed as textile-mill operatives — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900-Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Textile-mill
operatives.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Danish.
105,749
273
O.S
First generation
82,652
23,097
207
66
.3
.3
Second generation
English and Welsh
881,896
28,022
3.2
First generation
439,031
442,865
19,588
8,434
4.5
1.9
Second generation
French
106,583
1,357
1.3
First generation
51,431
55, 152
1,065
292
2.1
.5
Second generation .
German..
2,767,885
20,730
.7
First generation
1,276,046
1,491,839
11,977
8,753
.9
.6
Second generation .
Hungarian *
92,320
1,070
1.2
First generation
88,440
3,880
1,017
53
1.1
1.4
Second generation .
Irish..
1,804,325
37,855
2.1
First generation ....
714,222
1,090,103
14,634
23,221
2.0
2.1
Second generation
Italian
293,424
4,098
1.4
First generation ...
276,438
16,986
3,886
212
1.4
1.2
Second generation
Norwegian
256,664
137
.1
First generation . . ...
171,006
85,658
85
52
w.i
Second generation
Polish
209,030
5,962
2.9
First generation
183,055
25,975
5,731
231
3.1
.9
Second generation
Russian
206,197
1,276
.6
First generation
191,599
14,598
1,214
62
.6
.4
Second generation
Scotch
241,096
5,432
2.3
First generation
129,901
111,195
3,598
1,834
2.8
1.6
Swedish
364,714
1,655
.5
First generation
297,307
67,407
1,331
324
.4
.5
Swiss
95, 142
1,281
1.3
First generation
60,391
34,751
1,054
227
1.7
.7
Second generation
Other foreign & ........
700,443
12,124
1.7
First generation b
341,210
359,233
7,228
4,896
2.1
1.4
Second generation
Negro Indian and Mongolian
2,914,323
1,641
.1
a Less than 0.1 per cent.
Uncludes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
788 The Immigration Commission.
This industry is peculiarly adapted for the employment of young
persons and children. But, notwithstanding that, it obtains a pro-
portionately smaller number of recruits from the second generation
of male breadwinners than from the first. Of male workers in
the second generation (native white of foreign parentage) only 1.5
per cent are in the textile mills, while for the first generation, repre-
sented by the foreign-born, the corresponding percentage was, as just
' The French Canadians are employed in the textile mills to a far
greater extent than any other foreign nationality; but the proportion
is hardly more than half as great in the second generation as it is in
the first, the difference for male breadwinners being that between a
percentage of 19.1 in the first generation and 10.9 in the second.
Among the English and Welsh male breadwinners the percentage of
textile-mill operatives declines from 4.5 for the first generation to
1.9 for the second. The figures for the Irish indicate that the second
generation is employed in textile mills to quite as great an extent as
the first. In Massachusetts, a State in which the textile industries
attain great prominence, 6.6 per cent of the male breadwinners in
the first generation of Irish, and 7.1 per cent of those in the second,
are textile-mill operatives. It will be found that this" small increase
represents a decline in the percentage employed in the cotton mills
more than offset by an increase in the percentage employed in other
textile mills.
THE BUILDING TRADES.
The group of occupations here designated as building trades com-
prises carpenters, masons, painters, paper hangers, plasterers, plumb-
ers, roofers and slaters, and mechanics (not otherwise specified).
This occupation group represents for the most part skilled labor,
requiring technical training or apprenticeship and commanding in
general better wages and more favorable conditions of employment
than obtain in the textile mills or in iron and steel works or mines.
The number of men employed in the building trades is more than
twice the number employed in mines and quarries, about four times
the number employed in iron and steel works, and more than four
times the number of male textile-mill operatives.
About one-fourth, 25.5 per cent, of the males employed in the
building trades are immigrants (foreign-born) . It will be remembered
that immigrant whites (foreign-born) constitute 43.7 per cent of
the miners and quarrymen, 40.8 per cent of the textile-mill opera-
tives and 35.9 per cent of the iron and steel workers. It is apparent,
therefore, that they do not attain the same prominence in the build-
trades that they do in these other occupation groups. This is
partly due to the fact that these trades represent a widely diffused class
of employments, not being localized or concentrated in any particular
tions or communities, but being carried on wherever there are
» to be constructed, in the country as well as the city and in
all sections of the United States. The immigrant population, on the
ther hand, is largely concentrated in cities, mill towns and mining
pons, and in certain sections of the United States, notably in the
, ceran secons o e nted States, notably
south, is practically unrepresented.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 789
TABLE 6. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total num-
ber, and number and per cent employed in the building trades.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In building trades.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes .
23,957,778
1,212,952
5.1
Native white of native parentage.
12,013,566
9,029,889
596,811
567,032
5.0
6.3
White of foreign parentage a
First generation (foreign-born) a
4,886,731
4, 143, 158
309,502
257,530
6.3
6.2
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
167,620
4,400
2.6
First generation
153,033
14,587
3,874
526
2.5
3.6
Second generation
Bohemian
104,096
5,070
4.9
First generation .
71,389
32, 707
3,749
1,321
5.3
4.0
Second generation
Canadian, English ..
368,946
31,210
8.5
First generation
191,159
177,787
20,714
10,496
10.8
5.9
Second generation
Canadian, French .
263,759
21,954
8.3
First generation
168,421
95,338
15,908
6,046
9.4
6.3
Second generation
Danish
105,749
7,117
6.7
First generation
82,652
23,097
6,179
938
7,5
4.1
Second generation . .
English and Welsh
881,896
60,456
6.9
First generation
439,031
442,865
32,752
27,704
7.5
6.3
Second generation
French
106,583
6,183
5.8
First generation
51, 431
55, 152
2,571
3,612
5.0
6.5
Second generation . ... ....
German
2,767,885
176,517
6.4
First generation
1,276,046
1,491,839
83,626
92,891
6.6
6.2
Second generation ...
Hungarian
92, 320
1,454
1.6
First generation
88,440
3,880
1,387
67
1.6
1.7
Second generation
Irish
1,804,325
116,691
6.5
First generation
714,222
1,090,103
41,851
74,840
5.9
6.9
Second generation
Italian
293,424
11,337
3.9
First generation
276,438
16,986
10,167
1,170
3.7
6.9
Second generation
Norwegian
256, 664
15,854
6.2
First generation
171,006
85,658
13,555
2,299
7.9
2.7
Second generation
Polish
209,030
6,491
3.1
First generation.
183,055
25,975
5,291
1,200
2.9
4.6
Second generation
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
790
The Immigration Commission.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued
In buildin
I trades.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
number.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage-Continued.
206, 197
7,835
3.8
First generation
191,599
14,598
7,503
332
3.9
2.3
Second generation
241,096
19,984
8.3
129,901
12,480
9.6
Second generation
111,195
7,504
6.7
364,714
29,568
8.1
t generation
297,307
67,407
26,686
2,882
9.0
4.3
Second generation
< ,, - . s<
95, 142
4,865
5.1
60,391
3,124
5.2
Second generation
34,751
1,741
5.0
700, 443
40,046
5.7
341,210
18,085
5.3
Second generation
359,233
21,961
6.1
2,914,323
49,109
1.7
o Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States
There seems to be no marked movement toward this occupation
group on the part of the second generation of foreigners. On the con-
trary, with most of the nationalities distinguished in the census classi-
fication this occupation group has a diminished importance in the
second generation. For the English Canadians the percentage of male
breadwinners employed in the building trades declines from 10.8 in the
first generation to 5.9 in the second; for the French Canadians the
decline is from 9.4 to 6.3. The percentage for the Scotch declines from
9.6 to 6.7. Each of the three Scandinavian nationalities — the Danes,
the Norwegians, and the Swedes — shows a similarly marked decline in
the importance of this occupation group in the second generation. On
the other hand, the Austrians, the French, the Hungarians, the Irish,
and, to a more marked degree, the Italians and Poles, show a tend-
ency to enter these occupations in relatively greater numbers in the
second generation.
On the whole, however, while this comparison of the occupations of
the second generation with those of the first indicates a movement
away from unskilled manual labor and from work in factories and
mines, it does not indicate that the movement is toward the skilled
trades.
CLERICAL PURSUITS.
In 1000 there were 754,476 male breadwinners whose occupation
was that of clerk, copyist, stenographer, typewriter, bookkeeper, or
accountant. These occupations represent varying degrees of ability
ftBd IIM hide a rather wide range of compensation. They are all, alike
sedentary pursuits, implying in most cases no more general educa-
tion than may be readily obtained from the public schools, supple-
mented in the case of bookkeepers and stenographers by some special
tf the total number in these employments 98,748, or 13.1
per cent, were immigrants.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 791
TABLE 7. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, etc.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Clerks, stenographers,
bookkeepers, etc. a
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
754,476
3.1
Native white of native parentage
12,013,566
9,029,889
413, 473
333,485
3.4
3.7
White of foreign parentage b
First generation (foreign-born) b
4,886,731
4,143,158
97,507
235,978
2.0
5.7
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
167, 620
2,917
1.7
First generation . .
153,033
14,587
1,697
1,220
1.1
8.4
Second generation
Bohemian
104,096
1,943
1.9
First generation
71,389
32, 707
672
1,271
.9
3.9
Second generation
Canadian, English
368,946
17,334
4.7
First generation
191,159
177,787
7,156
10, 178
3.7
5.7
Second generation
Canadian, French
263, 759
4,058
1.5
First generation
168,421
95,338
1,755
2,303
1.0
2.4
Second generation
Danish
105,749
2,133
2.0
First generation
82,652
23,097
1,218
915
42,689
1.5
4.0
47i
Second generation ...
English and Welsh
881,896
First generation
439,031
442,865
16,624
26,065
4,229
3.8
5.9
4.0
Second generation ...
French . . .
106, 583
First generation
51.431
55, 152
1,056
3,173
2.1
5.8
Second generation
German
2,767,885
102,953
3.7
First generation
1,276,046
1,491,839
23, 251
79, 702
1.8
5.3
1.4
Second generation
Hungarian .
92,320
1,336
First generation
88, 440
3,880
875
461
1.0
11.9
Second .generation
Irish .
1,804,325
85,942
4.8
First generation
714,222
1,090,103
15,683
70,259
2.2
6.4
Second generation
Italian ....
293, 424
2,677
.9
First generation
276, 438
16,986
1,596
1,081
.6
6.4
Second generation
Norwegian
256, 664
4,455
1.7
First generation
171,006
85,658
1,977
2,478
1.2
2.9
Second generation
Polish
209,030
2,166
1.0
First generation
183,t)55
25, 975
1,118*
1,048
.6
4.0
Second generation
a Includes bookkeepers and accountants, clerks and copyists, stenographers and typewriters.
& Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
792
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 7.— Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, etc.—
Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Clerks, stenographers,
bookkeepers, etc.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
206, 197
5,868
2.8
First generation
191,599
14,698
4,163
1,705
2.2
11.7
Second generation
Scotch
241,096 12,270
5.1
Klrst generation . .
129,901
111,195
5,391
6,879
4.2
6.2
Second generation
Swedish .. ...
364,714
7,391
2.0
First 'generation ...
297,307
67,407
3,750
3,641
1.3
5.4
Second generation
Swiss
95, 142
2,306
2.4
First generation ,
60.391
34,751
922
1,384
1.5
4.0
4.4
Second generation
Other foreign « '
700,443
30,818
First generation a
341,210
359,233
8,603
22,215
2.5
6.2"
Second generation
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian .
2,914,323
7,518
.3
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
f There is a marked difference between the first and second genera-
tions of male breadwinners as regards the extent to which they enter
this class of occupations. Only 2 per cent of the foreign-born white
are clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, etc., as compared with 5.7 per
cent of the native white whose parents were foreign-born. These
occupations, therefore, have more than twice the relative importance
:n the second generation that they have in the first.
In the larger cities, where the demand for employment in clerical
pursuits is greatest, more than one-tenth (10.9 per cent) of the second
generation of male breadwinners were reported in these occupations
as compared with 3.4 per cent of the first generation.
Without exception each foreign nationality distinguished in the
census classification shows a considerable increase in the percentage
>f clerks, stenographers, and bookkeepers in the second generation of
EspeciaUy marked is the contrast in this respect
between the first and second generations of Austrians, Hungarians,
sians, and Italians. Among the Hungarian immigrants, for
instance, only 1 per cent of the male breadwinners are clerks, book-
rs, and stenographers; but in the second generation this per-
ntage becomes 11.9. For Austrians the corresponding percent-
ST?V Til 7 ' Jreupe^tiv^T^for Italians> °-6 and 6-4; &r Rus-
The English Canadians, the English and Welsh,
the Scotch have a higher percentage for the first generation, but
CaradiZr«6d an,adKa^Ce for.ti" second Senerati™ The French
TtowTrH Pn?6ar 1° be th-* natlon,alit^ which shows th° least inclina-
toward clerical pursuits on the part of the second generation.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 793
SALESMEN, AGENTS, AND COMMERCIAL TRAVELERS.
The occupations of salesmen, agents, and commercial travelers are
believed to be sufficiently similar in character to be combined in a
single group for the purpose of the comparisons under consideration,
although the broad term " agent" doubtless includes a good many
persons who are not engaged in selling goods or products. The group
thus obtained is somewhat larger than the group of clerks, stenogra-
phers, and bookkeepers, and comprises a somewhat larger proportion
of immigrants. 'The 125,442 salesmen, etc., who are immigrants,
represent 16 per cent of the total number of males in these occupations
and 2.5 per cent of the total number of male immigrants who are
breadwinners.
In the second generation of male breadwinners the percentage of
salesmen increases to 4.8 and is larger than the corresponding per-
centage for the native white of native parentage. The latter fact
appears to be due to the greater concentration of the foreigners and
their children in cities or commercial centers. When the comparison
is confined to that part of the population which lives in cities of over
50,000 inhabitants, it will be found that 10.3 per cent of the male
breadwinners of native birth and native parentage are employed as
salesmen, in comparison with 4 per cent of the immigrants (foreign-
born white) and 7.6 per cent of the native children of immigrants
(native white of foreign parents).
TABLE
8. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total num-
ber, and number and per cent employed as salesmen, etc.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total.
number.
Salesmen, etc.o
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
785,294
3.3
Native white of native parentage
12,013,566
9,029,889
454, 301
325, 152
3.8
3.6
W hite of foreign parentage &
First generation (foreign-born) &
4,886,731
4,143,158
124,264
200,888
2.5
4.8
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
167,620
4,078
2.4
First generation
153,033
14,587
3,090
988
2.0
6.8
Second generation . .
Bohemian
104,096
2,254
2.2
First generation
71,389
32,707
1,113
1,141
1.6
3.5
Second generation
Canadian, English...
368,946
17,313
4.7
First generation
191,159
177,787
8,381
8,932
4.4
5.0
Second generation
Canadian, French . .
263,759
6,755
2.6
First generation
168,421
95,338
3,524
3,231
2.1
3.4
Second generation
Danish .... ....
105,749
2,513
2.4
First generation
82,652
23,097
1,679
834
2.0
3.6
Second generation
a Includes commercial travelers, salesmen, and agents.
ft Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
72289°— VOL 1—11-
-51
794
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 8.— Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total num-
ber, and number and per cent employed as salesmen, etc. — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Salesmen, etc.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
English and Welsh :
881,896
38,591
4.4
439,031
442,865
16,075
22,516
3.7
5.1
French
106,583
4,213
4.0
First generation
51,431
55, 152
1,241
2,972
2.4
5.4
Second generation
German
2,767,885
110,764
4.0
First generation .
1,276,046
1,491,839
33,854
76,910
2.7
5.2
Second generation
Hungarian
92,320
1,923
2.1
First generation
88,440
3,880
1,580
343
1.8
8.8
Second generation
Irish
1,804,325
63,684
3.5
First generation
714,222
1,090,103
16,212
47,472
2.3
4.4
Second* generation
Italian
293,424
2,894
1.0
First generation
276,438
16,986
2,100
794
.8
4.7
Second generation
Norwegian
256,664
6,259
2.4
First generation
171,006
85,658
3,055
3,204
1.8
3.7
Second generation
Polish
209,030
4,029
1.9
First generation
183,055
25,975
2,848
1,181
1.6
4.5
Second generation
First generation
206, 197
10,729
5.2
191,599
14,598
9,078
1,651
4.7
11.3
Second generation
Scotch
241,096
11, 120
4.6
Second generation
129,901
111,195
5,219
5,901
4.0
5.3
First generation...
364, 714
297 307
7,475
4 562
2.0
1.5
4.3
Second generation
Swiss
67,407
2,913
First generation...
95, 142
2,304
2.4
Second generation
Other foreign «
34,751
1,406
4.0
First generation a.
700,443
041 91 o
28,254
4.0
Second generation
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian
359,233
18,499
5.1
2,914,323
5,841
.2
* Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United State
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 795
the Hungarians, Poles, and Austrians. The tendency is hardly less
marked for the Scandinavian nationalities and the Germans. It is
on the whole less striking for the French Canadians, the English and
Welsh, the Irish, and the Scotch.
This occupation group does not, however, attain the same impor-
tance in the second generation as the occupation group representing
clerical pursuits, although in the first generation it has greater impor-
tance. Or, briefly stated, in the first generation there are more sales-
men than clerks, in the second more clerks than salesmen. Conse-
quently, although each of these two occupation groups shows an
advance in the second generation as compared with the first, the
clerk's occupation shows a much greater advance than the salesman's.
Of course in these general statements the terms " clerk" and " sales-
man" are used in a broad sense to include the allied occupations
classed with them in the tabular presentation.
PROFESSIONAL SERVICE.
Only a small proportion, 3.5 per cent, of the total number of male
breadwinners in the United States are employed in professional pur-
suits or professional service. Naturally, the proportion is still smaUer
in the case of immigrants, the percentage - being 2.4. In the second
generation it increases to 3.6.
Of the total number of white males engaged in professional pursuits,
64.1 per cent are native children of native Americans, 14.2 per cent
are immigrants, and 17.7 per cent the children of immigrants. In
cities 22.6 per cent of the professional classes are immigrants and 26.1
per cent are children of immigrants.
The table given below shows the number and percentage of immi-
grants and of native white children of immigrants in each professional
pursuit. Thus it indicates that 14.3 per cent of the actors and pro-
fessional showmen are immigrants, and 26 per cent are the children
of immigrants. Noticeably large are the percentages of immigrants
among artists and musicians and the percentage of children of
immigrants among electricians.
TABLE 9. — Male breadwinners employed in professional service: Number and per cent
of foreign-born and of native white of foreign parentage, in each specified occupation.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Occupation.
Total
number.
Foreign-born.
Native white of
foreign parentage.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
All professional pursuits
833,362
28,013
28, 518
13,875
108,537
28,896
50,373
43,451
27,905
113,693
12,918
39,887
82, 164
124,826
118, 748
11,558
119,933
3,993
6,475
4,379
23,618
2,537
8,200
6,301
3,643
7,210
2,927
13,845
10,434
13,980
10,067
2,324
14.4
14Ts"
22.7
31.6
21.8
8.8
16.3
14.5
13.1
6.3
22.7
34.7
12.7
11.2
8.5
20.1
147,171
7,271
7,173
3,102
13,032
4,914
15,896
8,198
5,280
19,826
2,873
9,206
15,362
16,718
16,034
2,286
17.7
26^0
25.2
22.4
12.0
17.0
31.6
18.9
18.9
17.4
22.2
23.1
18.7
13.4
13.5
19.8
Actors, professional showmen, etc
Architects designers draftsmen, etc
Artists and teachers of art
Clergymen
Dentists
Electricians
Engineers (civil etc ) and surveyors
Journalists. .
Lawyers
Literary and scientific persons
Musicians and teachers of music
Officials (government) . .
Physicians and surgeons
Teachers .*
Other professional service
796
The Immigration Commission.
The so-called professional class embraces a rather wide variety of
occupations, and it is interesting to learn what the professional pur-
suits are in which foreigners and their children attain their greatest
prominence. The distribution of the professional class by occupa-
tions is shown in the following table:
TABLE 10. — Male breadwinners employed in professional service, classified by general
nativity and occupation: Number and per cent distribution.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Occupation.
All classes.
Native white of
native parents.
Native white of
foreign parents.
Foreign-born
white.
All other.o *
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
dis-
tribu-
tion.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
dis-
tribu-
tion.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
dis-
tribu-
tion.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
dis-
tribu-
tion.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent
dis-
tribu-
tion.
All profes-
sional pur-
suits
Actors.etc
833,362
100.0
534,240
100.0
147,171
100.0
I9~
4.9
2.1
8.9
3.3
10.8
5.6
3.6
13.5
2.0
6.3
10.4
11.4
10.9
1.6
118,617
3,840
6,463
4,340
23,330
2,505
8,195
6,287
3,607
7,183
2,917
13,760
10,392
13,578
9,936
2,284
100.0
- -o ----- 1
3.2
5.4
3.7
19.7
2.1
6.9
5.3
3.0
6.1
2.5
11.6
8.8
11.4
8.4
1.9
33,334
1,964
60
183
15,692
231
187
142
235
805
81
2,789
759
2,029
7,983
194
100.0
28,013
28,518
13,875
108,537
lis.Sflti
50,373
43,451
27,905
113,693
12,918
39,887
82,164
124,826
118,748
11,558
3.4
3.4
1.7
13.0
3.5
6.0
5.2
3.3
13.6
1.6
4.8
9.9
15.0
14.2
1.4
14,938
14,822
6,250
56,483
21,246
26,095
28,824
18,783
85,879
7,047
14,132
55,651
92,501
84,795
6,794
2.8
2.8
1.2
10.6
4.0
4.9
5.4
3.5
16.1
1.3
2.6
10.4
17.3
15.9
1.3
7,271
7,173
3,102
13,032
4,914
15,896
8,198
5,280
19,826
2,873
9,206
15,362
16,718
16,034
2,286
5.9
.2
.5
47.1
.7
.6
.4
.7
2.4
.2
8.4
2.3
6.1
23.9
.6
Architects, etc...
Artists, etc
Clerpvmen
Dentists
Electricians. . .
Engineers (civil,
etc.), etc
Journalists
Lawvers
Literary, etc
Musicians, etc
Officials (Govern-
ment)
Physicians and sur-
geons
Teachers
Other professional
service
a Includes negro, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese.
One-fifth, 19.7 per cent, of the white immigrants reported in pro-
fessional service are clergymen, most of whom probably are preach-
ing to congregations of their fellow countrymen and conducting serv-
ices in their native language; 11.6 per cent are musicians and teachers
of music; and 11.4 per cent are physicians. In the second generation
(native white of foreign parents) the percentage of clergymen in the
professional class declines to 8.9, the percentage of musicians and
teachers of music to 6.3, while the percentage of physicians remains
practically unchanged. There are proportionately more electricians
and lawyers in the second generation than in the first
Ihe table following gives the proportion of professional men in
b and second generations, by nationality.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 797
TABLE 11. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed in professional service.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In professional service.
Number.
Per cent.
Allclasses
23,957,778
833,362
3.5
Native white of native parentage
12,013,566
9,029,889
534,240
265,788
4.4
2.9
White of foreign parentage o
First generation (foreign-born) o
4,886,731
4,143,158
118,617
147, 171
2.4
3.6
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
167,620
2,953
1.8
First generation
153,033
14,587
2,357
596
1.5
4.1
Second generation
Bohemian
104,096
1,632
l.G
First generation
71,389
32,707
979
653
1.4
2.0
Second generation
Canadian, English
368,946
16,607
4.5
First generation
191, 159
177, 787
263,759
8,342
8,265
4.4
4.6
1~4
Second generation
Canadian, French
3,590
First generation
168,421
95,338
2,055
1,535
1.2
1.6
Second generation
Danish
105,749
2,228
2.1
First generation
82,652
23,097
1,545
683
1.9
3.0
Second generation
English and Welsh
881,896
41,293
4.7
First generation
439,031
442,865
19,711
21,582
4.5
4.9
Second generation
French
106,583
5,053
4.7
First generation
51, 431
55, 152
2,650
2,403
5.2
4.4
Second generation
German
2,767,885
74,242
2.7
First generation
1,276,046
1,491,839
30,033
44,209
2.4
3.0
Second generation
Hungarian
92,320
1,195
1.3
First generation
88,440
3,880
1,013
182
1.1
4.7
Second generation . ...
Irish....
1,804,325
53,712
3.0
First generation
714,222
1,090,103
13,910
39,802
1.9
3.7
Second generation ...
Italian.
293, 424
4,414
1.5
First generation
276,438
16,986
3,813
601
1.4
3.5
Second generation
Norwegian.
256,664
4,911
1.9
First generation
171,006
85,658
2.997
1,914
1.8
2.2
Second generation
Polish
209,030
1,894
.9
First generation
183,055
25,975
1,565
329
.9
1.3
Second generation
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
798
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 11 -Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed in professional service— Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900-Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In professional service.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
206,197
4,845
2.3
191,599
14,598
241,096
4,441
404
12,210
2.3
2.8
Second generation
Scotch
5.1
129,901
111,195
5,820
6,390
4.5
5.7
Second generation
Swedish
364,714
6,153
1.7
297,307
67,407
4,547
1,606
1.5
2.4
Second generation
Swiss '••
95,142
2,679
2.8
60, 391
34, 751
1,448
1,231
2.4
3.5
Second generation
Other foreign o
700, 443
26, 177
3.7
341,210
359,233
11,391
14, 786
3.3
4.1
Second generation
Negro Indian and Mongolian
2, 914, 323
33,334
1.1
o Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
The percentage of professional men in the second generation of
English Canadians, English and Welsh, Hungarians, and Scotch is
greater than it is for the native white of native parentage. The
highest percentage shown for any class is that for the second genera-
tion of Scotch. The nationalities in which the percentage shows the
greatest advance in the second generation as compared with the first
are the Austrian, the Hungarian, and the Italian.
The following tabulation indicates the leading professional pursuits,
hi the first and second generations of each foreign nationality :
Nationality.
First generation.
Second generation.
Austrian
Musicians
Lawyers.
Canadian*
English
do
Physicians
Electricians.
French
... .do
Danish
Clergymen
jLiecincians.
English and Welsh
French
German
gsgarian
Italian
Norwegian
Pnltiti
do
Teachers
Clergymen
Musicians
Clergymen
Musicians
Clergymen
Lawyers-.
Physicians.
Electricians.
Lawyers.
Do.
Musicians.
Teachers.
Russian
Bootob....
Swedish...
Swiss
Teachers
Clergymen
do MiilMMIIIill^M^
Lawyers.
Do.
Do.
Teachers.
Do.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 799
AGRICULTURE.
Of the total number of males engaged in agriculture 11.6 per cent
are of foreign birth, and 11.3 per cent are the sons of foreign-born
(white) parents, so that the two classes taken together, representing
respectively the first and second generations of foreign origin, con-
stitute 22.9 per cent of all males engaged in agriculture. Of the
white males engaged in agriculture 25.4 per cent, or one-fourth, are
of either foreign birth or foreign parentage.
The census figures indicate that 21.7 per cent, or more than one-
fifth, of the foreign-born have entered agricultural pursuits, and that
the percentage in the second generation, as represented by the native
white whose parents were foreign-born, increased to 25.9, or more
than one-fourth.
The increased extent to which foreigners of the second genera-
tion are employed in agricultural pursuits represents mostly an
increase in the proportion of farm laborers. In fact, the percentage
of farmers declines slightly in the second generation. Among the
foreign-born white, representing the first generation, the percentage
of farmers is 14.6; among the native white of foreign parents, repre-
senting the second generation, the percentage of farmers declines to
13.3. The percentage of farm laborers, on the other hand, advances
from 5.2 in the first generation to 11.6 in the second. To a large
degree, no doubt, the percentages are influenced by the differences
in the age composition of the two generations, or the fact that while
the first generation, consisting of immigrants, comprises few children
and young persons, the second comprises many such.
TABLE 12. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed in agricultural pursuits.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In agricultural pur-
suits.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
23,957,778
9,458,194
39.5
12,013,566
9, 029, 889
5,688,200
2, 105, 766
47.3
23.3
W hite of foreign parentage &
First generation (foreign-born) a>
4, 886, 731
4, 143, 158
1, 034, 176
1,071,590
21.2
25.9
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
167, 620
16, 126
9.6
153, 033
14,587
12,314
3,812
8.0
26.1
Second generation
Bohemian
104, 096
36, 854
35.4
71,389
32,707
22, 857
13,997
32.0
42.8
Second generation
Canadian, English
368,946
96,651
26.2
191, 159
177,787
41,659
54,992
21.8
30.9
Second generation
Canadian, French
263,759
43, 959
16.7
168,421
95,338
22,850
21, 109
13.6
22.1
Second generation
o Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
800
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 12. — Male breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed in agricultural pursuits — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In agricultural pur-
suits.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Danish
105, 749
46,573
44.0
First generation
82,652
34,951
11, 622
42.3
50.3
Second generation
23,097
English and Welsh
881,896
197, 100
22.3
First generation
439 031
79,340
117, 760
18.1
26.6
Second generation
442,865
French
106,583
26, 200
24.6
First generation
51,431
55, 152
11, 355
14,845
22.1
26.9
Second generation
German
2, 767, 885
775, 175
28.0
First generation
1,276,046
1,491,839
348, 265
426, 910
27.3
28.6
Second generation
Hungarian
92, 320
3,225
3.5
First generation
88,440
3,880
1, 804, 325
2,854
371
3.2
9.6
Second generation
Irish
First generation
276, 953
15.3
714,222
1,090,103
97, 454
179, 499
13.6
16.5
Second generation
Italian
First generation
293, 424
18, 227
6.2
276,438
.16, 986
16, 614
1,613
6.0
9.5
Second generation
256, 664
139,035
54.2
Second generation
171,006
85,658
85, 093
53, 942
49.8
63.0
Polish
209,030
25,492
12.2
Second generation
183,055
25, 975
19,256
6,236
10.5
24.0
Russian
First generation.
206, 197
mcqq
23,774
11.5
Second generation
Scotch
14,598
4,284
50,821
29.3
2L1
First generation....
241, 096
129 901
Second generation. . .
Swedish
111,195
27, 111
24.4
First generation...
364,714
118,873
32.6
Second generation. .
Swiss
67, 407
89, 806
29, 067
30.2
43.1
First generation
95,142
firt ^01
37,428
39.3
Second generation . .
Other foreign o.
34,751
14,597
37.8
42.0
First generation «...
700,443
173, 300
24.7
Second generation .
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian
359,233
83, 477
89, 823
24.5
25.0
'
2,914,323
1,664,228
57.1
« Includes also the few
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 801
The foregoing table shows what percentage of the first and second
generations of male breadwinners in each nationality were engaged
in agriculture.
Naturally the proportions vary widely in different nationalities.
More than half the Norwegians are engaged in agriculture; more
than two-fifths of the Danes; a little less than two-fifths of the
Swiss; more than one-third of the Bohemians, and almost one-third
of the Swedes. For the Austrians, Hungarians, Italians, Poles, and
Russians the proportions are much smaller, being less than one-tenth
in each case.
In all nationalities, however, the proportion engaged hi agriculture
is larger in the second generation of workers than in the first. The
difference is least marked in the case of the Germans, for whom the
percentage shows hardly any change, advancing from 27.3 to only
28.6. For the Irish also the gain is not very great, the percentage
being 13.6 in the first generation and 16.5 in the second. These two
nationalities include more than one-half of the total number of
breadwinners of foreign parentage, and therefore, to a large extent,
determine the percentages shown by aggregates. If from the totals
for foreign-born white and for native white of foreign parentage we
subtract the figures for the first and the second generations of Ger-
mans and Irish, the remainders will represent approximately the
first and second generations of the other foreign races. The result of
this segregation is shown in the following tabular statement :
Parentage.
First generation (born abroad).
Second generation (born in United
States).
Total
number.
In agricultural pur-
suits.
Total
number.
In agricultural pur-
suits.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Total
4,886,731
1,034,176
21.2
4,143,158
1,071,590
25.9
German and Irish, parentage .....
1,990,268
2,896,463
445,719
588,457
22.4
20.3
2,581,942
1,561,216
606,409
465,181
23.5
29.8
All other
The percentage engaged in agricultural pursuits for foreign races,
exclusive of the German and Irish, advances from 20.3 in the first
generation to 29.8 in the second. The comparison suggests a rather
marked trend toward agriculture on the part of the second genera-
tion of foreigners not of Irish or German extraction. But the sig-
nificance of these figures may easily be misunderstood. The agri-
cultural occupation group is made up mainly of two rather distinct
classes — the farmer and the farm laborer. Very few farmers are
under 25 years of age. But most of the farm laborers are below that
age, many of them being hardly more than boys, and not a few being
farmers' sons working on the home farm. Some of them, doubtless,
will become farmers in later life, but others will adopt other occupa-
tions and seek the city.
802
The Immigration Commission.
The following table has been prepared to show how the percentage
of farmers or of farm laborers in a given age period in one genera-
tion compares with the corresponding percentage for the other gen-
eration in the same age period :
TABLE 13.— White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by general nativity
and by age periods: Total number, and number and per cent employed as farmers.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Age.
First generation (bora abroad).
Second generation (born in
United States).
Total
number.
Fanners.
Total
number.
Farmers.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
10 years and over
4,886,731
713,698
, 14.6
4, 143, 158
551,649
13.3
58.331
639,666
1,227,262
1,204,677
875,245
561,497
306, 662
13,391
(°)
13, 687
101,698
164,850
175,834
150,720
105,862
1,047
200,702
1,251, 5*4
1,265,381
870, 458
3^4,061
129, 070
48,241
3,671
$M
178,208
175,877
90,599
38,743
18,201
515
16 to 24 years
2.1
8.3
13.7
20.1
26.8
34.5
7.8
4.0
14.1
20.2
24.2
30.0
37.7
14.0
25 to 34 years . .
35 to 44 years
55 to 64 years
65 years and over
Age unknown
oNo farmers, planters, and overseers of this age.
In each age period the percentage of farmers is larger in the sec-
ond generation than in the first. Thus of the male breadwinners
between 25 and 34 years in the first generation 8.3 per cent are
farmers, but in the same age period of the second generation the
percentage of farmers is 14.1. Similarly, in every other age period
the percentage of farmers is higher in the second generation than in
the first.
As regards the percentage of agricultural laborers, the comparison
between the first and second generation, by age periods, is as follows :
TABLE 14.— White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by general nativity
and by age periods: Total number, and number and per cent employed as agricultural
laborers.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Age.
First generation (bora abroad).
Second generation (born in
United States).
Total
number.
Agricultural laborers.
Total
number.
Agricultural laborers.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
10 years and over
4,886,731
253,895
5.2
4, 143, 158
481, 499
11.6
10 to 15 years
16 to 24 years
58,331
639, 666
1,227,262
1,204,677
875, 245
561, 497
306,662
13,391
10, 171
82,868
65,586
37,334
24,519
18,098
14,285
1,034
17.4
13.0
5.3
3.1
2.8
3.2
4.7
7.7
200, 702
1,251,574
1,265,381
870, 458
374, 061
129, 070
48,241
3,671
71,540
269,721
94,036
29,488
10, 449
3,911
1,875
479
35.6
21.6
7.4
3.4
2.8
3.0
3.9
13.0
25 to 34 years...
35 to 44 years...
45 to 54 years
65 to 64 years
66 years and over
Age unknown
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States.
803
In each age period up to 45 the percentage of agricultural laborers
is larger in the second generation than in the first. In the two
youngest age periods the difference is very marked. Among boys
10 to 15 years, the percentage is 17.4 for the first generation as com-
pared with 35.6 for the second; among young men 16 to 24 years of
age, the percentage in the first generation is 13 and in the second
21.6. Between 45 and 54 the percentage of agricultural laborers is
the same in both generations. Above 54 the percentages are higher
in the first generation than in the second.
Doubtless many of the boys and young men in the second genera-
tion reported as agricultural laborers were the sons of farmers in the
first generation, and probably many of them were employed on the
home farm, for in the census the older children of farmers working
on the home farm were included as agricultural laborers.
It is not possible to analyze the figures for each nationality by age
periods so as to determine what the effect of differences in age com-
position may be as applied to the first and second generation of each
nationality. But in considering the total percentages it should be
borne in mind that a decrease in the percentage of farmers in the
second generation, as compared with the first, may simply be indica-
tive of the comparative youthfulness of the second generation, and
that, on the other hand, an increase in the percentage of agricultural
aborers is likely to be due in part to the same cause.
FEMALE BREADWINNERS.
The number of female breadwinners in the first generation of
foreigners (foreign-born white) in 1900 was 880,415; in the second
generation the number was 1,184,046. The distribution of these two
generations by nationality is shown by the following table:
TABLE 15. — White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality and
general nativity: Number and per cent distribution.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
First generation
(born abroad).
Second generation
(born in United
States).
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Number.
Per cent
distribu-
tion.
Total -
880,415
100.0
1,184,046
100.0
20,403
13,125
52,709
47,505
8,756
62,084
8,763
161,625
12,608
245,792
20,307
22,896
26,153
35,030
21,518
57,045
7,356
56,740
2.3
1.5
6.0
5.4
1.0
7.1
1.0
18.4
1.4
27.9
2.3
2.6
3.0
4.0
2.4
6.5
.8
6.4
5,195
12,588
47,659
31.309
6,821
96,478
12,166
376,339
2,019
388,108
5,751
25,082
12,381
5,781
24,577
24,118
7,765
99,909
0.4
1.1
4.0
2.6
.6
8.1
1.0
31.8
.2
32.8
.5
2.1
1.0
.5
2.1
2.0
.7
8.4
Canadian, English
Canadian, French
Danish
English and Welsh
German
Irish
Italian
Polish
Scotch •
Swedish
804
The Immigration Commission.
The occupational classification of the first and second generations
of female breadwinners in each of seventeen foreign nationality
classes is presented for the entire United States in Table B (pp. 830-838) .
In the text which follows, the statistics regarding the employment
of women and girls of each generation are presented and discussed
with reference to the following occupation or occupational groups:
Servants and waitresses; the needle trades; textile-mill operatives;
clerical pursuits; saleswomen; teachers.
SERVANTS AND WAITRESSES.
Notwithstanding the great increase in the employment of women
in commercial and industrial pursuits, domestic service still represents
numerically the leading occupation for this sex, as is indicated
by the fact that at the census of 1900 the number of women and
girls reported as servants far exceeded the number reported in any
other occupation and comprised, in fact, nearly one-fourth (24.1 per
cent) of the total number reported in all occupations.
Of the immigrant women who were breadwinners, 37.8 per cent, or
more than one-third, were servants or waitresses. In the second gen-
eration, as represented by the native white women whose parents,
one or both, were immigrants, the percentage declines to 21.5 and is
not much larger than it is for the native white women whose parents
also were natives (18.2).
In the cities of over 50,000 population the percentage of servants
and waitresses declines from 38.7 in the first generation of foreigners
to 15.2 in the second; and while the total number of female bread-
winners in the second generation is about one-fifth larger than it is
in the first, the number of servants is less than half as large. In
smaller cities and country districts the percentage of servants in the
second generation is very much higher, being 28, as compared with
a percentage of 36.6 for the first generation. Probably this reflects
the fact that the opportunities for employment of women in those
industrial and commercial pursuits which divert the second generation
from domestic service, are greater in the cities than in the country.
TABLE 16. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as servants and waitresses.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Servants and wait-
resses.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
5,329,292
1,285,031
24.1
Native white Of native T»arpntnoo
White of foreign parentage «
1,927,811
2,064,451
350,287
587, 026
18.2
28.4
First generation (foreign-born) a. . .
880,415
1,184,046
333, 005
254,021
37.8
21.5
Second generation (native-born) ..
Austrian
First generation
25,598
20 40^
8,807
34.8
Second generation . .
5,195
1,041
20.0
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 805
TABLE 16. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as servants and waitresses — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Servants and wait-
resses.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Bohemian ...
25,713
6,316
24.6
First generation
13,125
12,588
3,180
3,136
24.2
24.9
Second generation . .
Canadian, English
100,368
26,664
26.6
First generation
52,709
47,659
17,849
8,815
33.9
18.5
Second generation .
Canadian, French
78,814
8,022
10.2
First generation ....
47,505
31,309
3,722
4,300
7.8
13.7
Second generation
15,577
6,859
44.0
First generation
8,756
6,821
3,970
2,889
45.3
42.4
isTo
Second generation -
English and Welsh
158,562
28,551
First generation
62,084
96,478
13,620
14,931
21.9
15.5
Second generation . .
French
20,929
4,658
22.3
First generation
8,763
12, 166
2,315
2,343
26.4
19.3
Sepond generation
537,964
160,825
29.9
First generation
161,625
376,339
58,716
102,109
36.3
27.1
Second generation
Hungarian
14,627
6,084
41.6
First generation
12,608
2,019
5,837
247
46.3
12.2
Second generation . .
Irish
633,900
194,821
30.7
First generation
245, 792
388,108
132,662
62,159
54.0
16.0
Italian
26,058
2,376
9.1
First generation
20,307
5,751
1,840
536
9.1
9.3
Second generation ... .
Norwegian .
47,978
22,528
47.0
First generation
22,896
25,082
10,440
12,088
45.6
48.2
Second generation
Polish *
38,534
8,813
22.9
First generation
26,153
12,381
6,292
2,521
24.1
20.4
Second generation
Russian . .
40,811
5,851
14.3
First generation
35,030
5,781
4,850
1,001
13.8
17.3
Scotch
46,095
9,476
20.6
First generation
21,518
24,577
5,907
3,569
27.5
14.5
806
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 16.— Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, -and nuniber and per cent employed as servants and waitresses— Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Servants and wait-
resses.
Number.
Per cent
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Swedish
81,163
45,803
56.4
57, 045
24, 118
35,075
10, 728
61.5
44.5
Second generation
Swiss ••--•
15, 121
4,642
30.7
First generation
7,356
7,765
2,586
2,056
35.2
26.5
Other foreign • ...
156,649
35,830
22.9
First generation o
56,740
99, 909
16,278
19, 552
28.7
19.6
Second generation
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian .
1,337,020
347,718
26.0
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
As shown by the foregoing table, the proportion of female bread-
winners employed as servants and waitresses is notably large among
the Scandinavians. Considering the figures for both generations com-
bined, it appears that 56.4 per cent, or more than one-half, of the
Swedish women and girls at work are employed as servants and
waitresses; for Norwegians the corresponding percentage is 47, and
for the Danes 44. The figures for the Swedes, however, indicate a
marked decline in the attractiveness of the servants7 occupation for
the second generation of female breadwinners, of whom only 44.5
per cent are in this occupation, as compared with 61.5 per cent of
those in the first generation. On the other hand, among the Nor-
wegians there is a slight increase in the percentage of servants in the
second generation, and among the Danes there is only a slight decrease.
With the exception of the Swedes, there is no class of immigrant
working women that includes so large a proportion of servants as the
Irish, 54 per cent of the total number being reported in this occupa-
tion. In the second generation of this nationality, however, the propor-
tion shows a very marked decline, becoming only 16 per cent. The
Hungarians are the only other nationality in which the contrast in
is respect Between the two generations is equally striking. Besides
ne JN orwegians, already mentioned, there are two other nationalities
icn are exceptional in having proportionately more servants in the
second generation than in the first. These are the Russians and the
French Canadians Strictly speaking, the Bohemians also come into
class, but the percentage for the second generation of this
lonahty is practically the same as for the first.
THE NEEDLE TRADES.
- ***&»*** by the term "needle trades"
646 fi n w ' .Tlllners' seamstresses, and tailoresses. Of the
3 women and girls reported in these occupations at the census
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 807
of 1900, 120,570, or 18.7 per cent, were immigrants, and 223,247, or
34.5 per cent, were the children of immigrants. The number and
proportion of immigrants in each of these four occupations were as
follows :
In United States: 1900.
Occupation.
Total
number.
Foreign-born white.
Native white of for-
eign parents.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
All needle trades
646,610
120, 570
18.7
223,247
34.5
D ressm akers
344,948
86, 142
146, 542
68,978
57, 175
9,386
27,530
26, 479
16.6
10.9
18.8
38.4
120,945
30,330
44,978
26,994
35.1
35.2
30.7
39.1
Milliners
Seamstresses
Tailoresses
Especially noticeable in this tabulation is the exceptionally large
percentage of foreign-born women among tailoresses. Under this
designation are probably classified most of the women working on the
manufacture of men's clothing, whether in factories or sweat shops
or in custom tailors' shops. More than three-fourths of the tailoresses
are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The number- in
the second generation is, however, hardly larger than it is in the first,
while in the other needle trades the second generation greatly out-
numbers the first, the number of dressmakers in the second generation
being, in fact, more than twice as great as it is in the first, and the
number of milliners more than three times as great.
Occupation.
In New York City: 1900.
Total
number.
Foreign-born white.
Native white of for-
eign parents.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
All needle trades
78,342
37,487
47.8
30,593
39.1
Dressmakers
37,514
7,651
18, 108
15,069
14,562
2,183
10,004
10,738
38.8
28.5
55.2
71.3
16,680
4,106
6,091
3,716
44.5
53.7
33.6
24.7
Milliners .
Seamstresses
Tailoresses
In New York City, as shown by this tabulation, 71.3 per cent
of the women and girls classified as tailoresses are immigrants and
24.7 per cent are the children of immigrants. Taken together these
two classes make up 96 per cent of all females reported for that occu-
pation. Of the seamstresses 55.2 per cent are immigrants and 33.6
per cent children of immigrants, making a total of 88.8 per cent. In
each of these two occupations the second generation is represented by
much smaller numbers than the first; but hi the dressmaker's occu-
pation and the milliner's, on the other hand, the second generation
outnumbers the first. The difference is probably to be explained by
the fact that the latter are skilled trades, better paid and more attrac-
tive than the sweatshop occupations of seamstress and tailoress.
808
The Immigration Commission.
The 120,570 female immigrants employed in the needle trades con-
stitute 13.6 per cent or almost one-seventh- of the total number
employed in all occupations. In the second generation the percentage
employed in the needle trades increases to 18.9, a proportion of almost
one in five.
Of the foreign-born white female breadwinners, representing the
first generation of foreigners, 6.5 per cent were employed as dress-
makers; of the native white female breadwinners whose parents were
foreign-born, representing the second generation, 10.2 per cent were
employed in this occupation. The percentages employed as milliners
were 1.1 for the first generation and 2.6 for the second; the percentages
employed as seamstresses were 3.1 and 3.8, respectively; the percent-
ages employed as tailoresses were 3 and 2.3, respectively. Thus of the
four occupations included under needle trades that of tailoress is the
only one which obtains a relatively smaller number of recruits from
the second generation than from the first.
TABLE 17. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed in needle trades.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In needle trades.a
Number.
Per cent.
All classes .
5,329,292
646,610
12.1
Native white of native parentage
1,927,811
2,064,461
278,373
342,967
14.4
16.6
White of foreign parentage''
First generation (foreign-born) &
880,415
1,184,046
119,720
223,247
13.6
18.9
Second generation (native-born) .
Austrian
25,598
5,176
20.2
First generation
20,403
5,195
4,083
1,093
20.0
21.0
Second generation
Bohemian
25,713
6,658
25.9
First generation
13,125
12,588
2,866
3,782
21.8
30.1
Second generation
Canadian, English
100,368
14,797
14.7
First generation
52,709
47,659
7,738
7,059
14.7
14.8
Second generation
First generation....
78,814
8,059
10.2
47,505
31,309
4,196
3,863
8.8
12.3
Second generation
Danish
First generation
15,577
2,339
15.0
8,756
6,821
1,205
1,134
13.8
16.6
Second generation
English and Welsh
First generation
158,562
23,806
15.0
Second generation
French
96,478
15,653
16.2
First generation...
20,929
87fiS
4,469
21.4
Second generation
12,166
2,774
22.8
I IndudS SSSfiSl ™?Mn«8, tailoresses, and seamstresses.
ides also the few foreign-born white whose parents were r
white whose parents were natives of the United States.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 809
TABLE 17. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed in needle trades — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
In needle trades.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
German
537,964
103,507
19.2
First generation . .
161,625
376,339
21,745
81,762
13.5
21.7
Second generation
Hungarian
14,627
2,217
15.2
First generation ..... .
12,608
2,019
1,830
387
14.5
19.2
Second generation
Irish
633,900
88,065
13.9
First generation
245,792
388, 108
18,428
69,637
7.5
17.9
Second generation . ....
Italian . . . .
26,058
9,052
34.7
First generation
20,307
5,751
7,657
1,395
37.7
24.3
Second generation . ...
Norwegian .
47,978
6,447
13.4
First generation.
22,896
25,082
2,754
3,693
12.0
14.7
Second generation . . ....
Polish
38,534
7,505
19.5
First generation .. .
26, 153
12,381
4,810
2,695
18.4
21.8
Russian
40,811
15,743
38.6
First generation
35,030
5,781
14,421
1,322
41.2
22.9
Scotch
46,095
6,132
13.3
First generation
21,518
24,577
2,421
3,711
11.3
15.1
Swedish
81,163
10,046
12.4
57,045
24, 118
6,042
4,004
10.6
16.6
Swiss
15, 121
2,361
15.6
First generation
7,356
7,765
850
1,511
11.6
19.5
Second generation
Other foreign a
156, 649
26,588
17.0
56,740
99,909
8,826
17,762
15.6
17.8
Second generation
1,337,020
25,270
1.9
o Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
As shown by the above table, the Italians and Russians are the
only nationalities in which the second generation shows a decrease in
the per cent of female breadwinners employed in the needle trades.
In each case the decrease is very marked, the percentage declining from
37.7 to 24.3 in the case of the Italians and from 41.2 to 22.9 in the
case of the Russians. Statistics (not presented here) show that this
decrease is most marked in the occupation of tailoress. The occupa-
tion of milliner, on the other hand, attracts an increased percentage
72289°— VOL 1—11 52
810 The Immigration Commission.
of the breadwinners of the second generation in these as well as in all
other nationalities.
The greatest advance in the relative importance of the needle
trades in the second generation as compared with the first is that
shown by the Irish. Of the Irish immigrant women who are bread-
winners only 7.5 per cent are employed in these occupations, but in
the second generation that percentage advances to 17.9, a proportion
of approximately 2 out of 1 1 . Most of this increase takes place in the
dressmaker's occupation, which attracts 1 1 percent of the female bread-
winners in the second generation of Irish, as compared with only 4.7
per cent of those in the first generation. Other nationalities in which
there is a rather marked movement toward this group) of occupations
on the part of the second generation as compared with the first are
the Germans, the Bohemians, the French Canadians, and the Swiss.
TEXTILE-MILL OPERATIVES.
At the census of 1900 the number of foreign-born, or immigrant,
women and girls reported as employed in textile mills was 87,962.
This represents one:tenth (9.9 per cent) of the total number of foreign-
born women and girls employed in all occupations, and three-tenths
(31.6 per cent) of the total number of female textile-mill operatives of
all classes, native and foreign born.
In the second generation of female breadwinners of foreign parent-
age the percentage of textile-mill operatives declines to 7.7, a decline
which is less marked than that shown in the percentage of servants.
In the first generation the number of textile-mill operatives is less than
one-fourth the number of servants; but in the second generation the
textile-mill operatives are more than one-third as many as the serv-
ants. But there are large sections of the United States in which the
option of entering the textile mills is not open to the woman seeking
employment. More significance therefore attaches to a comparison
dieted to the State of Massachusetts, where the rivalry between
the textile mill and domestic service is probably most acute:
Native
Occupation.
Foreign-
born
white of
foreign-
white.
born
parents.
Servants and waitresses..
Textile-mill operatives
47,837
10,018
37,916
23, 654
™wi 7- f tabul5r statement. m Massachusetts the
r ?n TT"n wo™eVnd girls who are servants exceeds the
tex i e nulls by about one-fourth; but in the next
h servants by
lng **¥" ^%number, and Pontage employed in
^ho\n for the first and second generations of female
each fo
each foreign nationality:
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 811
TABLE 18. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as textile-mill operatives.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Textile-mill
operatives.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
5,329,292
278,343
5.2
Native white of native parentage
1,927,811
2,064,461
98,596
179, 149
5.1
8.7
White of foreign parentage o-
First generation (foreign-born) «
880, 415
1,184,046
87,946
91,203
10.0
7.7
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
25,598
1,583
6.2
First generation
20,403
5,195
1,401
182
6.9
3.5
Second generation . .
Bohemian
25,713
445
1.7
First generation
13,125
12,588
229
216
1.7
1.7
Second generation
Canadian, English ...
100,368
. 5,070
5.1
First generation
52,709
47,659
2,987
2,083
5.7
4.4
Second generation
Canadian, French .
78,814
41,441
52.6
First generation
47,505
31,309
30,241
11,200
63.7
35.8
Second generation
Danish
15,577
268
1.7
First generation .
8,756
6,821
140
128
1.6
1.9
Second generation
English and Welsh
158,562
18,647
11.8
First generation
62.084
96,478
9,804
8,843
15.8
9.2
Second generation
French
20,929
851
4.1
First generation
8,763
12, 166
458
393
5.2
3.2
German
537,964
21,791
4.1
First generation
161,625
376,339
5,958
15,833
3.7
4.2
972
14,627
1,350
First generation
12,608
2,019
1,177
173
9.3
8.6
Second generation
Irish .
633,900
58,814
9.3
First generation
245,792
388, 108
1 18,302
40,512
7.4
10.4
Second generation
Italian
26,058
2,316
8.9
20,307
5,751
1,883
433
9.3
7.5
Second generation
Norwegian .
47,978
250
.5
22,896
25,082
156
94
.7
.4
Second generation
Polish
38,534
5,793
15.0
26,153
12,381
4,907
886
18.8
7.2
Second generation
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
812
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 18 —Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as textile-mill operatives—Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Textile-mill
operatives.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Russian sc
40,811
968
2.4
35.030
5,781
842
126
2.4
2.2
Second generation
Scotch
46,095
4,690
10.2
21.518
24,577
2,761
1,929
12.8
7.8
Second generation
Swedish
81,163
2,037
2.5
57,045
24,118
1,316
721
2.3
3.0
Swiss
15,121
875
5.8
First generation
7,356
7,765
493
. 382
6.7
4.9
156,649
11,960
7.6
First generation* ..
56,740
99,909
4,891
7,069
8.6
7.1
Second generation .
Negro Indian and Mongolian.
1,337,020
598
(*)
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
^ Less than 0.1 per cent.
Of the women and girl workers who immigrated from French
Canada, almost two-thirds (63.7 per cent) are employed in the
textile mills. But in the second generation the proportion is not
much more than one-third, being 35.8 per cent. No other nationality
is represented in the textile mills by percentages that approach
these in either generation. The next highest percentage is that
for Polish immigrant female workers, of whom 18.8 per cent are tex-
tile-mill operatives. In the second generation of this nationality
the percentage declines to 7.2. In the case of the Scotch the decline
is from 12.8 in the first generation to 7.8 in the second; in the case of
the English and Welsh from 15.8 to 9.2.
In the case of the Irish, on the other hand, the percentage of textile-
mill operatives is greater in the second generation of female bread-
winners than it is in the first. This is true to a less marked degree
of the Germans. It will be found that in each of these two instances
the percentage employed in the cotton mills is smaller in the second
generation than in the first, but that this decrease is more than offset
by the increase in the percentage employed in other and less important
branches of the textile industries. For some reason the second gen-
eration of mill operatives seem disposed to discriminate against the
cotton mill. In the first generation of French Canadians, for instance,
the number of female breadwinners (23,073) in the cotton mills is
more than three times the number in other textile mills (7,168); but
m the second generation the numerical difference between these two
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 813
classes of textile-mill operatives largely disappears, there being 6,258
in cotton, as against 4,942 in other textile mills. The Irish show the
same tendency but to a more striking degree, the change in the rela-
tive importance of the two classes of mill operatives here distinguished
being as follows: In the first generation of Irish, 8,275 women and
girls in cotton mills, as against 10,027 in other textile mills; in the
second generation, 9,873 in cotton, as against 30,639 in other textile
mills.
CLERICAL PURSUITS.
WTiile the occupation group consisting of clerks, stenographers, and
bookkeepers includes comparatively few immigrant women or girls,
it attracts large numbers and a greatly increased proportion of the
second generation of female workers. Of the 245,613 females re-
ported as employed in these occupations at the last census, only
20,467, or 8.3 per cent of the total, were 'foreign-born, while 99,708,
or 40.6 per cent of the total, were the native white. whose parents
were foreign-born.
The relative importance of the first and second generation in each
of the three occupations included in this group is indicated by the
following tabular statement:
Occupation.
Total
number.
Foreign-born.
Native white of for-
eign parents.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Total
245,613
20,467
8.3
99,708
40.6
Bookkeepers and. accountants
74,186
85,269
86,158
6,400
8,070
5,997
8.6
9.5
7.0
31,285
34,186
34,237
42.2
40.1
39.7
Clerks and copyists
Stenographers and typewriters
As shown by the table next presented, of the first generation of
female breadwinners only 2.3 per cent are employed in clerical pur-
suits. For the second generation the proportion is 8.4 per cent.
814
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 19.— Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, etc.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Clerks, stenographers,
bookkeepers, etc. a
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
5,329,292
245,613
4.6
Native white of native parentage
1,927,811
2,064,461
124,500
. 120,156
6.5
5.8
White of foreign parentage &
880,415
1,184,046
20,448
99, 708
2.3
8.4
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian
25,598
926
3.6
First generation •
20, 403
5,195
356
570
1.7
11.0
Second generation
Bohemian '
25,713
751
2.9
First generation ..
13,125
12,588
157
594
1.2
4.7
Second generation
Canadian, English....'..
100,368
9,226
9.2
First generation
52,709
3,221
6,005
6.1
12.6
Second generation
47,659
Canadian, French.
78,814
1,657
2.1
First generation
47,505
31,309
435
1,222
.9
3.9
Second generation
Danish
15,577
710
4.6
First generation
8,756
6,821
199
511
2.3
7.5
Second generation
English and Welsh...
158,562
13,352
8.4
First generation
62,084
96,478
20 Q2Q
2,951
10,401
4.8
10.8
Second generation ....
French
First generation
8,763
12,166
143
937
1.6
7.7
Second generation. .
First generation...
537,964
29,818
5.5
161,625
376,339
3,078
26, 740
1.9
7.1
Second generation.
Hungarian
First generation
14,627
514
3.5
12,608
2,019
261
253
2.1
12.5
Irish
First generation...
633,900
245 792
37, 134
3010
5.9
10
Second generation.
Italian.
388, 108
34,124
8.8
First generation...
26,058
20 307
552
2.1
Second generation
Norwegian
5,751
356
6.2
First generation..
47,978
1,763
3.7
Second generation
Polish
25,082
410
1,353
1.8
5.4
First generation....
38,534
884
2.3
Second generation
12,381
538
4.3
esass^
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 815
TABLE 19. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, etc. —
Continued .
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total,
number.
Clerks, stenographers,
bookkeepers, etc.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
Russian
40,811
2,021
5.0
First generation . .
35,030
5,781
1,246
775
3.6
13.4
Second generation
Scotch
46,095
4,074
8.8
First generation
21,518
24, 577
1,169
2,905
5.4
11.8
Second generation
Swedish
81, 163
2,692
3.3
First generation
57,045
24, 118
765
1,927
1.3
8.0
Second generation
Swiss
15,121
721
4.8
First generation . . .
7,356
7,765
130
591
1.8
7.6
Second generation
Other foreign a. .
156, 649
12,281
7.8
First generation o.
56,740
99,909
2,375
9,906
4.2
9.9
Second generation
Negro, Indian, an*d Mongolian
1,337,020
957
.1
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
The increased percentage of clerks, stenographers, and bookkeepers
in the second generation of female breadwinners is very noticeable
in each nationality or foreign -parent age class distinguished in the
foregoing table. It is especially marked in the case of the Aus-
trians, Hungarians, Irish, and Swedes. For the Austrians the per-
centage advances from 1.7 in the first generation to 11 in the second;
for the Hungarians, from 2.1 to 12.5. Exceptionally large percent-
ages are recorded for the second generations of English Canadians and
Russians, but as compared with the first generation the contrast is
not so marked as it is in some other nationalities, including those just
mentioned.
There is no other nationality which has so smah1 a percentage of
clerks, etc., in the second generation of female breadwinners as the
French Canadians. The Poles rank next to them in this respect, and
then the Bohemians.
SALESWOMEN.
In the year 1900 the census reported 17,967 immigrant women and
girls employed as saleswomen, representing 2 per cent of the total
number of female immigrants employed in all occupations. In the
second generation, consisting of the native white whose parents were
immigrants, the number of saleswomen increases to 68,445 and the
percentage to 5.8. The occupation has therefore almost three times the
relative importance in the second generation that it has in the first.
816
The Immigration Commission.
In every nationality without exception the occupation of sales-
woman attracts a larger percentage of the total number of female
breadwinners in the second generation than in the first. The increase
in the percentage for the second generation is striking in the case of
the Irish. Of the Irish immigrant women at work only 1.2 per cent
were reported as saleswomen, but in the next generation the percent-
age advances to 6.2. A similar increase is shown for the Italians,
from 1.6 to 6.8.
In each generation the largest percentage of saleswomen is that
shown for the Russians, a fact which reflects, perhaps, the character-
istics of the Russian Jew, but the contrast between the first and sec-
ond generations in this respect is not so striking here as it is in many
other nationalities.
The Norwegians and the French Canadians appear to have the least
inclination toward this occupation of saleswoman in either the first
or the second generation. Doubtless the differences among the vari-
ous nationalities are influenced by their geographical distribution.
Opportunities for employment as saleswomen are mainly confined
to urban centers and are most abundant in large cities where the big
department stores exist.
TABLE 20. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as saleswomen.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
• "
Saleswomen.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes
5,329,292
149,256
2.8
White of foreign parentage a
1,927,811
2, 064, 461
62,436
86, 395
3.2
4.2
First generation (foreign-born) «. . .
880, 415
1,184,046
17,950
68,445
2.0
5.8
Second generation (nati ve-born)
Austrian
First generation
25, 598
995
3.9
Second generation. .
20,403
5,195
574
421
2.8
8.1
Bohemian
First generation...
25, 713
801
3.1
Second generation. . .
Canadian, English
12,588
572
1.7
4.5
First generation...
100,368
c-> 7f\n
4,044
4.0
Second generation
Canadian, French
47,659
2,448
3.0
5.1
First generation....
78,814
1,736
2.2
Second generation... "
Danish
31,309
633
1,103
1.3
3.5
First generation....
15, 577
438
2.8
Second generation... "
English and Welsh
6,821
122
316
1.4
4.6
First generation....
158, 562
6,510
4.1
Second generation "
96,478
1,621
4,889
2.6
5.1
•Includes also the few f oreign-born white whose parents were nati
:ves of the United States.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 817
TABLE 20. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as saleswomen — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued .
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Saleswomen.
Number.
Per cent.
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
French
20,929
784
3.7
First generation
8,763
12, 166
153
631
1.7
5.2
Second generation .
German . .
537, 964
26, 452
4.9
First generation .... .,, .
161, 625
376,339
3, 730
22, 722
2.3
6.0
Second generation..
Hungarian
14,627
449
3.1
First generation .
12,608
2,019
293
156
2.3
7.7
Second generation . . . „ *
Irish
633,900
27,089
4.3
First generation
245, 792
388,108
2,990
24,099
1.2
6.2
Second generation. ...
Italian
26,058
717
2.8
First generation
20,307
5,751
325
392
1.6
6.8
Second generation
Norwegian
47,978
1,085
2.3
First generation
22,896
25,082
293
792
1.3
3.2
Second generation
Polish..
38,534
1,375
3.6
First generation .
26, 153
12,381
643
732
2.5
5.9
Second generation. .
Russian
40,811
2,767
6.8
First generation . *
35,030
5,781
2,021
746
5.8
12.9
Second generation .
Scotch
46,095
1,785
3.9
First generation ...
21, 518
24,577
595
1,190
2.8
4.8
Second generation
Swedish
81,163
1,507
1.9
First generation .
57.045
24,118
516
991
.9
4.1
Swiss
15,121
501
3.3
First generation
7,356
7,765
118
383
1.6
4.9
Other foreign a
156,649
7,360
4.7
First generation <* .
56,740
99,909
1,498
5,862
2.6
5.9
Second generation
Negro Indian and Mongolian
1,337,020
425
(»)
a Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
6 Less than 0.1 per cent.
818 The Immigration Commission.
TEACHERS.
Teaching in the United States is pre3minently a profession for
women. The number of women reported by the census of 1900 as
employed in teaching was 328,049. This is almost three times the
number of men employed in this profession (118,748), and more than
three times the number of women employed in all other professional
service (103,125). It nearly equals the aggregate number of men
reported in the three great professions of law (113,693), medicine
fl 24,826), and the ministry (108,537). It greatly exceeds the num-
ber of women and girls employed in the textile mills (278,343).
Only 5.3 per cent of the female teachers are immigrants; 27 per
cent are the native children of immigrants, and 63.5 per cent are
the children of native Americans.
The proportion of teachers in the total number of female bread-
winners is 2 per cent for the foreign-born, or immigrants, and 7.5 per
cent for the second generation represented by the native white of
foreign parentage.
The second generation of female breadwinners comprises a larger
proportion of teachers than the first in every nationality with the
exception of the French. This exception is probably due to the
fact that many women born and educated in France migrate to this
country because of the opportunities for teaching the French lan-
guage. The second generation, born in this country, may be not
so well qualified for that line of teaching. The movement toward
teaching on the part of the second generation of female bread-
winners as compared with the first is perhaps most marked among
the Irish and the three Scandinavian nationalities, viz, the Danes,
the Norwegians, and the Swedes. But the percentage of teachers
is highest in the second generation of Canadian English, and almost
as high in the second generation of Scotch. The third highest per-
centage is that for the second generation of English and Welsh.
In fact, the female breadwinners whose parents were Canadian
English, English and Welsh, or Scotch immigrants comprise pro-
portionately more teachers than the female breadwinners whose par-
ents were native Americans.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 819
TABLE 21. — Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as teachers.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
Total
number.
Teachers.
Number.
Per cent.
All classes.. ..
5,329,292
328,049
6.2
Native white of native parentage
1,927,811
2,064,461
208,275
105,994
10.8
5.1
White of foreign parentage a
First generation (foreign-born) o
880, 415
1,184,046
17,325
88,669
2 C
7.5
Second generation (native-born)
Austrian.
25, 598
379
1.5
First generation
20,403
5,195
127
252
.6
4.9
Second generation
Bohemian
25, 713
409
1.6
First generation
13, 125
12,588
92
317
.7
2.5
Second generation
Canadian, English
100,368
9,174
9.1
First generation
52,709
47, 659
2,155
7,019
4.1
14.7
Second generation
Canadian, French
78,814
1,631
2.1
First generation
47,505
31,309
725
906
1.5
2.9
Second generation
Danish
15,577
692
4,4
First generation
8,756
6,821
124
568
1.4
8.3
Second generation .
English and Welsh
158,562
13,370
8.4
First generation
62,084
96,478
1,892
11,478
3.0
11.9
Second generation .
French
20,929
1,558
7.4
First generation . . . .
8,763
12,166
683
875
7.8
7.2
Second generation
German
537,964
21, 177
3.9
First generation
161,625
376,339
3,338
17,839
2.1
4.7
Second generation
Hungarian
14,627
104
.7
First generation
12,608
2,019
42
62
.3
3.1
Second generation
Irish
633,900
35,273
5.6
First generation .
245,792
388,108
3,735
31,538
1.5
8.1
Second generation .
Italian
26,058
191
.7
First generation
20,307
5,751
77
114
.4
2.0
Second generation
Norwegian ....
47,978
2,942
6.1
First generation
22,896
25,082
424
2,518
1.9
10.0
Second generation
o Includes also the few foreign-born white whose parents were natives of the United States.
820
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE 21.— Female breadwinners, classified by nationality and general nativity: Total
number, and number and per cent employed as teachers — Continued.
UNITED STATES : 1900— Continued.
Total
Teacl
iers.
Nationality (as determined by country of birth of parents).
number.
Number.
Per cent
White of foreign parentage— Continued.
polish....!:.:::...:?.
38,534
553
1.4
First generation
26,153
307
1 2
Second generation
12,381
246
2.0
Russian
40,811
278
7
First generation ..
35, 030
148
4
Second generation
5,781
130
2 2
Scotch.
46 095
4 305
9 3
First generation
21 518
812
3 8
Second generation
24, 577
3 493
14.2
Swedish
81 163
2 257
2 8
First generation
57 045
482
a
Second generation
24, 118
1,775
?! 4
Swiss.
15 121
901
6 0
First generation
7 356
244
3 3
Second generation
7 765
657
Q C
Other foreign o
156 649
in son
First generation*!
56 740
• 1 Q18
Second generation
99 909
8 882
c q
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian
1 337 020
10 yon
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 821
'TABLE A. — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent in
each specified occupation. *
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Occupation.
Austrian.
Bohemian.
First genera-
tion (born
abroSd).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
153,033
100.0
14,587
100.0
71,389
100.0
32,707
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
12,314
8.0
3,812
26.1
22,857
32.0
13,997
42.8
Agricultural laborers
3,487
8,016
811
2.3
5.2
.5
2,667
1,071
74
18.3
7.3
.5
4,428
18,094
335
6.2
25.3
.5
8,928
4,961
108
27.3
15.2
.3
Farmers, planters, and overseers
All otners'in this class
Professional service
2,357
1.5
596
4.1
979
1.4
653
3,472
2.0
Domestic and personal service . .
35,390
23.1
1,742
11.9
12,061
16.9
10.6
Laborers (not specified)
28,802
2,018
1,770
2,800
18.8
1.3
1.2
1.8
1,078
166
116
382
7.4
1.1
.8
2.6
9,996
1,064
230
771
14.0
1.5
.3
1.1
2,659
305
114
394
4,986
8.1
.9
.3
1.2
15.2
Saloon keepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
All others in this class . ...
Trade and transportation
19,884
13.0
3,932
27.0
6,688
9.4
Agents
984
425
1,242
1,028
2,223
6,408
294
1,851
3,205
2,224
.6
.3
.8
.7
1.5
4.2
.2
1.2
2.1
1.5
152
294
873
218
31
627
272
734
170
561
1.0
2.0
6.0
1.5
.2
4.3
1.9
5.0
1.2
3.8
395
144
509
863
194
2,053
86
649
847
948
28,804
.6
.2
.7
1.2
.3
2.9
.1
.9
1.2
1.3
151
294
929
591
60
733
393
930
300
605
9,599
.5
.9
2.8
1.8
.2
2.2
1.2
2.8
.9
1.8
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Draymen hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanicalpursuits .
Building trades
83,088
54.3
4,505
30.9
40.3
29.3
3,874
2.5
526
3.6
3,749
5.3
1,321
4.0
Carpenters and joiners
1,635
605
1,229
405
822
1,455
5,852
1,039
1,380
28,854
415
535
12,037
1,284
1.1
.4
.8
.3
.5
1.0
3.8
.7
.9
18.9
.3
.3
7.9
.8
168
38
186
134
85
92
183
242
172
709
208
58
282
110
1.2
.3
1.3
.9
.6
.6
1.3
1.7
1.2
4.9
1.4
.4
1.9
.8
1,947
703
792
307
864
1,041
1,672
926
498
1,567
417
720
4,931
375
2.7
1.0
1.1
.4
1.2
1.5
2.3
1.3
.7
2.2
.6
1.0
6.9
.5
521
92
434
274
325
214
605
643
140
254
438
169
1,198
57
1.6
.3
1.3
.8
1.0
.7
1.8
2.0
.4
.8
1.3
.5
3.7
.2
Masons (brick and stone)
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers
Other building trades .
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers ....
Iron and steel workers
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials etc
Miners and quarrymen
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen
Tailors
Textile mill operatives
In cotton mills
435
849
988
24,553
.3
.5
.6
16.0
15
95
154
1,684
.1
.7
1.1
11.5
48
327
2,266
9,778
.1
.5
3.2
13.7
5
52
420
3,815
<°>.2
1.3
11.7
In all other textile mills
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
All others in this class
« Less than 0.1 per cent.
822
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE A — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation— Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Canadian, English.
Canadian, French.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
191,159
100.0
177,787
54,992
100.0
30.9
168,421
100.0
95,338
100.0
22.1
Agricultural pursuits
41,659
21.8
22,850
13.6
21,109
Agricultural laborers
13,814
22,953
4,892
8,342
7.2
12.0
2.6
25,481
26,347
3,164
8,265
26,405
14.3
14.8
1.8
4.6
14.9
6, 197
12,708
3,945
2,055
3.7
7.5
2.3
10,070
9,872
1,167
1,535
10.6
10.4
1.2
1.6
17.9
All othersln this class
Professional service
4.4
14.9
1.2
Domestic and personal service
28,437
32, 175
19.1
17,083
Laborers (not specified)
19,242
1,306
2,131
5,758
10.1
.7
1.1
3.0
18,245
982
1,548
5,630
10.3
.6
.9
3.2
25,382
1,542
1,062
4, 189
15.1
.9
.6
2.5
12,749
794
785
2,755
13.4
.8
.8
2.9
Saloonkeepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
All others in this class . .
Trade and transportation
44, 192
23.1
42,813
24.1
21,115
12.5
15,526
16.3
Agents
2,534
2,111
4,742
8,169
319
5,505
408
4,794
5,169
10, 441
68,529
1.3
1.1
2.5
4.3
.2
2.9
.2
2.5
2.7
5.5
2,235
2,416
7,296
5,177
248
4,943
1,108
5,617
5,077
8,696
1.3
1.4
4.1
2.9
.1
2.8
.6
3.2
2.9
4.9
25.5
795
378
1,346
5,446
431
3,580
148
2,566
3,336
3,089
90,226
.5
.2
.8
3.2
.3
2.1
.1
1.5
2.0
1.8
53.6
558
442
1,792
3,178
251
1,659
368
2,480
2,101
2,697
.6
.5
1.9
3.3
.3
1.7
.4
2.6
2.2
2.8
42.0
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers. .
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees . . .
All others in this class... .
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Building trades
35.8
45,312
40,085
20,714
10.8
10,496
5.9
15,908
9.4
6,046
6.3
Carpenters and joiners
14,226
1,256
3,408
1,824
3,701
2,747
2,171
3,475
3,007
2,919
1,512
2,422
632
2,429
7.4
.7
1.8
1.0
.9
.4
.1
.8
.6
.5
.8
1.3
.3
1.3
4,985
963
2,847
1,701
1,813
1,982
1,570
2,963
1,956
2,147
1,829
2,022
294
1,615
2.8
.5
1.6
1.0
1.0
1.1
.9
1.7
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.1
.2
.9
10,237
2,214
2,564
893
2,662
5,649
2,382
2,374
938
1,717
457
3, 156
525
32, 174
6.1
1.3
1.5
.5
1.6
3.4
1.4
1.4
.6
1.0
.3
1.9
.3
19.1
2,790
809
1,771
676
1,117
3,426
1,432
1,853
483
803
538
1,742
190
10,353
2.9
.8
1.9
.7
1.2
3.6
1.5
1.9
.5
.8
.6
1.8
.2
10.9
6.7
4.1
.3
12.4
Masons (brick and stone)
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers
Other building trades.
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers
Iron and steel workers. . .
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials, etc. .... •
Miners and quarrymen
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen...
Saw and planing mill employees
Tailors
Textile inili operatives
In cotton mills
In all other textile mills
947
1,482
184
22,616
.5
.8
.1
11.8
564
1,051
297
16,328
.3
.6
.2
9.2
23,720
8,454
168
22,116
14.1
5.0
.1
13.1
6,426
3,927
245
11,857
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives . . .
All others in this class
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 823
TABLE A. — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Danish.
English and Welsh.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (bora
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
82,652
34, 951
100.0
42.3
23,097
11,622
100.0
439,031
100.0
442,865
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
50.3
79,340
18.1
117,760
26.6
Agricultural laborers
8,126
25,303
1,522
1,545
12,398
9.8
30.6
1.8
7,991
2,983
648
683~
34.6
12.9
2.8
3.0
12.5
15, 273
57, 710
6; 357
19,711
50,204
3.5
13.1
1.4
===
4.5
11.4
38,237
74, 225
5,298
21,582
47, 198
8.6
16.8
1.2
=5
10.7
Farmers, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
1.9
Domestic and personal service
15.0
2,896
Laborers (not specified)
8,251
822
957
2,368
10.0
1.0
1.2
2.9
14.7
2,200
101
191
404
9.5
.4
.8
1.7
28, 261
2,793
5, 982
13,168
6.4
.6
1.4
3.0
30, 499
2,356
2,356
11,987
107, 600
6.9
.5
.5
2.7
24.3
Saloonkeepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
All others in this class
Trade and transportation . .
12, 122
3,740
16.2
81,058
18.5
Agents
550
294
904
1,954
118
2,517
55
1,004
1,845
2,881
.7
.4
1.1
2.4
.1
3.0
.1
1.2
2.2
3.5
128
194
667
478
30
393
194
665
410
581
4,156
.6
.8
2.9
2.1
.1
1.7
.8
2.9
1.8
2.5
18.0
6,594
5.620
10, 441
7.932
839
15,221
692
7,638
8,348
17,733
208,718
1.5
1.3
2.4
1.8
.2
3.5
.2
1.7
1.9
4.0
47.5
6,721
6,639
18, 529
10, 626
739
17,234
2,177
13,036
11,831
20, 068
148,725
1.5
1.5
4.2
2.4
.2
3.9
.5
2.9
2.7
4.5
33.6
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Building trades
21,636
26.2
6,179
7.5
938
4.1
32, 752
7.5
27, 704
6.3
Carpenters and joiners
3,344
946
1,451
438
1,736
639
811
1,028
697
1,014
223
642
765
207
4.0
1.1
1.8
.5
2.1
.8
1.0
1.2
.8
1.2
.3
.8
.9
.3
456
96
258
128
214
54
141
298
108
267
177
154
51
66
2.0
.4
1.1
.6
.9
.2
.6
1.3
.5
1.2
.8
.7
.2
.3
13,359
6,686
7,620
5,087
6,460
3,756
11,601
14, 077
9,591
44,918
3,349
894
2,336
19,588
3.0
1.5
1.7
1.2
1.5
.9
2.6
3.2
2.2
10.2
.8
.2
.5
4.5
11,417
3,305
7,479
5,503
4,674
2,266
8,168
10,753
7,897
25,099
4,798
1,494
947
8,434
2.6
.7
1.7
1.2
1.1
.5
1.8
2.4
1.8
5.7
1.1
.3
.2
1.9
Masons (brick and stone)
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers
Iron and steel workers . .
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials, etc
Miners and quarrymen
Printers , lithographers^and pressmen
Saw and planing mill employees
Textile-mill operatives
In cotton mills
13
194
182
7,513
%
2
9.1
18
48
49
1,639
'.2
.2
7.1
7,102
12,486
839
58,557
1.6
2.8
.2
13.3
2,551
5,883
952
45,539
.6
1.3
.2
10.3
In all other textile mills
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
All others in this class
a Less than 0. 1 per cent.
824
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE A — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per
cent in each specified occupation. — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
French.
German.]
First genera-
tion (bora
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (bora
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
51,431
11,355
100.0
55,152
100.0
26.9
1,276,046
348,265
100.0
27.3
1,491,839
100.0
28.6
Agricultural pursuits
22.1
14,845
426,910
Agricultural laborers
2.356
7,415
1,584
2,650
4.6
14.4
3.1
5.2
20.8
5,145
9,047
653
2,403
7,870
9.3
16.4
1.2
"• " "• —
4.4
71,589
263,677
12,999
30,033
5.6
20.7
1.0
185,721
230,790
10,399
44,209
187,019
12.4
15.5
.7
Farmers, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
2.4
3.0
12.5
Domestic and personal service...
10,686
14.3
210,629
16.5
Laborers (not specified)
4,004
968
3,132
2,582
7.8
1.9
6.1
5.0
4,351
814
643
2,062
7.9
1.5
1.2
3.7
129,582
26,647
15,480
38,920
10.2
2.1
1.2
3.1
111,821
24,024
8,345
42,829
7.5
1.6
.6
2.9
Saloon keepers and bartenders
fiervarjt* and waiters,
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
7,858
15.3
13,655
24.8
210,706
16.5
353,376
23.7
Agents. . .
432
344
694
654
178
2,546
41
622
620
1,727
.8
.7
1.3
1.3
.3
5.0
.1
1.2
1.2
3.4
36.7
852
755
2,312
1,249
146
2,521
236
1,727
1,303
2,554
16,379
1.5
1.4
4.2
2.3
.3
4.6
.4
3.1
2.4
4.6
"- —
29.7
11,510
6,648
16,309
28,842
4,883
66,493
1,186
18,960
18,793
37,082
.9
.5
1.3
2.3
.4
5.2
.1
1.5
1.5
2.9
37.3
16,080
19,543
57 819
41,958
4,253
68,718
9,302
52,769
27,405
55,529
, . - ... ,,-_
480,325
1.1
1.3
3.9
2.8
.3
4.6
.6
3.5
1.8
3.7
32.2
Bookkeepers and accountants. .
Clerks arid copyists
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale). . .
Messengers and errand and office boys.. . ,
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees. . .
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pur-
suits
18,882
476,413
Building trades
2,571
5.0
3,612
6.5
83,626
6.6
92,891
6.2
Carpenters and joiners....
1,351
352
635
233
568
542
601
1,065
668
2,945
208
150
577
1,065
2.6
.7
1.2
.5
1.1
1.1
1.2
2.1
1.3
5.7
.4
.3
1.1
2.1
1,703
291
1,042
576
681
334
706
1,048
794
1,013
561
251
220
292
3.1
.5
1.9
1.0
1.2
.6
1.3
1.9
1.4
1.8
1.0
.5
.4
.5
41,974
15,302
19,255
7,095
17,442
19,420
22,176
22,208
17,986
19,038 ,
6,036
7,142
28,316
11,977
3.3
1.2
1.5
.6
.4
.5
.7
.7
.4
.5
.5
.6
2.2
.9
39,246
9,143
26,444
18,058
17,885
10,388
27,400
29,393
20,061
16,887
18,497
7,153
12,541
8,753
2.6
.6
1.8
1.2
1.2
.7
1.8
2.0
1.3
1.1
1.2
.5
.8
.6
Masons (brick and stone).
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers..
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers
Iron and steel workers.
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials, etc
Miners and quanymen.
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen
Saw and planing mill employees. . .
Tailors
Textile mill operatives .
In cotton mills.
In all other textile mills
209
856
120
7,802
.4
1.7
.2
15.2
46
246
214
6,653
.1
.4
.4
12.1
1,932
10,045
10,925
210,121
.2
.8
.9
16.5
1,096
7,657
13,126
205,350
'.5
.9
13.8
Tnba°co and cigar factory operatives. . .
All others in this class.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 825
TABLE A. — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents] and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900-Continued.
Occupation.
Hungarian.
Irish.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Number.
Per
cent.
All occupations
88,440
100.0
3,880
100.0
9.6
714,. 222
97,454
100.0
1,090,103
100.0
16.5
Agricultural pursuits
2,854
3.2
371
13.6
179, 499
Agricultural laborers. . .
1,222
1,413
219
1,013
21,936
1.4
1.6
.2
1.1
24.8
272
89
10
182
391
7.0
2.3
.3
22,805
67, 036
7,613
3.2
9.4
1.1
1.9
30.4
76,478
95,766
7,255
7.0
8.8
.7
Farmers, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
4.7
13,910
39, 802
185, 700
3.7
17.0
Domestic and personal service
10.1
217,322
Laborers (not specified)
19, 759
717
535
925
9,015
22.3
.8
.6
1.0
10.2
270
27
28
66
1,528
7.0
.7
.7
1.7
1.58, 933
13,305
12,341
32, 743
22.3
1.9
1.7
4.6
110,960
20, 441
9,427
44, 878
309,239
10.2
1.9
.9
4.1
28.4
Saloon keepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters.. .
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
39.4
154,443 21.6
Agents..
484
224
636
479
736
2,936
135
893
1,601
891
53,622
.5
.3
.7
.5
.8
3.3
.2
1.0
1.8
1.0
60.6
33
106
342
80
40
168
146
269
23
321
1,408
.9
2.7
8.8
2.1
1.0
4.3
3.8
6.9
.6
8.3
36.3
6,114
2,902
12,501
30, 569
1,849
20, 574
903
8,739
31, 188
39,104
231,093
.9
.4
1.8
4.3
.3
2.9
.1
1.2
4.4
5.5
32.4
13, 484
13,280
54,599
49, 809
2, 939
31,302
8,237
29,767
47,876
57, 946
375,857
1.2
1.2
5.0
4.6
.3
2.9
.8
2.7
4.4
5.3
34.5
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Dravmen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale) . .
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad emplovees
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pur-
suits .
Building trades...
1,387
1.6
67
1.7
41,851
5.9
74,840
6.9
Carpenters and joiners
Masons (brick and stone)
558
184
458
187
454
897
4,679
415
579
26,550
218
128
3, 684
1,017
.6
.2
.5
.2
. 5
1.0
5.3
.5
.7
30.0
.2
.1
4.2
1.1
13
11
21
22
14
18
53
37
42
394
66
10
85
53
.3
.3
.5
.(i
.4
. 5
1.4
1.0
1.1
10.2
1.7
.3
2.2
1.4
13,900
12,595
6,157
9,199
11,697
8,435
20, 013
9,471
7,905
22,892
2,968
1,651
3,802
14, 634
1.9
1.8
.9
1.3
1.6
1.2
2.8
1.3
1.1
3.2
.4
.2
.5
2.0
19, 745
11,906
17,116
26,073
13,604
13,328
27,350
24,918
12, 160
28,421
14,208
3,353
2,732
23,221
1.8
1.1
1.6
2.4
1.2
1.2
2.5
2.3
1.1
2.6
1.3
.3
.3
2.1
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers
Iron and steel workers
Machinists . .
Manufacturers and officials, etc
Miners and quarrvmen .-
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen
Saw and planing mill employees
Tailors
Textile mill operatives
In cotton mills
28
989
1,074
12, 540
ft
1.2
14.2
1
52
45
524
(a)
1.3
1.2
13.5
4,782
9,852
569
85,205
.7
1.4
.1
11.9
5,642
17,579
3,424
134, 298
.5
1.6
.3
12.3
In all other textile mills
Tobacco and cigar factorv operatives
All others in this class.. .'
Less than 0.1 per cent.
72289°— VOL 1—11 53
82G
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE A — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Italian.
Norwegian.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
276,438
100.0
16,986
100.0
9.5
171,006
100.0
85,658
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
16,614
6.0
1,613
85,093
49.8
53,942
63.0
9,954
4,410
2,250
3,813
116,973
3.6
1.6
.8
1.4
1,134
372
107
eoT
4,016
6.7
2.2
.6
• -
3.5
23.6
19,688
63,266
2,139
2,997
21,973
11.5
37.0
1.3
32, 589
20,645
708
38.0
24.1
.8
All others in this class
Professional service
1.8
12.8
1,914
8,228
2.2
<ui
42.3
91,778
3,600
2,822
18,773
50,421
33.2
1.3
1.0
6.8
18.2
2,105
563
212
1,136
5,144
12.4
3.3
1.2
6.7
16,271
1,287
1,104
3,311
21,350
9.5
.8
.6
1.9
6,128
433
596
1,071
7.2
.5
.7
r.8
14.1
Saloon keepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
30.3
12.5
12,087
Agents
380
312
1,270
2,718
6,679
15,981
349
1,660
17,273
3,799
88,617
.1
.1
.5
1.0
2.4
5.8
.1
.6
6.2
1.4
32.1
122
193
853
811
324
953
309
642
210
727
.7
1.1
5.0
4.8
1.9
5.6
1.8
3.8
1.3
4.3
33.0
961
439
1,510
1,758
151
4,237
137
1,862
3,433
6,862
.6
.3
.9
1.0
.1
2.5
.1
1.1
2.0
4.0
731
556
1,811
1,052
36
2,308
380
2,258
1,149
1,806
.9
.6
2.1
1.2
(a)
2.7
.4
2.6
1.3
2.1
11. 1
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers .
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Building trades
5,612
39,593
23.2
9,487
10,167
3.7
1,170
6.9
13,555
7.9
2,299
2.7
Carpenters and joiners
2,456
5,476
1,250
985
952
9,458
2,532
679
1,128
25,465
430
524
7,813
3.886
.9
2.0
.5
.4
.3
3.4
.9
.2
.4
9.2
.2
.2
2.8
1.4
634
96
221
219
167
232
165
171
95
534
262
34
274
212
3.7
.6
1.3
1.3
1.0
1.4
1.0
1.0
.6
3.1
1.5
.2
1.6
1.2
8,830
1,241
2,856
628
1,772
1,190
1,069
1,887
891
2,180
428
3,404
1,602
85
5.2
.7
1.7
.4
1.0
.7
.6
1.1
.5
1.3
.3
2.0
.9
(a)
1,160
225
676
238
533
107
265
676
264
416
457
684
138
52
1.4
.3
.8
.3
.6
.1
.3
.8
.3
.5
.5
.8
.2
.1
Masons (brick and stone).
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers...
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers
Iron and steel workers
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials, etc
Miners and quarrymen
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen
Saw and planing mill employees . .
Tailors...
Textile mill operatives
In cotton mills
396
3,490
867
24,716
.1
1.3
.3
8.9
36
176
85
2,211
.2
1.0
.5
13.0
12
73
103
11,427
13
.1
6.7
6
46
103
3,493
(°>.i
.1
4.1
In all other textile mills
Tobacco and cisar factory operatives
All others in this class.. .. ...
« Less than 0.1 per cent
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 827
TABLE A. — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Polish.
Russian.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
183, 055
19,256
100.0
25,975
100.0
24.0
191, 599
19,490
100.0
10.2
14, 598
100.0
29.3
Agricultural pursuits
10.5
6,236
4,284
Agricultural laborers
7,795
10, 480
981
1,565
4.3
5.7
.5
4,729
1,389
118
329~
~4,701
18.2
5.3
.5
1.3
18.1
6,015
12, 717
758
3.1
6.6
.4
3,526
681
77
40T
1,167
24.2
4.7
.5
2.8
sTo
Fanners, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service . .
.9
4,441
2.3
;___.- _r._—
10.1
Domestic and personal service .
57,345
31.3
19,260
Laborers (not specified)
53,232
1,829
447
1,837
29.1
1.0
.2
1.0
4,081
199
120
301
4,424
15.7
.8
.5
1.2
17.0
13,959
1,275
735
3,291
57, 412
7.3
.7
.4
1.7
30.0
686
132
89
260
4.7
.9
.6
1.8
37.2
Saloonkeepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
All others in this class
Trade and transportation ... .
22,154
12.1
5,432
Agents
778
219
877
1,796
3,197
7,428
302
1,794
3,919
1,844
.4
.1
.5
1.0
1.7
4.1
.2
1.0
2.1
1.0
135
228
790
455
148
524
344
959
284
557
.5
.9
3.0
1.8
.6
2.0
1.3
3.7
1.1
2.1
2,498
800
3,283
1,809
12,340
24, 792
1,129
5,802
1,139
3,820
1.3
.4
1.7
.9
6.4
12.9
.6
3.0
.6
2.0
182
395
1,267
195
204
794
459
1,359
93
484
1.2
2.7
8.7
1.3
1.4
5.4
3.1
9.3
.6
3.3
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Building trades
82, 735
45.2
10,285
39.6 j 90,996
47.5
3,311
22.7
5,291
2.9
1,200
4.6
7,503
3.9
332
2.3
Carpenters and joiners
2,350
911
1,494
536
1,478
2,266
12,060
1,288
1,135
14,024
393
2,023
8,621
5,731
1.3
.5
.8
.3
.8
1.2
6.6
.7
.6
7.7
.2
1.1
4.7
3.1
591
61
430
118
111
233
1,049
312
104
1,292
284
463
476
231
2.3
.2
1.7
.5
.4
.9
4.0
1.2
.4
5.0
1.1
1.8
1.8
.9
2,637
304
3,397
1,165
856
4,012
1,422
866
3,577
7,585
879
251
34,418
1,214
1.4
.2
1.8
.6
.4
2.1
.7
.5
1.9
4.0
.5
.1
18.0
.6
144
15
107
66
39
55
68
76
169
196
200
18
804
62
1.0
.1
.7
.5
.3
.4
.5
.5
1.2
1.3
1.4
.1
5.5
.4
Masons (brick and stone)
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers
Iron and steel workers
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials, etc
Miners and quarrymen
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen
Saw and planing mill employees . .
Tailors
Textile mill operatives
In cotton mills
3,838
1,893
962
27,463
2.1
1.0
.5
15.0
42
189
287
4,243
.2
.7
1.1
16.3
290
924
3,975
24,438
.2
.5
2.1
12.8
13
49
207
1,085
,1
.3
1.4
7.4
In all other textile mills.
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
All others in this class
828
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE A — W hite male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
alined by country of birth of parents] and general nativity: Number and per cent in
each specified occupation— Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Scotch.
Swedish.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
129,901
100.0
18.3
111,195
100.0
24.4
297,307
89,806
100.0
67,407
100.0
Agricultural pursuits 23, 710
^7, 111
30.2
29, 007
43.1
4,360
16,534
2,816
5,820
12, 893
3.4
12.7
2.2
4.5
8,379
17,143
1,589
6,390
11,710
7.5
15.4
1.4
5.7
10.5
23, 136
62,253
4,417
7.8
20.9
1.5
20. 885
7,356
826
1.606
8,435
31.0
10.9
1.2
2~4
12.5
Fanners planters and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
Domestic and personal service
4,547
1.5
9-9
50,599
17.0
Laborers (not specified)
7,348
757
1,256
3,532
5.7
.6
1.0
2.7
20.0
6,936
634
674
3,406
28,517
6.2
.6
.6
3.1
25.6
37,940
2,711
3,483
6,465
12.8
.9
1.2
2.2
6,371
323
702
1,039
9.5
.5
1.0
1.5
19.6
Saloonkeepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
26,007
39,472
13.3
13,185
Agents
1,824
1,949
3,318
2,341
123
4,355
250
2,747
2,730
6,370
61,471
1.4
1.5
2.6
1.8
.1
3.4
.2
2.1
2.1
4.9
47.3
1,915
1,861
4,784
2,614
142
4,298
512
3,220
3,331
5,840
'37,467
1.7
1.7
4.3
2.4
.1
3.9
.5
2.9
3.0
5.3
33.7
1,185
668
3,010
6,351
252
5,774
240
3,115
8,486
10,391
112, 883
.4
.2
1.0
2.1
.1
1.9
.1
1.0
2.9
3. 5
38.0
411
803
2,664
1,350
43
1,386
710
2,314
1,432
2,072
15,114~
.6
1.2
4.0
2.0
.1
2.1
1.1
3.4
2 1
3 1
22.4
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc
1 1 iK'ksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys
Salesmen
Steam railroad employees
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
Building trades
12,480
9.6
7,504
6.7
26,686
9.0
2,882
4.3
Carpenters and joiners
6,689
1,764
1,788
2,239
2,832
857
2,706
4,949
3,320
9,740
1,177
426
950
3,598
5.1
1.4
1.4
1.7
2.2
.7
2.1
3.8
2.6
7.5
.9
.3
.7
2.8
3,249
833
1,650
1,772
1,291
559
1,634
3,119
2,242
6,198
1,276
436
235
1,834
2.9
.7
1.5
1.6
1.2
.5
1.5
2.8
2.0
5.6
1.1
.4
.2
1.6
16,007
3,442
5,611
1,626
4,807
3,755
6,813
7,549
2,231
12,434
915
5,458
6,407
1,331
5.4
1.2
1.9
.5
1.6
1.3
2.3
2.5
.8
4.2
.3
1.8
2.2
.4
1,267
285
892
438
480
307
803
1,325
287
1,387
669
616
478
324
1.9
.4
1.3
.6
.7
.5
1.2
2.0
.4
2.1
1.0
.9
.7
.5
Masons (brick and stone)..
Painters, glaciers, and varnishers..
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Boot and shoe makers and repairers. .
Iron and steel workers. .
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials, etc
Miners and quarrvmen
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen
Saw and planing mill employees
Tailors
Textile mill operatives
In cotton mills...
• 923
2,675
63
18,373
.7
2.1
(a)
14.1
482
1,35?
154
10,985
.4
1.2
.1
9.9
445
886
275
34,222
'.3
.1
11.5
41
283
166
5,390
.1
.4
.2
8.0
In all other textile mills
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
All others in this class....
Less than 0.1 per cent.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 829
TABLE A. — White male breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
First generation
(born abroad).
Second generation
(born in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
60,391
100.0
34,751
100.0
22,831
37.8
14,597
42.0
6,515
14,267
2,049
10.8
23.6
3.4
6,463
7,713
421
1,231
3,89T
18.6
22.2
1.2
sTs
Farmers planters, and overseers .,
All others in this class
Professional service
1,448
2.4
Domestic and personal service
9,899
16.4
11.2
Laborers (not specified)
5,255
1,127
1,785
1,732
6,940
8.7
1.9
3.0
2.9
11.5
2,532
370
186
807
6,451
7.3
1.1
.5
2.3
isTe
Saloonkeepers and bartenders
Servants and waiters
\11 others in this class
Trade and transportation
Agents
327
310
588
1,095
141
1,874
30
496
707
1,372
19,273
.5
.5
1.0
1.8
.2
3.1
<•>.,
1.2
2.3
31.9
321
364
961
643
45
. 1,348
195
943
598
1,033
8,577
.9
1.0
2.8
1.9
.1
3.9
.6
2.7
1.7
3.0
2477
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
Dravmen hackmeh teamsters, etc
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Salesmen
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
3,124
5.2
1,741
5.0
1,674
494
704
252
647
611
680
1,148
.611
1,115
219
216
543
1,054
2.8
.8
1.2
.4
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.9
1.0
1.8
.4
.4
.9
1.7
836
143
444
318
348
144
449
544
373
497
298
178
130
227
2.4
.4
1.3
.9
1.0
.4
1.3
1.6
1.1
1.4
.9
.5
.4
.7
Masons (brick and stone)
Painters glaziers and varnishers
Other building trades
Blacksmiths
Machinists
Manufacturers and officials etc
Tailors
Textile mill operatives
40
1,014
190
' 9,115
.1
1.7
.3
15.1
24
203
147
3,501
.1
.6
.4
10.1
Swiss.
Less than 0.1 per cent.
830
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE B —White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
-.. ined by coun try of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent m
each specified occupation.
UNITED STATES: 1900.
Occupation.
*
Austrian.
Bohemian.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
In United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
20,403
100.0
3.1
5,195
36T
100.0
13, 125
100.0
10.1
12,588
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
634
6.9
1,320
871
6.9
289
334
11
1.4
1.6
.1
339
20
2
374~
6.5
.4
(a)
430
881
9
3.3
6.7
.1
788
72
11
~4oT
6.3
.6
.1
372
Fanners planters and overseers
All others in this class
245
1.2
7.2
126
1.0
Musicians and teachers of music.
52
127
66
9,593
.3
.6
.3
47.0
71
252
51
1,294
1.4
4.9
1.0
24.9
9
92
25
4.. 625
.1
.7
.2
43
317
41
3,836
.3
2.5
.3
30.5
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc
All others in this class
Domestic and personal service
35.2
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers . .
llousekeeners and stewardesses
246
333
39
254
482
274
7,866
99
1.2
1.6
.2
1.2
2.4
1.3
38.6
.5
18
57
3
29
72
30
1,041
44
.3
1.1
.1
.6
1.4
.6
20.0
.8
55
250
33
227
652
172
3,180
56
.4
1.9
.3
1.7
5.0
1.3
24.2
.4
14
159
7
217
223
53
3, 136
27
~I7475~
.1
1.3
.1
1.7
1.8
.4
24.9
.2
~lT7
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified)
Laundresses
Nurses and midwives
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class..
Trade and transportation
1,427 7.0 1,154
22.2
654 5/0
Bookkeepers and accountants
106
151
74
209
49
88
574
99
9
68
8,504
.5
.7
.4
1.0
.2
.4
2.8
.5
Jl
41.7
167
172
4
24
46
40
421
231
19
30
2,012
3.2
3.3
.1
.5
.9
.8
8.1
4.4
.4
.6
38.7
36
91
20
138
22
53
229
30
3
32
6,400
.3
.7
.2
1.1
.2
.4
1.7
.2
W2
139
308
1
29
94
126
572
147
30
29
1.1
2.4
«2
.7
1.0
4.5
1.2
.2
.2
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office girls
Packers and shippers...
Saleswomen...
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegraph and telephone operators
All others in this class..
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Bookbinders
48.8
6,005
47.7
.9
1.4
(«)
3o!i
27
63
23
132
4,083
.1
.3
.1
.6
20.0
24
35
11
32
1,093
.5
.7
.2
.6
21.0
29
59
3
2
2,866
2
'.4
(°)
(a)
21.8
107
171
2
11
3,792
Box makers (paper)..
Gold and silver workers
ITat and cap makers.
Needle trades . . .
Dressmakers...
1,083
288
1,307
1,405
23
10
133
1,401
5.3
1.4
6.4
6.9
(0)
&9
451
160
274
208
5
12
20
182
8.7
3.1
5.3
4.0
.1
.2
.4
3.5
685
82
517
1,582
43
13
10
. 229
5.2
.6
3.9
12.1
.3
.1
.1
1.7
990
158
758
1,886
19
33
28
216
7.9
1.3
6.0
15.0
.2
.3
LT
Milliners
Seamstresses . .
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives
Printers, lithographers, and presswomen.
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill
533
100
106
662
602
2,007
2.6
.5
.5
3.2
3.0
9.8
16
36
19
111
141
457
.3
.7
.4
2.1
2.7
8.8
29
20
84
96
2,599
547
.2
.2
.6
.7
19.8
4.2
10
23
59
124
768
858
.1
.2
.5
1.0
6.1.
6.8
Silk mill...
Woolen mill
Other textile mill .
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives. .
All others in this class
o Less than 0.1 per cent.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 831
TABLE B. — White female breadiuinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents') and general nativity: Number and per cent in
each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
' Canadian, English.
Canadian, French.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
52,709
100.0
47,659
1,232
100.0
2.6
47,505
417
100.0
31,309
100.0
L2
Agricultural pursuits r
1,009
1.9
.9
362
Agricultural laborers .
112
860
37
.2
1.6
.1
302
891
39
9,048
.6
1.9
.1
19.0
58
346
13
933
.1
(«)7
2.0
86
*» 271
5
.3
.9
(«)
=====
4.1
Farmers planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
3,236
6.1
1,291
Musicians and teachers of music
452
2,155
629
.9
4.1
1.2
1,102
7,019
927
2.3
14.7
1.9
127
725
81
.3
1.5
.2
227
906
158
6,275
.7
2.9
.5
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc
All others in this class .
Domestic and personal service ....
26,797
50.8
13, 307
27.9
6,590
13.9
20.0
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers...
Housekeepers and stewardesses
1,138
2,432
51
254
1,099
3,727
17,849
247
5,953
2.2
4.6
.1
.5
2.1
7.1
33.9
.5
525
1,391
30
312
79.4
1,241
8,815
199
1.1
2.9
.1
.7
1.7
2.6
18.5
.4
530
829
10
342
722
353
3.722
82
1,380~
1.1
1.7
W7
1.5
.7
7.8
.2
242
537
10
301
594
221
4,300
70
2,851
.8
1.7
(?o
1.9
.7
13.7
.2
<n
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified)
Laundresses
Nurses and midwives. ..
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
11.3'
10,007
21.0
2.9
Bookkeepers and accountants
1,157
995
4
299
40
238
1,596
1,069
293
262
15,714
2.2
1.9
W6
.1
.5
3.0
2.0
.6
.5
29.8
2,037
1,820
5
204
123
296
2,448
2,148
615
311
4.3
3.8
w<
.3
.6
5.1
4.5
1.3
.7
171
- 198
4
136
9
77
633
66
26
60
.4
.4
W3
(«)
.2
1.3
.1
.1
.1
80.4
417
500
5
77
46
189
1,103
305
123
86
1.3
1.6
W2
!e
3.5
1.0
.4
.3
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office girls
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegraph and telephone operators
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits .
Bookbinders
14,065
29.5
38,185
20,530
65.6
164
251
207
46
7,738
.3
.5
.4
.1
14.7
229
268
126
40
7,059
.5
.6
.3
.1
14.8
40
144
196
63
4, 196
.1
.3
.4
.1
8.8
91
300
225
47
3,863
.3
1.0
.7
.2
12.3
Box makers (paper) . . .
Gold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers
Needle trades
Dressmakers .
4,836
972
1,149
781
106
188
193
2,987
9.2
1.8
2.2
1.5
.2
.4
.4
5.7
4,055
1,526
1,101
377
154
457
312
2,083
8.5
3.2
2.3
.8
.3
1.0
.7
4.4
2,908
446
486
356
244
37
298
30,241
6.1
.9
1.0
.7
.5
.1
.6
63.7
2,178
706
706
273
337
107
656
11,200
7.0
2.3
2.3
.9
1.1
.3
2.1
35.8
Milliners
Seamstresses
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives
Printers, lithographers, and presswomen
Shirt collar and cuff makers
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill
1,075
12?
614
1,175
43
3,791
2.0
.2
1.2
2.2
.1
•7.2
527
198
401
957
91
3,246
1.1
.4
.8
2.0
.2
6.8
23,073
403
2,059
4,706
18
2,708
48.6
.8
4.3
9.9
(«)
5.7
6,258
441
1,380
3. 121
47
3,657
20.0
1.4
4.4
10.0
.2
11.7
Silk mill .
Woolen mill
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
All others in this class
Less than 0.1 per cent.
832
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE B —White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents} and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation— Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Danish.
English and Welsh.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration ( born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (bom
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
8,756
100.0
8.8
6,821
176~
100.0
62,084
100.0
96, 478
3,240
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
773
2.6
3,240
5.2
3.4
74
675
24
.8
7.7
.3
2.6
103
68
5
708
1.5
1.0
.1
10.4
149
2,937
154
3,742
.2
4.7
.2
6.0
428
2,676
136
15,400
.4
2.8
.1
All others in this class
225
16.^
Musicians and teachers of music .
34
124
67
.4
1.4
.8
64.0
81
568
59
3,394
1.2
8.3
.9
49.8
669
1,892
1,181
24,964
1.1
3.0
1.9
1,976
11,478
1,946
2.0
11.9
2.0
'" —
25.9
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc
All other in this class
Domestic and personal service
5,601
40.2
24,975
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers. ..
Housekeepers and stewardesses
154
554
28
91
485
262
3,970
57
441
1.8
6.3
.3
1.0
5.5
3.0
45.3
.7
5.0
21
233
2
58
84
97
2,889
10
945
.3
3.4
(0)
.9
1.2
1.4
42.4
.1
13.9
1,876
2,923
256
391
1,937
3,463
13,620
498
6,542
3.0
4.7
.4
.6
3.1
5.6
21.9
.8
10.5
1,598
2,876
147
528
1,810
2,654
14,931
431
1.7
3.0
.2
.5
1.9
2.8
15.5
.4
Janitresses . .
Laborers (not specified)
Laundresses .
N urses and mid wives
Servants and waitresses
All others hi this class
Trade and transportation
18,280
18.9
Bookkeepers and accountants
71
86
3
70
8
15
122
42
5
19
1,716
.8
1.0
(°.'s
.1
.2
1.4
.5
.1
.2
19.6
131
196
2
10
19
29
316
184
38
20
1,598
1.9
2.9
<0A
.3
.4
4.6
2.7
.6
.3
23.4
872
1,056
19
1,149
64
204
1,621
1,023
221
. 313
1.4
1.7
(a)
1.9
.1
.3
2.6
1.6
.4
.5
38.0
3,104
3,375
11
715
177
524
4,889
3,922
884
679
3.2
(a)
'.2
.5
5.1
4.1
.9
.7
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers. .
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and oilice girls
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegraph and telephone operators. .
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Bookbinders...
23,596
34,583
35.8
10
8
2
8
J,205
.1
.1
(a)
13! 8
15
11
2
2
1,134
.2
.2
(«)
(a)
16.6
188
183
162
142
8,153
. 3 514
.3 410
.3 310
.2 219
13.1 15,653
.5
.4
.3
.2
16.2
Box makers (paper)
Gold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers . . .
Needle trades
Dressmakers.
770
100
232
103
6
9
61
140
8.8
1.1
2.6
1.2
.1
.1
.7
1.6
773
154
149
58
16
22
18
128
11.3
2.3
2.2
.9
.2
.3
.3
1.9
5,217
1,149
1,331
456
100
179
355
9,804
8.4
1.9
2.1
.7
2
!i
.6
15.8'
9,553
2,743
2,585
772
205
571
812
8,843
9.9
2.8
2.7
.8
.2
.6
.8
9.2
Milliners..
Seamstresses
Tailoresses...
Paper and pulp mill operatives
rintera, lithographers, and presswomen . . .
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers. . .
Textile mill operatives
Silk mill...
14
14
21
91
7
260
.2
.2
.2
1.0
.1
3.0
17
18
23
70
16
234
. 2
!3
.3
1.0
.2
3.4
4,410
1,021
1,336
3,037
183
4,147
7.1
1.6
2.2
4.9
.3
6.7
2,217
1,443
1,191
3,992
412
6,634
2.3
1.5
1.2
4.1
.4
6.9
Woolen mill
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives. .
All others in this class
Less than 0.1 per cent.
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States.
833
TABLE B. — White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation. — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
French.
German.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
8,763
100.0
12, 166
546
100.0
4.5
161,625
100.0
376,339
11,057
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
445
5.1
14,739
9.1
2.9
1.1
1.7
.1
Agricultural laborers
44
370
31
%r
.5
4.2
.4
129
397
20
1.1
3.3
.2
1,419
12, 764
556
.9
7.9
.3
4,234
6,487
336
Farmers, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
11.0
1,390
11.4
4,773
3.0
24,327
(i.5
Musicians and teachers of music . . .
109
683
169
1.2
7.8
1.9
46.4
240
875
275
4,011
2.0
7.2
2.3
33.0
624
3,338
811
.4
2.1
.5
54.6
3,862
17,839
2,626
134,208
1.0
4.7
.7
35.7
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc
All others in this class . .
Domestic and personal service
4,065
88,241
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers. . .
Housekeepers and stewardesses . .
315
254
33
46
592
390
2,315
120
608
3.6
2.9
'.4
.5
6.8
4.5
26.4
1.4
6.9
273
409
18
98
409
345
2,343
116
1,927
2.2
3.4
.1
.8
3.4
2.8
19.3
1.0
2,970
5,979
1,526
1,930
10, 174
5,268
58, 716
1,678
13,373
1.8
3.7
.9
1.2
6.3
3.3
36.3
1.0
2,771
9,282
710
2,686
10,091
4,812
102, 109
1,747
00,634
.7
2.5
.2
.7
2.7
1.3
27.1
.5
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified) . .
Laundresses
Nurses and midwives
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
15.8
8.3
16.1
Bookkeepers and accountants
43
59
13
242
3
9
153
41
4
41
~2,684
.5
.7
.1
2.8
(a)
1.7
.5
Jl
30.6
274
309
2
125
20
48
631
354
82
82
4,292
2.3
2.5
(0)
1.0
.2
.4
5.2
2.9
.7
.7
35.3
943
1,439
226
4,698
160
666
3,730
696
131
684
40,499
.6
.9
.1
2.9
.1
.4
2.3
.4
.1
.4
8,247
9,909
75
3,307
1,263
3,328
22, 722
8,584
1,591
1,608
146, 113
2.2
2.6
W..
.3
.9
6.0
2.3
.4
.4
38.8
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office girls .
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegraph and telephone operators
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
Bookbinders
25.1
8
13
5
11
1,695
.1
.1
.1
.1
19.3
62
34
16
23
2,774
.5
.3
.1
.2
22.8
338
588
179
201
21,745
.2
.4
.1
.1
13.5
2,448
3,378
843
862
81,762
.7
.9
.2
.2
21.7
Box makers (paper)
Gold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers .
Needle trades
Dressmakers
1,188
171
229
107
8
4
15
458
13.6
2.0
2.6
1.2
.1
W2
5.2
1,485
396
677
216
14
54
56
393
12.2
5^6
1.8
.1
.4
.5
3.2
10, 553
1,772
5,011
4,409
227
186
629
5,958
6.5
1.1
3.1
2.7
.1
.1
.4
3.7
38,945
10,468
18,527
13,822
•723
1,330
2,857
15,833
10.3
2.8
4.9
3.7
.2
.4
.8
4.2
Milliners
Seamstresses ... .
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives
Pnnters, lithographers, and presswomen
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill
131
162
69
96
25
442
1.5
1.8
.8
1.1
.3
5.0
73
102
51
167
133
733
.6
.8
.4
1.4
1.1
6.0
1,061
1,595
866
2,436
1,607
8,841
.7
1.0
.5
1.5
1.0
5.5
1,974
3,943
1,742
8,174
5,200
30,877
.5
1.0
.5
2.2
1.4
8.2
Silk mill
Woolen mill
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
All others in this class
a Less than 0.1 per cent.
834
The Immigration Commission..
TABLE B —White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation— Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Hungarian.
Irish.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
12,608
57
100.0
.5
2,019
214~
100.0
245,792
100.0
388, 108
100.0
1.4
Agricultural pursuits
10.6
6,986
2.8
5,466
16
35
6
.1
.3
(•)
17
196
1
.8
9.7
(a)
208
6,640
138
.1
2.7
.1
872
4,439
155
.2
1.1
(a)
Farmers planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
85
.7
98
4.9
4,578
1.9
37,215
9.6
Musicians and teachers of music
19
42
24
.2
.3
.2
20
62
16
1.6
3.1
.8
285
3,735
558
.1
1.5
.2
3,115
31.538
2, 562
.8
8.1
.7
Teachers and professors in colleges etc
All others in this class
Domestic and personal service .
6,835
54.2
316
15.7
173,114
70.4
97,232
25.1
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers. . .
Housekeepers and stewardesses. ...
106
189
• 39
129
308
163
5,837
64
787~
.8
1.5
.3
1.0
2.4
1.3
46.3
.5
6.2
4
7
2
12
14
21
247
9
495~
.2
.3
.1
.6
.7
1.0
12.2
.4
24.5
5,051
8,412
1,328
1,725
15,925
6,300
132, 662
1,711
2.1
3.4
.5
.7
6.5
2.6
54.0
.7
3,902
8,802
813
2,126
11,338
6,391
62, 159
1,701
71,885
1.0
2.3
.2
.5
2.9
1.6
16.0
.4
18.5
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified)
Laundresses
Nurses and midwives
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class
Trade and transportation . .
11,797
4.8
Bookkeepers and accountants
81
89
11
139
19
27
293
91
3
34
4,844
.6
.7
.1
1.1
.2
.2
2.3
.7
(a)
.3
-
38. 4
82
57
1
13
32
21
156
114
7
12
=
896
4.1
2.8
<?,
1.6
1.0
7.7
5.6
.3
.6
44.4
903
1,282
103
3,992
101
480
2,990
825
305
816
49,317
.4
.5
%
(°?2
1.2
.3
.1
.3
20.1
11,152
11,385
27
2,716
1,152
3,767
24,099
11,587
3,962
2,038
176,310
2.9
2.9
W.T
.3
1.0
6.2
3.0
1.0
.5
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers.
Merchants and dealers (except wholesaled
Messengers and errand and office girls
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegraph and telephone operators
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Bookbinders
45.4
4
16
11
52
1,830
c°.\
.1
.4
14.5
4
8
3
15
387
.2
.4
.1
.7
19.2
484
415
236
277
18,428
.2
.2
.1
.1
7.5
4,278
3,528
1,427
1,560
69,637
1.1
.9
.4
.4
17.9
11.0
2.2
3.3
1.3
.6
.6
1.7
10.4
Box makers (paper)
Crold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers
Needle trades
Dressmakers
498
129
655
548
12
4
92
1,177
3.9
1.0
5.2
4.3
.1
(a)
9! 3
86
72
158
71
3
4
28
173
4.3
3.6
7.8
3.5
.1
.2
1.4
8.6
11,672
1,252
3,974
1,530
1,102
183
1,249
18,302
4.7
.5
1.6
.6
.4
.1
.5
7.4
42, 786
8,692
12, 948
5,211
2,222
2,375
6,595
40,512
Milliners....
Seamst resses
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives. .
Printers .lithographers, and presswomen. . .
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers.
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill . . .
Silk mill....
12
94
44
1,027
695
951
.1
.7
.3
8.1
5.5
7.5
2
42
9
120
51
220
.1
2.1
.4
5.9
2.5
10.9
8,275
1,447
2,443
6,137
428
8,213
3.4
.6
1.0
2.5
.2
3.3
9,873
5,496
6,617
18,526
3,207
40, 969
2.5
1.4
1;7
4.8
.8
10.6
Woolen mill.
Other textile mill ....
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives. . .
All others in this class
Less than 0.1 per cent
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 835
TABLE B.— White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
•
Italian.
Norwegian.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
20,307
813*
100.0
4.0
5,751
100.0
22,896
100.0
13.8
25,082
962
100.0
3.8
Agricultural pursuits
129
2.2
3,169
Agricultural laborers
665
120
28
3.3
.6
.1
107
14
8
226~
1.9
.2
.1
3.9
209
2,920
40
600~
.9
12.8
.2
477
474
11
1.9
1.9
(a)
Fanners, planters, and overseers
All others in this class .
Professional service f .
236
1.2
2.6
2,931
11.7
Musicians and teachers of music . .
93
77
66
4,087
.5
.4
.3
20.1
71
114
41
871
1.2
2.0
.7
69
424
107
.3
1.9
.5
270
2,518
143
14,172
1.1
10.0
.6
56.5
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc
All others in this class
Domestic and personal service
15.1
14,649
64.0
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers...
Housekeepers and stewardesses . . .
239
257
23
857
505
174
1,840
192
1.2
1.3
.1
4.2
2.5
.9
9.1
.9
28
39
5
87
93
26
536
57
.5
.7
.1
1.5
1.6
.5
9.3
1.0
19.5
362
1,581
81
169
1,385
536
10,440
95
956~
1.6
6.9
.4
.7
6.0
2.3
45.6
.4
4.2
95
1,217
6
113
413
209
12,088
31
2,453
.4
4.9
w..
1.6
.8
48.2
.1
<U5
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified)
Laundresses
Nurses and midwives . ....
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class..
Trade and transportation
1,737
8.6
1,124
Bookkeepers and accountants
42
133
176
613
32
235
325
21
21
139
.2
.7
Q
3.0
.2
1.2
1.6
.1
.1
.7
66.2
103
182
29
81
40
146
392
71
33
47,
3,401
1.8
3.2
.5
1.4
.7
2.5
6.8
1.2
.6
.8
59.1
82
185
.4
.8
316
527
1.3
2.1
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office girls
125
11
48
293
143
28
41
3,522
.5
(•)
.2
1.3
.6
.1
.2
15.4
44
38
88
792
510
86
52
.2
.2
.4
3.2
2.0
.3
.2
18.2
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen
Stenographers and typewriters . .
Telegraph and telephone operators
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits .
Bookbinders
13,434
4,564
13
116
40
66
7,657
.1
.6
.2
.3
37.7
40
133
22
18
1,395
.7
2.3
.4
.3
24.3
25
13
2
15
2,754
.1
.1
(a)
12! o
63
21
2
14
3,693
.3
(°>!
14.7
Box makers (paper) .
Gold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers
Needle trades
Dressmakers
1,797
90
1,275
4,495
56
17
107
1,883
8.8
.4
6.3
22.1
.3
.1
.5
9.3
709
101
293
292
21
21
73
433
12.3
1.8
5.1
5.1
.4
.4
1.3
7.5
1,567
243
598
346
5
22
25
156
6.8
1.1
2.6
1.5
(a)
!i
.7
2,511
505
530
147
25
78
27
94
10.0
2.0
2.1
.6
.1
.3
.1
.4
Milliners
Seamstresses
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives
Printers, lithographers, and presswomen
Shirt collar and cuff makers
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill
297
539
522
525
930
2,549
1.5
2.7
2.6
2.6
4.6
12.6
57
106
49
221
149
1,096
1.0
1.8
.9
3.8
2.6
19.1
8
7
26
115
14
491
!
.1
2.1
10
5
15
64
25
522
<l
.1
2.1
Silk mill
Woolen mill
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives
a Less than 0.1 per cent.
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE B —White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents') and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Polish.
Russian.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (bom
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber..
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
All occupations
26,153
948
100.0
12,381
394~
100.0
35,030
620~
100.0
1.8
5,781
288~
100.0
5To
Agricultural pursuits
3.6
3.2
Agricultural laborers
471
428
49
382
1.8
1.6
.2
1.5
266
117
11
2.1
.9
.1
2.7
286
302
32
.8
.9
.1
214
70
4
3.7
1.2
.1
Fanners, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
331
378
1.1
225
3.9
Musicians and teachers of music
38
307
37
8,856
.1
1.2
.1
44
246
41
3,416
.4
2.0
.3
27.6
102
148
128
.3
.4
.4
61
130
34
1.1
2.2
.6
20.4
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc
All others in this class
Domestic and personal service
33.9
6,402
18.3
1,177
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers. ..
Housekeepers and stewardesses . . ....
117
401
28
574
1,098
223
6,292
123
1,719
.4
1.5
.1
2.2
4.2
.9
24.1
.5
6
96
2
216
509
. 37
2,521
29
«8
$
4.1
.3
20.4
_ 2
91
322
34
204
364
343
4,850
194
5,046
.3
.9
.1
.6
1.0
1.0
13.8
.6
14.4
4
50
.1
.9
Jani tresses
Laborers (not specified)
28
41
27
1,001
26
1, 743
.5
.7
.5
17.3
.4
Nurses and midwives
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
Bookkeepers and accountants .
6.6
1,624
13.1
30.2
84
186
74
295
54
157
643
76
6
144
. . : .-. ,.=
14,248
.3
.7
.3
1.1
.2
.6
2.5
.3
«,
'_ -
54.5
150
237
5
29
94
163
732
151
10
53
6,616
1.2
1.9
W2
.8
1.3
5.9
1.2
.1
.4
53.4
431
526
313
909
234
138
2,021
289
18
107
22,584
1.2
1.5
.9
2.6
.7
.4
5.8
.8
.1
.5
64.5
269
270
5
48
91
31
746
236
5
42
2,348
4.7
4.7
.1
.8
1.6
.5
12.9
4.1
.1
7
40.6
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office girls
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegraph and telephone operators. . .
All others In this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Bookbinders
42
84
12
72
4,810
.2
.3
W3
18.4
55
79
9
32
2,695
.4
.6
.1
.3
21.8
74
298
73
439
14, 421
.2
.9
.2
1.3
41.2
23
51
16
54
1,322
.4
.9
.3
.9
22.9
Box msikers (paper)
Gold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers
Needle trades
Dressmakers...
1,146
203
1,378
2,083
225
9
244
4,907
4.4
.8
5.3
8.0
.9
•',
18.8
685
165
637
1,208
86
17
204
886
5.5
1.3
5.1
9.8
!l
1.6
7.2
2,756
844
4,954
5,867
15
26
1,237
842
7.9
2.4
14.1
16.7
(a)
.1
3.5
2.4
257
211
465
389
4
13
67
126
4.4
3. C,
8.n
6.7
.1
1 2
2.2
.4
.5
.1
1.2
2.1
9.5
Milliners
Seamstresses . . .
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives
Printers, lithographers, and presswornen
Bhirt, collar, and cuff makers...
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill
3,023
253
436
1,195
1,295
2,548
11.6
1.0
1.7
4.6
5.0
9.7
72
127
122
565
929
1,624
.6
1.0
1.0
4.6
7.5
13.1
215
120
100
407
1,802
3,357
.6
.3
.3
1.2
5.1
9.6
21
30
3
72
121
551
Silk mill
Woolen mill....
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives. . .
A 11 others in this class....
Less than 0.1 per cent
Occupations of Immigrants in the United States. 837
TABLE B.~ White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of parents) and general nativity: Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Scotch.
Swedish.
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
First genera-
tion (born
abroad).
Second gen-
eration (born
in United
States).
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
21,518
1,006
100.0
5.0
24,577
925
100.0
3.8
57,045
2,272
100.0
24,118
100.0
1.4
Agricultural pursuits
4.0
347
Agricultural laborers
36
974
56
1,177
.2 115
4. 5 779
.3 31
"Ts 4. 471
.5
3.2
.1
193
2,024
5?
.3
3.5
.1
1.6
245
93
9
1.0
.4
(fl)
971
Farmers, planters, and overseers
All others in this class
Professional service
18.2
906
2, 196
Musicians and teachers of music
Teachers and professors in colleges, etc.
100
812
366
10,088
5 415
3. 8 3. 493
1.2 563
1.7
14.2
2.3
25.8
78
482
346
.]
.8
.6
76.0
263
1,775
158
12.. 249
1.1
7.4
.7
50.8
All others in this class
Domestic and personal service
46. 9 6, 349
43,358
Boarding, lodging house, and hotel keepers. .
Housekeepers and stewardesses
641
1, 113
78
120
644
1,446
5,907
139
3.0
5.2
.4
.6
3.0
6. 7
2/. •>
. 6
461
814
31
132
389
830
3,569
123
4,844
1.9
3.3
.1
.5
1.6
3.4
14.5
.5
19.7
866
2,124
146
323
3,501
1,106
35,075
217
1,684
1.5
3.7
.3
.6
6:1
1.9
61.5
.4
~37(T
59
533
6
113
430
326
10, 728
54
3,260
2
2.' 2
W5
1.8
1.4
44.5
.2
13.5
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified)
Laundresses
Nurses and midwives
Servants and waitresses
All others in this class
Trade and transportation
Bookkeepers and accountants
Clerks and copyists
2,371
11.0
369
376
340
17
64
595
424
71
114
1.7
<V
':?
.3
2- 8
2.0
.3
.5
940
819
3.8
3.3
208
319
2
182
26
61
516
238
39
93
4
(a)
g
'.4
\2
15.5
519
651
2.2
2.7
Hucksters and peddlers
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office girls
Packers and snippers
164
59
136
1,190
1,146
210
180
.7
.2
.6
4.8
4.7
.9
.7
27
64
80
991
757
125
46
6,066
.1
.3
.3
4..1
3.1
.5
J!
25.2
Saleswomen
Telegraph and telephone operators
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
Bookbinders
0,816
31.7
7,988 i 32.5
8,825
79
62
35
30
2,421
.4
.3
.2
.1
11.3
130 .5
117 . 5
61 .2
35 i .1
3.711 1 15.1
31
26
11
26
6,042
.1
(«)
(a)
(a)
10.6
79
53
16
15
4,004
.3
.2
.1
.1
16.6
Gold and silver workers. .
Hat and cap makers
Needle trades
1,561
324
390
146
62
79
94
2,761
7.3
1.5
1.8
.7
.3
.4
.4
12.8
2,322
671
574
144
59
162
203
1,929
9.4
2 7
2.3
.6
.2
.7
.8
7.8
3,554
386
1,324
778
22
32
65
1,316
6.2
.7
2.3
1.4
(a)
.1
2.3
2,350
566
794
294
13
99
50
721
9.7
2.3
3.3
1.2
.1
.4
.2
3.0
Milliners
Seamstresses ....
Paper and pulp mill operators
Printers, lithographers, and presswomen
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers
Textile-mill operatives
Cotton mill
1,087
354
330
990
30
1,163
5.1
1.6
1.5
4.6
.1
5.4
495
334
241
859
69
1,512
2.0 334
1.4 115
1. 0 134
3.5 733
.3 20
6.2 1,234
.
.6
.2
. 2
L3
(a)
2.2
88
80
70
483
42
974
.4
.3
.3
2.0
.2
4.0
Silk mill
Woolen mill
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factorv operatives
All others in this class
a Less than 0.1 per cent.
838
The Immigration Commission.
TABLE B —White female breadwinners of foreign parentage, classified by nationality (as
determined by country of birth of -parents) and general nativity Number and per cent
in each specified occupation — Continued.
UNITED STATES: 1900— Continued.
Occupation.
Swiss.
First generation
(born abroad).
Second generation
(born in United
States).
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
All occupations
7,356
100.0
7,765
100.0
Agricultural pursuits
760
10.3
364
4.7
63
658
39
.9
8.9
.5
126
222
16
1.6
2.9
.2
All others in this class
325
4.4
850
10.9
Musicians and teachers of music
31
244
50
.4
3.3
.7
116
657
77
1.5
8.5
1.0
All others in this class
Domestic and personal service
4,012
54.5
2,749
35.4
148
391
46
54
386
329
2,586
72
2.0
5.3
.6
.7
5.2
4.5
35.2
1.0
65
266
3
53
174
109
2,056
23
.8
3.4
W.7
2.2
1.4
26.5
.3
Housekeepers and stewardesses . .
Janitresses
Laborers (not specified) .
Servants and waitresses .
All others in this class . .
Trade and transportation
430
5.8
1,181
15.2
Bookkeepers and accountants
35
64
129
3
13
118
31
10
20
.5
.9
.1
1.8
(.,-2
1.6
.4
.1
.3
182
208
2.3
2.7
Clerks and copyists
Hucksters and peddlers . .
Merchants and dealers (except wholesale)
46
19
56
383
201
57
29
.6
.2
.7
4.9
2.6
.7
.4
Messengers and errand and office girls
Packers and shippers
Saleswomen.. . .
Stenographers and typewriters
Telegrapn and telephone operators
All others in this class
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits ....
1,829
24.9
2,621
33.8
Bookbinders
7
13
1
7
850
.1
.2
»'i
11.6
41
23
9
16
1,511
.5
.3
.1
.2
19.5
Box makers (paper) . . .
Gold and silver workers
Hat and cap makers
Needletrades
Dressmakers
539
64
159
88
6
7
12
493
7.3
.9
2.2
1.2
.1
.1
.2
6.7
831
244
278
158
14
42
40
382
10.7
3.1
3.6
2.0
.2
.5
.5
4.9
Milliners
Seamstresses
Tailoresses
Paper and pulp mill operatives
Printers, lithographers, and presswomen
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers
Textile mill operatives
Cotton mill....
21
356
20
96
29
404
.3
4.8
.3
1.3
.4
5.5
43
182
24
133
71
472
.6
2.3
.3
1.7
.9
6.1
Silk mill...
Woolen mill
Other textile mill
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives . . .
All others in this class..
o Less than 0.1 per cent.
INDEX.
A.
Abyssinian: Number of employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347; length of residence, i.
349-356; literacy, i, 444-447.
Accidents, increased liability to, due to recent immigrants, i, 538, 539.
Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N. Y., ii, 7.
Advertisements of immigrant banks, ii, 421.
Advertising for immigrants: To secure laborers, ii, 381, 382, 384; promises of employ-
ment prohibited, ii, 571, 734; by various States, i, 192; by Canada, ii, 607-610; law
regarding, ii, 734.
Afghans, among East Indians, i, 676.
Africa: Number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; Germans in, i, 242; Gypsies
in, i, 245; Italians in, i, 252.
African: Number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215; number in United States, i, 134,
136, 137; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; occupation abroad, i,
100, 101; literacy, i, 99, 438-447. (See also Negro, foreign.)
Age: Voting, and citizenship, i, 148-156; liability to insanity, ii, 236.
Age at time of coming: Effect on ability to speak English, i, 481-484, 609, 769, 770;
on literacy, i, 446, 447, 612, 771; on retardation in school, ii, 38. (See also separate
races.}
Age classification: Of population, i, 146-148; of employees studied, i, 463-467; of
persons in agricultural pursuits, i, 602, 603; of immigrants in cities, i, 737-739; of
charity seekers, ii, 135-137; of charity patients, ii, 269, 286-290; of departing aliens,
i, 115, 183; native and foreign born compared, i, 466, 467; old and new immigration
compared, i, 172, 183, 467. (See also separate races.)
Agents, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Agricultural communities studied: Race of, i, 551-553, 555; Bohemian, i, 588;
Hebrew, i, 577; Italian, i, 571, 574; Polish, i, 582; in the South, i, 566.
Agricultural delegates from Canada, ii, 607, 608.
Agricultural implement and vehicle manufacturing: Households and employees
studied, i, 294, 323-333; weekly earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395.
Agricultural labor: Seasonal, i, 593-601, 687, 688; wages, i, 597, 598, 670, 680; male
breadwinners engaged in, i, 821-829; female breadwinners, i, 830-838; East Indians
in, i, 679, 680; Mexicans in, i, 687, 688; Chinese displaced by Japanese, on Pacific
coast, i, 658; low wages for, in Europe, a cause of emigration, i, 186.
Agricultural pursuits: Male breadwinners engaged in, i, 39, 799-803, 821-829; female
breadwinners, i, 830-838; persons studied, i, 601-615; Austrians in, i, 799, 821, 830;
Bohemians in, i, 587-591, 799, 821, 830; Canadians in, i, 799, 822, 831; Chinese in, i,
655, 656; Danish in, i, 800, 823, 832; English and Welsh in, i, 800, 823, 832; French
and Germans in, i, 800, 824, 833; Hebrews in, i, 575-581; Hungarians and Irish in,
i, 800, 825, 834; Italians in, i, 559-575, 800, 826, 835; Japanese in, i, 591, 592, 664,
667, 670-672; Magyars in, i, 591; Negroes, Indians, and Mongolians in, i, 800; Nor-
wegians in, i, 800, 826, 835; Poles in, i, 581-587, 800, 827, 836; Portuguese in, i, 592,
593; Russians in, i, 800, 827, 836; Scotch in, i, 800, 828, 837; Slovaks in, i, 591;
Swedish in, i, 800, 828, 837; Swiss in, i, 800, 829, 838; immigrants in cities engaged
in, i, 761, 762; in Western States, i, 627-634, 638-642, 650; in Hawaii, i, 716, 719,
720; immigrants to Canada, ii, 613, 614, 616, 617; immigrants to Australia, ii, 631.
Agriculture, recent immigrants in: Abstract of report on, i, 543-615; number
studied, i, 554, 557; deterrent influences, i, 562; conclusions, i, 39; schedule forms
used, ii, 653-667, 680, 681. (See also Agricultural pursuits.)
Aid furnished to immigrants: By charity organizations, ii, 124-127; United States
Government, ii, 755, 756; Hebrew societies, i, 575-578; immigrant societies, i, 650;
immigrants in Canada, ii, 615, 627; in Argentina, ii, 642; emigrants in England, ii,
615, 616.
Aid societies, immigrant: Abstract of report on, ii, 305-322; conclusions, i, 30, 31.
Ainos: Number in Japan, i, 253; not Mongolians, i, 256.
Air space. See Space required for steerage passengers.
The Immigration Commission.
Vltl.una- Foivi-u-borii in, i, 127, 129; Italians admitted and departed, i, 568;
iiiimi-rinH d.-stined to, i, 105-109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quar-
ries in492- Italian communities studied, i,560, 566; insanity, ii, 232; peonage, ii, 445;
regulation of banking, ii, 435. (See also South, bituminous coal mining.)
i' 349-356; residence in United States of charity patients, ii, 263; wages and earnings,
i, 366-403; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261; literacy, i, 444-447; citizenship, i, 484-
489.
Albany, N. Y., immigrant banks in, ii, 413.
Albion, N. Y., Italian rural community, i, 574.
Alcoholism: Conclusions, i, 35; charity patients, ii, 267, 268, 270-278, 281, 285, 290.
Alien seamen. See Seamen, alien.
Aliens admitted to other countries: Argentina, ii, 640, 641; Australia, ii, 632; Brazil,
ii, 645, 646; Canada, ii, 611, 612, 614, 615, 629; New Zealand, ii, 637.
Aliens admitted to United States: Number, by country of origin, 1820-1910, i, 60-96;
by race or people, 1899-1910, i, 97; various years, i, 56-60, 113, 182-184, 215, 625;
ii, 378, 589, 590; basis of enumeration, i, 55, 56; character of immigration, i, 169,
170; origin of, 1819-1910, i, 13, 23; destination of, 1899-1910, i, 105-109; for Southern
States, i, 567, 568; for Western States, i, 625; from British ports, 1846-7, ii, 591,
592; from Canada, 1908-9, ii, 619; from Germany, 1820-1910, i, 243; East Indians,
1906-1910, i, 676, 677; Italians, 1909, i, 568; Japanese, 1899-1907, 1909-10, i, 660,
661; Mexicans, 1901-1909, i, 682; at Castle Garden, 1856-1873, ii, 595; at Canadian
and United States ports, 1908, ii, 623, 624; mental condition, i, 28; ii, 245; pro-
posals to limit number, i, 47, 48; ii, 575, 579; to Hawaii, i, 702, 703, 709-711. (See
also separate races.)
Aliens debarred at United States ports: Number, 1892-1910, i, 110, 111, 194; ii, 378;
1907, i, 26; 1907-1909, i, 196; 1908, ii, 623, 624; East Indians, i, 677; contract labor,
ii, 378; prostitutes, ii, 330; mentally unsound, ii, 227-229; for medical causes, i,
196, 202; must be returned by steamship companies, i, 197; ii, 750, 762, 800; appeals,
ii, 317, 735, 740, 750, 751, 758, 800.
Aliens debarred from Canada, 1908, ii, 623, 624, 626.
Aliens departing: Number, 1908-1910, i, 112-118, 180-184; Italians from Southern
States, i, 567, 568; Japanese, number exceeds that of immigrants, i, 41; from Hawaii,
i, 709-713; from Argentina, ii, 641; Australia, ii, 632; Canada, ii, 618; New Zealand,
Aliens
tion.)
Aliens excluded. See Aliens debarred.
Aliens rejected at ports of embarkation, i, 193-201.
Alsatian: Definition, i, 241; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347; length of resi-
dence, i, 349-356; literacy, i, 438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489; immigrants to Canada,
11, 611.
America: Number of Poles in, i, 259; number of Negroes in the Americas, i, 257
American. See Native-born.
American Emigrant Co., importers of labor, ii, 565.
Ame£o'?n Federation of Labor, arguments against Chinese immigration, referred to,
11, 583.
American Medical Missionary College. Battle Creek, Mich ii 7
American Republican Party, establishment of, ii, 561.
Americanization. See Assimilation, Citizenship, etc
Ammon, investigations of, referred to, ii, 550
eluded by law, ii, 574, 620, 621; law regarding, ii, 732, 742; liable
to deportation from < umda, ii, 621.
Anglo-Saxon, definition, i, 234. (See also English i
Annexation of Hawaii, oi'tWts of, i, 701, 702
Annual earnings. See. \\a-<-s and earnings," Family income, etc
I '-..:il milling: Households and employees studied, i, 294; silk industry
ished in Pennsylvania coal region, i 54]
iropological investigation. See Changes in bodily form.
Anna ?te Stt «aE8tf 197; number °f immigrants from' and
A^?2(H$8 87se°fok^Ho^hVn Ci'tie8' *' ^41' 742' ln mamifacturing and mining,
Appeals from inspectors' decisions, 'law regarding, ii, 571,r%?/ 740, 750, 751 758, 800.
Index. 841
Arabia, Arab population of, i, 217.
Arabian: Definition, i, 217; number in Arabia, i, 217; in Persia, i, 259; in Syria, i,
280; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627^636; age classification of charity
patients, ii, 288; length of residence, i, 349-356; residence in United States of charity
patients, ii, 263; charity seekers, ii, 95-108; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261; literacy,
i, 438-447; in schools, ii, 10-16, 64-66; immigrants to Canada, ii, 611.
Arcadia, Greek bootblacks from, ii, 399.
Argentina: Immigration situation in, ii, 639-643; number of immigrants to, 1863-1908,
ii, 640; immigration and emigration, 1871-1908, ii, 641; solicits immigration in
Europe, i, 192; number of Italians in, i, 252; immigration law, ii, 641-643.
Arizona: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155, 623; population and number of foreign-
born, i, 623; male population, i, 149, 155; citizenship, i. 150; immigrants destined to,
i, 105-109; regulation of banking, ii, 435.
Arkansas: Immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; Italians admitted and departed, i,
568; Italian communities studied, i, 560, 566; Polish farm settlements studied, i,
583; insanity, ii, 232; peonage, ii, 444, 445; no regulation of private or immigrant
banks, ii, 435.
Armenian: Definition, i, 217; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215,
217, 625; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in
United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; population in Europe, i, 214, 217;
number in Persia, i, 259; number in Roumania, i, 263; number of households and
persons studied, i, 316-320, 639-641; employees studied, i, 3207333, 336-347, 627-636;
age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-
speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173,
357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United
States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481; ii,
263-266, 28(^285; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366; wages and earnings, i, 366^03,
405-411; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals,
ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; status of children,
i? 470-474; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-
447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489; in labor
unions, i, 417; conjugal condition, i, 447--160; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home
ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of households, i,
426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422^26; return
movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Fresno County,
Cal., i, 654; number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 515; immigrants to Canada, ii, 611.
Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111., ii, 7.
Arthur, Chester A. : Recommended legislation regarding care of immigrants at ports
of debarkation, ii, 569; vetoed bill suspending Chinese immigration for 20 years,
ii, 580.
Aryan: European population of Aryan stock, i, 218; family of inflected languages,
defined, i, 217-219.
Asia: Number of immigrants from, i, 65-96; Germans in, i, 242; Gypsies in, i, 245;
Hebrews in, i, 246. (See also separate countries.}
Asiatics: Number in United States, i, 134, 136, 137; opposition to, on Pacific coast,
•i, 41; number of immigrants to Australia, ii, 635; liable to exclusion from Australia
by literacy test, ii, 633-635; money requirement for entering Canada, ii, 623.
Assimilation of immigrants: Bohemians, i, 589; East Indians, i, 681, 682; Italians, i,
564, 565, 570, 574, 575; Japanese, i, 675; Mexicans, i, 689; Russian Hebrews, i, 580;
Scandinavian «, i, 651; in cities, i, 768-772; in the West, i, 644, 645, 650; seasonal
agricultural laborers, i, 600, 601; single or unaccompanied men, i, 38, 39; changes
in bodily form, i, 43, 44; ii, 501-556; retardation, i, 38, 39, 46, 497, 570, 580, 648,
681, 682, 689; conclusions and recommendations, i, 42, 46, 47.
Assistant Secretary of Commerce and Labor, appointment of additional, recommended,
i, 33, 46.
Assisted
ii, 404, 405; Italians, i, 568; Russian Hebrews, i, 577; to Hawaii, i, 699, 701-708,
720, 721; cost of, Hawaii, i, 703, 704; from England to British colonies, i, 168, 192;
homeless children, to Canada, ii, 615; prohibited by Canadian law unless approved
by agent abroad, ii, 616, 620, 621; to Australia, ii, 631, 633; to Brazil, ii, 647; to New
Zealand, ii, 637.
Assyrian children in schools, ii, 10-16.
Atkinson, C. S., secretary of Immigration Commission, furloughed, i, 12.
Atlanta, Ga., immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Atlantic Medical College, Baltimore, Md., ii, 7.
72289°— VOL 1—11 54
The Immigration Commission
assisted immigration to, ii, 631. 633; number of Germans in Australia and Oceania,
, i, 242; emigration to New Zealand, ii, 637; immigration law, 11, 633, 634; area, n,
Auftk^andNew Zealand, number of immigrants from, 1820-1910 i, 65-96
Australian- Immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347,
627-636; length of residence, i, 349-356; wages and earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i,
!•_ • id A AO(\. 1-r* rVt->o/-lr> -II All A9K
United States, i, 177.
Austria-Hungary: Population, i, 219; Czechs in, i, 221; Hebrews in, i, 246; Ruthe-
nians in, C 214; number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i,
167; Germans from, i, 243; deserting seamen from, ii, 360; immigrant remittances
to, ii, 425, 427, 429; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 135, 137; in cities of United
States, i, 145; crime, ii, 194-197, 205-211; children of immigrants from, em-
ployed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i,
366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Austrian: Definition, i, 219, 241; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636;
length of residence, i, 349-356; number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 821, 830;
occupation, i, 821, 830; in agricultural pursuits, i, 550, 799, 821, 830; in boot and
shoe manufacturing, i, 821; in building trades, i, 789, 821; in clerical pursuits, i,
791, 814, 821, 830; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 830; in cotton mills, i,
821, 830; in domestic and personal service, i, 804, 821, 830; iron and steel workers,
i, 784, 821; laborers, i, 780, 821; in laundries, i, 830; in manufacturing and mechani-
cal pursuits, i, 821, 830; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 821; in needle trades, i,
808, 830; in paper and pulp mills, i, 830; peddlers, i, 821, 830; in professional
service, i, 787, 798, 821, 830; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793, 816, 821, 830; in silk
mills, i, 830; steam railroad employees, i, 821; teachers, i, 819, 830; in textile mills,
i, 786, 811, 821, 830; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 821, 830; in trade and trans-
portation, i, 821, 830; in woolen mills, i, 830; padrone system, ii, 392; exploitation,
ii, 406; wages and earnings, i, 366-403-; charity seekers, ii, 95-101; crime, ii,
198-204; literacy, i, 438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489; fecundity, ii, 469-500; loca-
tion of wife, i, 459, 460; in Canada, ii, 611, 625; immigrants to Argentina, i, 640,
641; to Brazil, ii, 645, 646.
Austro-Hung^rian races inclined to distrust American banks, ii, 417.
Austro-Prussian War, effect on emigration of Poles, i, 584.
Azores Islands: Immigration from, i, 260, 592, 652; children of immigrants from,
employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i,
366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; induced immigration
to Hawaii, i, 704; ii, 629. (See also Portuguese and Portugal, number of immigrants
from.)
B.
Baldwin University, Berea, Ohio, ii, 7.
Balearic Islands, Catalans in, i, 279. (See also Spain )
Balkan States: Geography of, i, 227; Greeks in, i, 245; Gypsies in, i, 245; some
emigr ion due to political conditions, i, 187; immigrant remittances to, ii, 425,
Baltimore, Md.: Alien seamen at port of, ii, 359, 362; stowaways, ii, 364; immigrants
chanty seekers, ii, 93-115; immigration to clothing industry, i, 516; public
puffs ?i1P64?7211'7510' U> 17~23j 71> ?2' 74; teachers> *^ 49-63; parochial school
Baltimore Medical College, Baltimore, Md., ii, 7.
ik of Naples, remittances abroad through, ii, 426, 427.
ks immigrant: Abstract of report on, ii, 409-438; conclusions, i, 31, 32; recom-
ir?8' lf » '^iml?er ?nvestigate<l, ii, 413, 415; number and distribution of,
origin, 11, 416; classification, ii, 419; relation with banking houses, ii, 431;
ible for heavy losses on part of immigrants, i, 31; illegal use of terms bank
H 43^436 "' 5 unreSulated> ». 31; various state laws regarding private banking,
Baron de Hirech fund, used for Hebrew colonizing, i, 576-578.
Index. 843
Baseland, Switzerland, criminal emigration from, ii, 565, 566.
Basques: In Cuba, i, 231; in France, i, 239; in Spain, i, 279, 280; Celtic admixture,
i, 260.
Bavarian immigration to Canada, ii, 611.
Bay City, Mich.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship,!, 152; public-
school pupils, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 33-35, 75.
Bayles, writer, quoted, i, 508.
Bayonne, N. J.: Population and immigration, i, 528; foreign-born in male population,
i, 151; citizenship, i, 152; immigrant banks, ii, 413.
Beddoe, opinion of, on English race or people, i, 235.
Beet-sugar industry: Employees studied, i, 627-629; Chinese in, i, 658; German-
Belgian: Definition, i, 219, 233; number of households and persons studied, i, 557,
601; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; length of residence, i, 349-356;
residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; in agricultural pursuits, i, 594, 596; wages
and earnings, i, 366—103; charity seekers, ii, 96-101; in schools, ii, 64-66; literacy, i,
438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489; location of wife, i, 459, 460; number in Lawrence,
Mass., i, 515; in Canada, ii, 611, 626; immigrants to Argentina, ii, 640, 641; to Brazil,
ii, 645, 646. (See also Dutch and Flemish.)
Belgian law of 1843, referred to, i, 193.
Belgium: Provinces of, ii, 694; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; population, i, 233;
Flemish in, i, 233; French in, i, 240; languages of, i, 233; illiteracy in, i, 177; no
emigration problem, i, 168; inspection of emigrants, i, 195; steerage laws, referred
to, ii, 600; deserting seamen from, ii, 360; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96;
1882 and 1907, i, 167, 233; French immigrants from, i, 240; natives of, in United
States, i, 134, 135, 137, 623; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333,
336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-167; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i,
438-447; Canada induces immigration from, ii, 607, 608.
Bellevue and Allied Hospitals, New York City: Report on immigrants in, ii, 257-290;
insane in, ii, 238, 247. (See also Charity seekers.)
Benefits in addition to wages: On Hawaiian sugar plantations, i, 715, 716, 720; welfare
work inaugurated by religious and civic organizations, commended, i, 42.
Bennet, William S., member of Immigration Commission, i, 11, 165; minority report of,
i, 49; minority report of Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, 1906, ii,
576; introduced bill in House of Representatives providing for Government super-
vision over ships carrying steerage passengers, ii, 602.
Benton College of Law, St. Louis, Mo., ii, 7.
Berea, Ohio, Polish colony at, i, 585.
Bermudian immigration to Canada, ii, 612.
Berry-picking: Seasonal labor, i, 595;'piece wages the rule, i, 597; living expenses, i,
599; hours of labor, i, 598; housing conditions, i, 598; displacement of labor, New
Jersey, i, 594; Japanese in the West, i, 667.
Bibles, sale of, at immigrant stations, ii, 315.
Bituminous coal mining: Summary of data secured, i, 300, 301; households and
employees studied, i, 294, 323-326, 332, 333, 506, 507; races employed in Pennsyl-
vania, i, 503; in Middle West and Southwest, i, 504; unskilled labor, i, 495; distri-
bution of occupations, i, 502; racial displacements, i, 38, 503-507; labor unions, i,
532-537; daily earnings, i, 396, 397, 399-402; wages less in Pennsylvania than else-
where, i, 38, 534; expansion of industry, i, 503-505; output of Pennsylvania, i, 503;
of Middle West and Southwest, i, 504.
Black Russian, definition, i, 265. (See also Russian.)
Blacksmiths, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Bloomington, 111., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Blumenbach: Named white race Caucasian, i, 223; classification of races, i, 210,
211, 257.
Boards of immigration, State, efforts to promote immigration, ii, 383.
Boards of special inquiry: Proposed by joint committee, 1892, ii, 572; provided for,
1893, ii, 573; law regarding, ii, 740, 756, 763; representatives of aid societies before,
ii, 317; conclusions regarding, i, 32, 33; recommendations, i, 46.
Board and lodging: Furnished gratis to newly arrived immigrants in Argentina, ii,
642, 643; cost of board of ranch hands in California, i, 670.
Boarders and lodgers : Among immigrants in industries, i, 422-426 ; specified industries,
i, 297-312; native and foreign bprn compared, i, 423, 424, 426; old and new immigra-
tion compared, i, 424, 426; among immigrants in cities, i, 728, 729, 748-751, 766,
767; contributions to family income, i, 414, 415, 766, 767; on Hebrew farms in
Eastern States, i, 578.
The Immigration Commission.
Boarding or lodging house and hotel keepers, female breadwinners reported as, i,
830-838
Boarding-boss system among immigrants, i, 422 426, 499, 648.
Boas, Franz, author of report on changes in bodily form of descendants of immigrants,
i, 4, 44; abstract of report, ii, 501-556.
Bodily form of immigrants. See Changes in bodily form.
Boers, number of, in South Africa, i, 232.
Bohemia: Regarded as geographic entity, i, 209; natives of, in United States, i, 134,
135, 137, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; males of voting age, i, 155, 156;
treatment of infante in, ii, 546.
Bohemian- Definition, i, 219-221; in agricultural investigation, i, 552; number of
breadwinners, i, 587, 778, 803, 821, 830; occupation, i, 821, 830; in agricultural
pursuits, i, 587-591, 799, 821, 830; in boot and shoe manufacturing, i, 821; in building
trades i 789, 821; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 814, 821, 830; in collar, cuff, and shirt
• • r»rt/\. J_ j.i «*-!11» -I OO1 QQA* -ir-» A r\ T>-* rid i"i r* o n f\ T*\£ki*an-r» ol a^-*»irir»£i
manufacturing, i, 830; in cotton mills, i, 821, 830; in domestic and personal service,
i, 805, 821, 830; iron and steel workers, i, 784, 821; laborers, i, 780, 821; in laundries,
teachers, i, 819, 830; in textile mills, i, 786, 811, 821, 830; in tobacco and, cigar
making, i, 821, 830; in trade and transportation, i, 821, 830; in woolen mills, i, 830;
immigrant banks, ii, 413; crime, ii, 198-204; fecundity, ii, 469-500; changes in
bodily form, ii, 510, 511, 518-524, 526, 544, 545, 548, 549; in Canada, ii, 611, 626.
Bohemian and Moravian: Definition, i, 219-221; number of immigrants admitted, i,
97, 171, 214, 215, 221, 625; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; pre-
vious residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; population in
Europe, i, 214; number in Austria-Hungary, i, 219; number of households and
persons studied, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-
347, 506, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 602, 603, 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290;
age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 481-484, 609,
612, 769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363, 607, 608, 760; length
of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; ii, 84, 85; residence in United
States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 461^63, 477-480, 610, 613,
751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; residence in agricultural locality, i, 604;
occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762; in agricultural pursuits, i, 799, 800;
in building trades, i, 789, 790; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815; in domestic
and personal service, i, 804-806; iron and steel workers, i, 784, 785; laborers, i, 780,
781; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783; in needle trades, i, 808, 809; in professional
service, i, 797, 798; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793, 794, 816, 817; teachers, i, 819,
820; in textile mills, i, 786, 787, 811, 812; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405^11,
764-767; family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hos-
pitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; gainful
occupation in the home, i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474, 614, 763; ii, 143-147;
in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42, 49-61, 64-71, 76-82; proportion of children, i,
home ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 757-759; size of apartments and of
households, i, 426-430, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and
lodgere, i, 422-426, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754;
care of apartment, i, 755; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i
461-463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528.
Bond:
Release of immigrants on —
United States law regarding, ii, 738, 740, 751, 756, 757, 771, 815; in Australia,
11, 634; in New Zealand, ii, 637.
Chinese in United States, ii, 358, 367, 800, 808, 815.
Required of bankers in certain States, ii, 435, 436.
Required of ship masters by early legislation, ii, 567.
Jonus paid to agents sending immigrants to Canada, ii, 607, 608.
binders, female breadwinners reported as i 830-838
eo^los^11^' Canadian: In United States> Ii8t of> di> 608, 609; bonus paid to, ii,
B<bread^nn re^ |CCOUntante: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female
Boot and shoe makers and repairers, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Index. 845
Boot and shoe manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 306, 307; households and
employees studied, i, 294, 323-333; earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395; racial displace-
ments, i, 517-519; Chinese in San Francisco, i, 655, 659; male breadwinners en-
gaged in, i, 821-829.
Bootblacks, Greek padrone system among, ii, 393-405.
Bosco, Italian statistician, on crime in Italy, i, 251.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Mohammedans in, i, 282; Serbo-Croatians in, i, 230.
Bosnian: Definition, i, 221; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215, 625;
proportion of males, i, 98; population in Europe, i, 214; employees studied, i, 320-
333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification of charity patients, ii, 287; residence in
United States of charity patients, ii, 263, 281; occupation abroad, i, 100-102; length
of residence, i, 349-356, 636, 637; wages and earnings, i, 366-403; in charity hos-
pitals, ii, 258-261; in schools, ii, 10-16; literacy, i, 99, 438-447; citizenship, i, 484-
489; in labor unions, i, 417.
71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; immigrants as
charity seekers, ii, 93-115; alien seamen in port of, ii, 359, 362; stowaways, ii, 364;
immigrant banks, ii, 413; chief labor market for Maine forests, ii, 447; foreign-born
in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Boston College, Boston, Mass., ii, 7.
Boston University, Boston, Mass., ii, 7.
Bottles. See Glass manufacturing.
Bouzos Brothers, promoters of Greek shoe-shining parlors, ii, 398.
Box makers, paper, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Brachelli, opinion of, as to number of Celts in Europe, i, 249.
Brava: Definition, i, 260; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320; age
at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484;
occupation abroad, i, 357-363; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking
and literacy, i, 445, 446, 477-481; occupation, i, 363-366; wages and earnings, i, 405-
411; family income, i, 412-417; literacy, i, 444-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484;
citizenship, i, 484-489; in labor unions, i, 417; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent
paid, i, 419-422', size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per room,
i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426; not permanent, i, 600.
Brazil: Immigration situation in, ii, 645-647; area, ii, 645; population, ii, 645; Ger-
mans in, i, 243; Italians in, i, 252; negroes and mulattoes in, i, 257; immigration
from, to Canada, ii, 611; immigration to, 1820-1907, ii, 645, 646; solicited in Europe,
i, 192; Portuguese immigrants to, i, 260; immigration law, ii, 646, 647.
Breadwinners: Occupations of males, i, 778-803, 821-829; of females, i, 803-820, 830-
838; of foreign parentage, i, 778, 803. (See also Wage-earners.)
Breitenfeld, S., on treatment of infants, ii, 546, 547.
Bremen, Germany: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections at, i, 199; number of
immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Breton: Celtic tongue spoken in France, i, 225, 240, 283; number of Bretons in France,
i, 240.
Bridgeport, Conn.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Brinton, classification of races, i, 211, 212, 223, 224, 239, 256, 258.
British: Definition, i, 235; emigration, 1883-1903, i, 236; steerage law of 1848, re-
ferred to, i, 193; children in schools in Hawaii, i, 714; immigrants to Australia, ii,
632, 633; to New Zealand, ii, 637. (See also separate races.)
British Board of Trade, regulations regarding carriage of steerage passengers, ii, 598,
600.
British Columbia: Attempts to exclude orientals, ii, 628, 629; immigration of East
Indians to, i, 676; East Indians from, entering United States, i, 676; Japanese from,
i, 660.
British Isles, number of Gypsies in, i, 245. (See also separate countries.)
British North America: Number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; French
immigrants from, i, 240; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 136, 137; immigrants
destined to, from British ports, 1846 and 1847, ii, 591, 592. (See also separate countries.)
Briton, definition of term, i, 235.
Brooklyn, N. Y., immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Brooklyn College of Pharmacy, Brooklyn, N. Y., ii, 7.
Brooklyn Law College, Brooklyn, N. Y., ii, 7.
Brown University, Providence, R.J., ii, 7.
Browne, Geo. Waldo, author, referred to, ii, 592.
Bryan, Tex., Italian agricultural colony, i, 567, 568, 572.
.s4t» The Immigration Commission.
P. 1L, chief medical officer Canadian immigration department, quoted, ii,
33-35, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigrant
banks ii, 413, 415; foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Building trades, male breadwinners, engaged in, i, 788-790, 821-829.
Bukowinian: Immigrants to Canada, ii, 611; deportations from Canada, 11, 626.
Bulgaria: Races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; number of Turks in, i, 282; children of
immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347; earnings, i, 366-403; Kteracy, i,
438_447; immigrant remittances to, ii, 429.
Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro: Number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96:
1882 and 1907, i, 167.
Bulgarian: Definition, i, 221-223; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215,
625; proportion of males, i, 98; population in Europe, i, 214, 223; number in Rou-
mania, i, 263; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320; employees
studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; ii,
286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447,
481-484; occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 357-363; length of residence, i, 349-356,
636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy,
etc., i, 445, 446, 461-^63, 477-481; ii, 263-266; occupation, i, 363-366; wages and earn-
ings, i, 366-403; padrone system, ii, 392, 393; exploitation, ii, 406; immigrant banks,
ii, 413; charity seekers, ii, 95-109, in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262; 270-272; insanity
and mental defects, ii, 270; in schools, ii, 10-16, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 438-447;
English -speaking, i, 474-484; citizenship, i, 484—489; in labor unions, i, 417; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470;
rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons
per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422^26; visits abroad, i, 461-463; in
Canada, ii, 611, 625.
Bulgarian, Servian, and Montenegrin: Number of immigrants admitted, i, 171;
i, 175; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182.
Burlingame treaty with China, ii, 578-580.
Burnett, John L., member of Immigration Commission, i, 11, 165.
Business, independent, entered by immigrants: In the West, i, 650, 664; Chinese,
i, 659, 660, 718; East Indians, i, 678; Japanese, i, 664, 673-675,^717, 718; in Hawaii,
i, 717, 718.
Business in connection with immigrant banking, ii, 415, 416.
Butte, Mont.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153.
C.
California: Population and number of foreign-born, i, 127, 129, 149, 151, 155, 623;
citizenship, i, 150, 152; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; Chinese, i, 655, 656,
11, 578, 579; Chinese question studied by Congressional committee, 1876-7 ii
79; East Indians, i, 678; Japanese, i, 662; ii, 415; Portuguese, i, 652; regulation of
banking 11, 435; households studied in agricultural investigation, i, 639; gainful
occupations, 1870, i, 656.
Cambridge, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship i 152
7™ .71 * ^I^J^V1^*1011 in' abstract of report on, ii, 607-629; races of, ii, 685,
iW, 716, 721 726; border ports of entry, ii, 761; immigration policy of, ii 607-610;
immigration law ii, 619; agreement with United States, ii, 762-764; immigration
toO ',.271, .661; 11, 591, 611-617, 623, 624; oriental immigration, i, 661; ii,
f 9^ T1 SH"?S Uo'.?P; 624; deP°rtations, ii, 625, 626; English in, i, 235; Germans
ah i, 249, 250; Japanese, i, 661; immigration from United States, ii, 612-
8; return movement to United States, ii, 618; Scandinavians from United
.; assisted immigration to, i, 168; ii, 615, 616; juvenile immigrants ii,
y requirement i 102; insane in, ii, 248, 249; native-born in population
^ tn TTn°-tr!faQrf 6 Ca.na/?1ians m United States, ii, 617; arriving immigrants
^ to United States, 11, 619, 762-764; excluded classes coming by way of,
i 114 117 ? 8 °m' u'775; Japanese from, i, 661; aliens departing by way
^n tv and fl^rme-a^ng Canadians in United States ii, 194-197, 205-211; in-
^ aWii, 239-242.
Index. 847
Canada, English: Natives of, in United States, i, 134, 136, 137; in cities of United
States, i, 145; males of voting age, i, 155, 156; children of immigrants from, employed,
i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i, 366-403;
literacy, i, 438^447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Canada, French: Natives of, in United States, i, 134, 136, 137; in cities of United
States, i, 145; males of voting age, i, 155, 156; children o,f immigrants from, employed,
i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i, 366-403;
literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Canadian: Number of immigrants admitted, ii, 619; population in Canada, ii, 618;
number in United States, ii, 618; insane in hospitals, ii, 244, 249; crime, ii, 181,
182, 198-204, 211-220.
Canadian, English: Number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 822, 831; occupation, i, 822,
831; in agricultural pursuits, i, 799, 800, 822, 831; in boot and shoe manufacturing,
i, 822; in building trades, i/789, 790, 822; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815,
822, 831; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 831; in cotton mills, i, 822, 831;
in domestic and personal service, i, 804-806, 822, 831; iron and steel workers, i,
784, 785, 822; laborers, i, 780, 781, 822; in laundries, i, 831; in manufacturing and
mechanical pursuits, i, 822, 831; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783, 822; in needle
trades, i, 808, 809, 831; in paper and pulp mills, i, 831; peddlers, i, 822, 831: in
professional service, i, 797, 798, 822, 831; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793, 794, 816, 817,
822, 831; in silk mills, i, 831; steam railroad employees, i, 822; teachers, i, 819, 820,
831; in textile mills, i, 786, 787, 811. 812, 822, 831; in tobacco and cigar making, i,
822, 831; in trade and transportation, i, 822, 831; in woolen mills, i, 831.
Canadian, French: Definition, i, 239, 240; number of immigrants admitted, i, 240;
to New England cotton mills, i, 511, 512; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; popula-
tion in Canada, i, 240; number in United States, i, 239, 240; number of households
and persons studied, i, 316-320; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636;
age classification, i, 463-467 ; ii, 136, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-
speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation in Canada, i, 357-363; length
of residence, i, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on
English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461^163, 477^(81; ii, 147-151, 263-266,
280-285; number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 822, 831; occupation, i, 363-366, 822,
831; in agricultural pursuits, i, 799, 800, 822, 831; in boot and shoe manufacturing,
i, 822; in building trades, i, 789, 790, 822; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815,
822, 831; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 831; in cotton, mills, i, 822, 831;
in domestic and personal service, i, 804-806, 822, 831; iron and steel workers, i, 784,
785, 822 ; laborers, i, 780, 781, 822; in laundries, i, 831; in manufacturing and mechani-
cal pursuits, i, 822, 831; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783, 822; in needle trades, i,
808, 809, 831; in paper and pulp mills, i, 831; peddlers, i, 822, 831; in professional
service, i, 797, 798, 822, 831; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793, 794, 816, 817, 822, 831; in
silk mills, i, 831; steam railroad employees, i, 822; teachers, i, 819, 820, 831; in textile
mills, i, 786, 787, 811, 812, 822, 831; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 822, 831; in
trade and transportation, i, 822, 831; in woolen mills, i, 831; wages and earnings, i,
366-403, 405-411; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-L53; in charity
hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 270; crime, ii, 211-220;
prostitution, ii, 322; status of children, i, 470-474; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16,
459, 460; home ownership, i, 467^70; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and
of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i,
422-426; visits to Canada, i, 461-463; number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 513.
Canadian, other than French: Immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; number of house-
holds and persons studied, i, 316-320, 601, 641; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347,
627-636: age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 136, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect
on literacy, i, 446, 447; occupation in Canada, i, 357-363; length of residence, i,
349-356 636 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on literacy, etc., i,
445, 446, 461^63; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 365, 366; wages and
earnings, i, 366-403, 407-411, 764-766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals,
ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 270; crime, ii, 211^220; status
of children, ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 1(KL6, 18-31, 33^2, 49-61, 64-71, 76-82;
literacy, i, 438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417, 419;
conjugal condition, i, 447 -i60; ii, 137-142; fecundity, ii, 457-500; location of wife,
i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467^70; rent paid, i, 419-422; persons per room, i,
430^38, 'boarders and lodgers, i, 422^26; visits to Canada, i, 461-463.
Canal Zone, law regarding inspection of aliens from, ii, 741.
Canary Islands. See Spain, number of immigrants from.
g48 The Immigration Commission.
Canastota, N. Y., Italian agricultural colony, i, 574.
Cance, Alexander E., author of report on recent immigrants m agriculture, i, 2;
abstract of report, i, 543-615.
Canning industry:
"italian seasonaUaborers, New York, i, 574; wages, i, 597; hours of labor, i, 598;
housing conditions, i, 598; Chinese and Japanese in the West, i, 627-634,
658,666.
* Number of employees studied, i, 627-629; Japanese in, i, 664; European
races seldom employed in, i, 666.
Cape Verde Islands: Immigration of Bravas or Black Portuguese from, i, 260, 592;
" children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347; literacy, i, 438-447.
(See also Portugal, number of immigrants from.)
Capital: In manufactures, east of Rocky Mountains, i, 491; Japanese on farms, i, 592,
672; Polish on farms in Wisconsin, i, 586; little or none required for immigrant
banking, ii, 420.
Car building and repairing, employees in, i, 336-338, 343-348.
Care of apartment: Among immigrants in cities, i, 755; better than anticipated, i, 37.
Carinthian. See Slovenian.
< 'arpenters and joiners, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Carpet manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-348.
Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, ii, 7.
Caste among East Indians on Pacific coast, i, 680-682.
Catalans, number in Spain and Balearic Islands, i, 279.
Caucasian: Definition, i, 223-225; number of, i, 224, 225; number in Hawaii, i, 700,
713; average annual income of 14 families, Honolulu, i, 712. (See also separate races.)
Causes of emigration: Conclusions, i, 25; in Europe, i, 185-192; letters from friends
in United States, i, 187, 188; steamship ticket agents, i, 190.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa, public school pupils, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 33-35, 75.
Celtic: Definition, i, 225, 226; population, i, 225, 226; number of persons speaking a
Celtic tongue, i, 225, 283.
Celto-Germanic. See Aryan.
Cement industry, employees in, i, 627-629.
Census, United States, unpublished data used by Immigration Commission, i, 15.
Central America: Immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96 ; natives of, in United States,
i, 134, 136, 137.
Cephalic index. See Head form of immigrants.
Certificates:
Penal-
Recommended that immigrants to United States be required to produce, i, 45;
may be required of immigrants to Canada, ii, 622, 623.
Exemption from immigration law —
Australia, ii, 633, 634; Brazil, ii, 647; New Zealand, ii, 637.
Chinese —
In United States, ii, 580-583, 786, 789, 790, 792-795, 801-807, 809-811; in
insular possessions, ii, 584.
Forms of —
Canadian, ii, 762; cattlemen, ii, 776; Chinese, ii, 809; insular territory, ii,
780.
(See also Passports.)
Changes in bodily form of descendants of immigrants, abstract of report on, ii, 501-556;
probable causes of, ii, 541-552; conclusions, i, 43, 44.
Character of immigration, change in, i, 23, 24, 60-65.
Charity hospitals, immigrants in, report on, ii, 253-290.
Chanty seekers, immigrants as: Abstract of report on, ii, 87-157; conclusions, i, 35, 36;
schedule form used, ii, 687; various causes of need, ii, 115-124, 134; number in
ities small, i, 35, 36; East Indians, i, 681; Mexicans, i, 690; few Japanese, i, 675.
arleroi, Pa., representative immigrant community, i, 496.
Charleston, S. C., deserting seamen at port of, ii, 360
Cheese industry in Green County, Wis., i, 549.
elsea, Mass., public school pupils in, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 33-35, 75.
rbourg France: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; number of immigrants from, and
number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Chevalier, French writer, quoted, i, 507, 508.
Index. 849
Chicago, 111.: Study of immigrants in, i, 723-772; households and persons studied, i,
732-734, 736; size of apartments, i, 741, 742; persons per room, i, 729, 743, 745, 746;
ii, 413, 415; foreign departments in banks, ii, 418; market for Greek bootblacks, ii,
400,401; immigration to clothing industry, i, 516; police arrests, ii, 198-204; foreign-
born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Child labor: On the farm, i, 594, 595, 597, 802, 803; in iron and steel, i, 785; cheaper
than Japanese, in San Francisco, i, 663; in textile industry, displaced by males of
recent immigration, i, 540; Russians in Hawaii, i, 707. (See also Children, status of
and contributions of.)
Childlessness among negro women, ii, 486.
Children: Number borne by immigrant women, ii, 455-500; rate of development, ii,
536-541; treatment of infants, various races, ii, 545-547; proportion of, among
immigrants in cities, i, 739; among departing aliens, i, 115; immigrants under 16
years of age unaccompanied by parent may be excluded, i, 30; ii, 400, 406, 620, 621,
732, 749; naturalization, ii, 828; crime, ii, 163, 169, 170; in charity hospitals, ii,
269, 286-289; in school, children of immigrants, abstract of report on, ii, 1-86;
status of,, i, 470-474, 614, 615, 707, 763; ii, 143-147; contributions of, various inves-
tigations, i, 297-312, 414, 415, 763, 766, 767; of American and older immigrants not
entering same industries as fathers', i, 502; immigration of British, to Canada,
ii, 615.
China: Population and .emigration, i, 226; treaties with United States, ii, 578-583;
immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 136, 137,
155, 156, 623; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636;
literacy, i, 438^-447; immigrant remittances to, ii, 427.
Chinese: Definition, i, 226; history of immigration, i, 655-660; ii, 578; number of
immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215, 625, 654; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i,
106-109, 624; previous residence in the United States, i, 104; money on landing,
i, 103; population in China, i, 226; number in United States, i, 624, 654, 657, 658;
distribution by States, i, 658; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101; length of residence,
i, 116; ii, 84, 85, 263-266, 280-285; occupation in United States, i, 117, 118, 655,
662, 668, 669; in agricultural pursuits, i, 670, 672; in canneries, i, 658; in domestic
and personal service, i, 655, 673; wages and earnings, i, 670; in charity hospitals,
ii, 258-261, 270-272, 286-290; insanity and mental defects, ii, 237, 270; crime, ii, 198-
204, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 337, 338, 346; in schools, ii, lOyle, 64-66, 76-80; literacy,
i, 99; English-speaking, i, 675; naturalization prohibited, ii, 788, 829; labor organiza-
tion, i, 668; return movement, i, 112-118; exclusion, i, 23, 41, 657, 658; ii, 578, 584;
evasion of law, ii, 358; legislation, ii, 578-584, 781-815; law of 1875 enacted to
control immigration, i, 110; seamen, ii, 357, 358, 367; in Pacific Coast and Rocky
Mountain States, i, 654-660, 676; ii, 581; in Hawaii, i, 699-717; ii, 583; number in
Cuba, i, 231; migration among insular possessions prohibited, ii, 584; conclusions
and recommendations, i, 41, 47; in Canada, ii, 611, 623, 626, 628; in Australia, ii,
633-635; practically excluded from New Zealand, ii, 638.
Chisholm, estimate of, as to population of Holland, i, 232.
Cholera: Among steerage passengers, 1847, ii, 592; in Europe, provision of quarantine
act, ii, 572.
Christiania, Norway: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; number of immigrants from,
and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Cigar and tobacco manufacturing. See Tobacco and cigar making.
Cincinnati, Ohio: Public school pupils, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; immi-
grants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Cincinnati College of Dental Surgery, Cincinnati, Ohio, ii, 7.
Cities: Immigrants in, abstract of report on, i, 723-772; conclusions, i, 36, 37; schedule
forms used, ii, 653-662, 668-673; concentration of foreign-born in, i, 139-145; less
illiteracy than in country districts, i, 157-159; number of married women in, Rhode
Island, 11, 457; effect of life in, on fecundity of women, ii, 460, 462, 463, 472-479,
481-487, 490-500; on Hebrew and Italian children, ii, 533; differences of urban and
rural population, Europe, ii, 550.
Citizenship: Of immigrants, various investigations, i, 148, 150, 152-154, 156, 298-313,
484-489, ^06, 649, 730, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; old and new immigration compared,
i, 485-487; East Indians, i, 681; Hebrews in agriculture, i, 580, 581; Italians in
agriculture, i, 565, 571, 574; few Mexicans become citizens, i, 690; denied to Chinese,
ii, 579, 788; of fathers of school children, effect on retardation, ii, 40, 41; illiteracy
among males of voting age, i, 159; in Hawaii, United States act regarding, ii, 795;
naturalization laws and regulations, ii, 817-835; of immigrants, Argentina, ii, 639.
850 The Immigration Commission.
Citrus-fruit industry. California, Japanese in, i, 669 .^
Cl-irk E-irle author of report on immigration and insanity, i, 3; report, n, 223-251.
Clark! Inez M . , assisted in preparation of report on immigrants in charity hospitals, i, 3.
Clark' John H United States Commissioner of Immigration in Canada, quoted, n, 618.
Clark' Victor S., author of report on the immigration situation in Hawaii, i, 2; report,
i, 695-722.
Clark University, Worcester, Mass., 11, 7.
Classification of races or peoples: Explanation of, i, 209-211; as used in dictionary,
i 212
Clerical pursuits: Male breadwinners engaged in, i, 790-792, 821-829; females in,
• CIQ_QI^ 830—838
Clerks and copyists: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female breadwinners,
Cleveland, Ohio: Study of immigrants in, i, 723-772; households and persons studied,
i, 732-734, 736; size of apartments, i, 741, 742; persons per room, i, 729, 743, 745, 746;
boarders and lodgers, i, 748, 749; home ownership, i, 756; rent paid, i, 729, 757, 758;
sanitary equipment of homes, i, 729; gainful occupation in the home, i, 751; public
school pupils, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 33-35, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; parochial school
pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigrant banks,
ii, 413, 415; foreign departments in banks, ii, 418; population and number of foreign-
born, i, 151; ii, 469; citizenship, i, 152; married women tabulated, ii, 470, 471;
fecundity of women, ii, 472-482, 494-500.
Cleveland School of Pharmacy, Cleveland, Ohio, ii, 7.
Cleveland, Grover: Signed Chinese exclusion bill, 1888, ii, 582; vetoed bill provid-
ing for educational test, 1897, ii, 573, 574.
Clifton? John W., compiled digest of immigration decisions and report on State
immigration and alien laws, i, 4.
Clothing, cost of, East Indians on Pacific coast, i, 680.
Clothing industry: Summary of data secured i, 305, 306; households and employees
studied, i, 294, 323-333, 627-634; Chinese in, San Francisco, i, 655, 659; earnings,
i, 384-386, 388-395; racial displacements, i, 516, 517; established where cheap
woman and child labor is available, i, 541. (See also Collar, cuff, and shirt manu-
facturing, Boot and shoe manufacturing, Glove manufacturing, etc.)
Clyatt peonage case, referred to, ii, 444-446.
Coal mining: Employees studied, i, 626-629; average daily earnings, i, 686; Chinese
displaced in Wyoming, i, 659; Mexicans employed in Southwest, i, 686. (See also
Anthracite and Bituminous.)
Coastwise traffic. See Steerage conditions.
Coliviras Brothers, promoters of Greek shoe-shining parlors, ii, 398.
Collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 308, 309; house-
holds and employees studied, i, 294, 323-333; Chinese in shirt-making, San Fran-
cisco, i, 659; earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395; female breadwinners engaged in, i, 830-
College of City of New York, New York, N. Y., ii, 7.
Colleges and universities: List of those studied, ii, 7, 8; students in, ii, 76-86;
schedule form used, ii, 686.
Colonies: Italian farmers in the West, i, 651; colonization schemes of Scandinavians
in the West, i, 651.
Colorado: Population and number of foreign-born, i, 127, 129, 149, 155, 623; citizen-
ship, i? 150; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; farm households studied, Pacific
coast, i, 639; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of banking, ii, 435.
Colored. See Negro.
Columbia University, New York, N. Y., ii, 7.
Columbus, Ohio, immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Commerce and Labor, Department of, established 1903, ii, 575.
Commission of Immigration of the State of New York, investigation of immigrant
banks, 11, 414. (See also Immigration Commission.)
Commissioner of Immigration, appointment provided for by law, 1864 ii 565
sioner-General of Immigration: Law regarding duties of, ii, 739 741; extracts
reports on alien seamen, ii, 355-358; on contract labor, ii, 377; on padrone
„ 8> *; on steamship ticket agents, ii, 385; on stowaways, ii, 366, 367.
mmiasioners abroad: To arrange for exclusion of aliens with criminal records
ommended, i, 45; President authorized to send, i, 10, 28; ii 576 743
mmittee on Immigration, Senate, established 1889 ii 570 '
1889? if e5°70 Immigration and Naturalization, House of Representatives, established
Communities, immigrant, schedule form used, ii, 680. 681.
reo
Index. 851
Company bouse system: Effect on home ownership, i, 467, 469; in seasonal agricul-
tural labor, i, 598; tolerated by recent immigrants, i, 540.
Company store system, tolerated by recent immigrants, i, 540.
Concentration of the foreign-born in cities, i, 139-145.
Conclusions: Of Immigration Commission, i, 23-44, 192, 691-694; ii, 367; of various
other Congressional committees, ii, 570-572. (See also Investigations.)
Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., ii, 8.
Conditions in Europe: Results of economic investigation of, i, 185-187; Greece, as
regards bootblacks, ii, 402-404. (See also Emigration conditions abroad.)
Congestion: Definition of term as here used, i, 741; among immigrants in cities, i,
741-747; persons per room, in cities, i, 729; conclusions, i, 36, 37. (See also Hous-
ing conditions, Persons per room, etc.)
Conjugal condition: Of immigrants, various investigations,.!, 298-313, 447-460, 605,
649; ii, 137-142; native and foreign born compared, i, 458, 459; old and new immigra-
tion compared, i, 459, 460; fecundity of women, ii, 451-500; single men, or men
unaccompanied by families, conclusions and recommendations regarding, i, 38,
42, 47, 48.
Connecticut: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152;
immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quar-
ries, i, 492; Hebrew farmers, i, 576; Italian communities, i, 560; insanity, ii, 232;
immigrant banks, ii, 414, 438; regulation of banking, ii, 435, 438; bank commissioner,
referred to, ii, 438.
Connellsville coke region, labor unions in, i, 533.
Constantinople, population of, i, 282.
Construction work: Employees studied, i, 294, 323-326, 332, 333, 626; earnings, i, 396,
397, 399-402, 646; Japanese in, i, 664.
Consular inspection abroad: Recommended in 1891, ii, 571; in 1907, ii, 576; medical
inspection at foreign ports, i, 193, 195, 197, 198, 200, 203, 204.
Consular promotion of emigration proposed by Fortieth Congress, ii, 566.
379; methods of securing, ii, 381-386; East Indians, i, 677; Greek bootblacks, ii, 399;
' Japanese, to Mexico, i, 661; few actual contracts, i, 188, 189; conclusions regarding,
i, 29; in Hawaii, i, 699-701; Australian law, ii, 633, 634; Canadian policy, ii, 613.
Contract labor and induced and assisted immigration, report on, ii, 371-386.
Contract-labor law: Early legislation, i, 110; ii, 375, 376, 569-572; present law, ii,
376, 377, 732-734, 739; violated by immigrant homes and aid societies, ii, 317; Kap-
lanis Brothers convicted of violating, ii, 406; convictions under Maine laws, ii, 448,
449; effect on peonage, ii, 446, 448, 449.
Control stations on German frontiers: Maintained by steamship companies by order
of German Government, i, 195, 196; intending emigrants rejected at, for want of
means, i, 200.
Convicts, excluded by law of 1882, ii, 569.
Coolie trade, prohibited by law, ii, 578, 579.
Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, Cal., ii, 8.
Cooperation: Among Italian market gardeners, i, 652; little among Hawaiian farmers,
i, 720; Hawaiian Government marketing department, i, 720.
Copenhagen, Denmark: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; number of immigrants from,
and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Copper mining and smelting: Households and employees studied, i, 294, 323-326,
332, 333; earnings, i, 384-386, 390-392, 394; Mexicans and Italians in the South-
west, i, 686.
Corean. See Korean. .
Corinthian. See Slovenian.
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., ii, 8.
Coromilos, L. A., Minister of Greece, ii, 408.
Correspondence: Letters home responsible for most of southern and eastern European
immigration, i, 187.
Corsica, number of Italians in, i, 252. (See_ also France, number of immigrants from.)
Cost of Canada's immigration propaganda, ii, 610.
Cost of importing immigrants to Hawaii, i, 703.
Cost of living in Europe, investigation of, i, 186, 187.
Costas, John B., Greek labor agent, ii, 382.
852 The Immigration Commission.
Cotton-goods manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 304, 305; households and
oLloVeo* studied, i, 294, 323-333, 627-634; earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395; male
breadwinners in, i, 821-829; female breadwinners in, i, 830-838; labor unions, i,
537 538* unskilled labor in, i, 495; discrimination against, by second-generation
imnWaiite, i, 812, 813; race prejudice, i, 501, 502; early industry in New England ,
described, i, 507-510.
Cotton growing: Bohemians in, i, 588; Italians in, i, 570.
Country of birth: Of foreign-born population, 1850-1900, i, 134, 135; versus race 01
people explained, i, 97; list of countries furnishing immigrants, and races native
thereto, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; Provinces thereof, ii, 694-699.
Country of origin of immigration, 1820-1910, i, 60-96; races indigenous to, i, 209-283.
Country districts: Distribution of foreign-born in cities and, ii, 139-145; illiteracy in,
i, 157-159; effect of life in, on fecundity of women, ii, 460, 462, 463, 472-477, 480-
489, 492-500; differences in urban and rural populations in Europe, ii, 550.
Crampton, C. Ward, study of development of children, referred to, ii, 536, 541.
Cranberry picking: In Massachusetts and Wisconsin, i, 594-596; seasonal labor, i,
595; hours of labor, i, 598; housing conditions, i, 598; living expenses, i, 599; racial
displacements, i, 594, 595.
Crane, Morton E., secretary and disbursing officer of Immigration Commission, i, 12.
Creole, definition of term, i, 258.
Crime: Immigration and, abstract of report on, ii, 159-221; conclusions regarding,
i, 33, 34; ii, 163, 164; recommendations, i, 45; distribution of classes of, ii, 176,
179, 181, 183-220; races in certain classes of , ii, 173, 174, 185-211; natives of United
States, ii, 183-188, 194-197, 205-211; native and foreign born compared, ii, 172-182;
Italians in agriculture, i, 565; Mexicans, i, 690; little among Japanese, i, 675; alien
prisoners in IJnited States, ii, 211-220; juvenile crime, ii, 163, 169, 170.
Criminals, immigration of: Prohibited by law, i, 110; ii, 620; law regarding, ii, 732,
793; violation of law, i, 27, 33, 185, 192, 193; ii, 221; no adequate means to prevent,
i, 27; Congressional protest against, 1866, ii, 565, 566; foreign Governments willing
to assist in preventing, i, 28, 193; publicly assisted, in early days, i, 29; conclusions,
i, 27, 28; prohibited by Canadian laws, ii, 620, 625; by Australian, ii, 633, 634; by
Brazilian, ii, 647; by New Zealand, ii, 637.
Croatia and Slayonia, number of Serbo-Croatians in, i, 230.
Croatian: Definition, i, 226-231; number studied in agriculture, i, 557; number in
United States, i, 230; age classification of charity patients, ii, 286-290; length of
residence of students, ii, 84; residence in United States of charity patients, ii,
263-266, 280-285; immigrant banks, ii, 413; charity seekers, ii, 95-152; in charity
hospitals, ii, 258^261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 270; crime, ii,
211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; status of children of charity seekers, ii, 143-147; in
schools, 11, 10-16, 64-66, 76-80; English-speaking, ii, 151, 152; conjugal condition,
11," 137-142; immigrants to Canada, ii, 611.
Croatian and Slovenian: Number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215, 230,
625; proportion of males, i, no • •3~~^'---L- — :•**»••**• w ., <
' . f 9t L* v^AAAU^VJ. K_JUC*U^O. \^J.At/\_, U \JJL±. J_JAJ.tl AAOXJ.
speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481; residence in agricultural
i; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366; wages and earnings, i, 366-411,
; family income, i 412-417; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237; status
474-484;
447-460;
419-422;
430-438;
,, , . _ — ^ivyivio, i, i^u— iUV, UtJiHUUS UtJI rOOUl, 1, 'iOU— <±OO .
jand lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad
i, 4f -463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528
allures in Europe, a cause of emigration,' i, 186
:-i£!ifi*fiSS1 ?f 0Im0mfeation Commission and author of report on
Index. 853
Cuban: Definition, i, 231; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 113, 215, 625; desti-
nation, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing,
i, 103; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320; employees studied,
i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 286-290; age at time
of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation
abroad, i, 100, 101, 357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356; ii, 84; residence in
United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481;
ii, 263-266; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366; wages and earnings, i, 405-411; family
income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261,
270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27,
49-55, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; citizen-
ship, i, 484-489; in labor unions, i, 417, 418; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; location
of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419^22; size of apart-
ments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and
lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i, 112, 118; visits abroad, i, 461-463.
Cumberland, Wis., Italian agricultural colony, i, 561.
Cunard Line, first carried steerage passengers in 1862, ii, 594.
Cutlery and tool manufacturing, employees in, i,* 336-338, 343-348.
Czech: Definition, i, 219-221; number in Austria-Hungary, i, 221; immigrants to
United States, i, 221. (See also Bohemian and Moravian.)
Czornig, classification of races by, i, 221, 277.
Daily wages no criterion of actual earnings, i, 39, 370, 379. (See also Wages and
earnings, Family income, etc.}
Dairy farming, tendency of Danes to engage in, i, 651.
Dalmatia, number of Serbo-Croatians in, i, 230.
Dalmatian: Definition, i, 231; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215, 625;
proportion of males, i, 98; population in Europe, i, 214; employees studied, i, 320-
333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification of charity patients, ii, 286-290; occupation
abroad, i, 100-102; length of residence, i, 349T356, 636, 637; apple growers in Cali-
fornia, i, 653; wages and earnings, i, 366-403; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-
272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 270; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 64-66; literacy,
i, 99, 438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489; deserting seamen, ii, 361.
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian: Number of immigrants, i, 171; destination,
i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103;
occupation abroad, i, 172, 173; length of residence, i, 116; occupation, i, 117, 118;
insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237; literacy, i, 175; return movement, i, 112-
118, 180, 182.
Danish: Definition, i, 270; number of immigrants admitted, i, 214; immigrants from
Honolulu, i, 712; population in Europe, i, 214, 270; number of households and
persons studied, i, 316-320, 639-641 ; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636;
age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 136, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-
speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation abroad, i, 357-363; length
of residence, i, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on
English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481; ii, 147-151, 263-266,
280-285; number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 823, 832; occupation, i, 365, 366, 823,
832; in agricultural pursuits, i, 549, 800, 823, 832; in boot and shoe manufacturing,
i, 823; in building trades, i, 789, 823; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 814, 823, 832; in
collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 832; in cotton mills, i, 823, 832; in domestic
and personal service, i, 805, 823, 832; iron and steel workers, i, 784, 823; laborers,
i, 780, 823; in laundries, i, 832; in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, i, 823,
832; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 823; in needle trades, i, 808, 832; in paper and
i •n • s-inm i Ti • r\nck nnr*. * _ . £ *^ 1 : * Trv^r t-rf\& ortO oor*.
tobacco and cigar making, i, 823, 832; in trade and transportation, i, 823, 832; in
woolen mills, i, 832; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 407-411; charity seekers, ii,
95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii,
270; crime, ii, 198-204; prostitution, ii, 332; status of children, ii, 143-147; in schools,
ii, 10-16, 18-31, 49-61, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 438^47; English-speaking, i, 474-
484; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417, 418;
conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; fecundity, ii, 482-500; location of wife,
i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and
of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i,
422-426; visits abroad, i, 461-463; in Canada,- ii, 611, 625.
>;, 4 The Immigration Commission.
Dasios, G. I., notary public at Corinth, Greece, 11, 407 ,408.
Days worked, number curtailed by oversupply of unskilled labor, i, 39.
Dayton, Ohio, immigrants as chanty seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Debarments. See Aliens debarred.
Delaware: Foreign-born in, i, 126-128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152; immigrants
destined to, i, 105-109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492;
insanity ii 232; private banking virtually prohibited, ii, 434.
Delinquency, juvenile, ii, 163, 169, 170. (See also Crime.)
Deniker, classification of races by, i, 224, 229, 259, 275, 278.
Denmark- Divisions of, ii, 694; population, i, 214, 270, 271; illiteracy among recruits,
i, 177; insane in, ii, 248, 249, immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i.
167, 214, 271; emigration movement never very large, i, 168; steerage laws, referred to,
ii 600; Canada induces emigration from, ii, 607, 608; natives of, in United States, i,
134, 135, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; children of immigrants
from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627r-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings,
i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; deserting seamen
from, ii, 360.
Dentistry, students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83.
Denver, Colo., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Dependents, few immigrants of dependent age, i, 172.
Deportation: Law regarding, ii, 733, 737-739, 741, 762, 763, 769-774, 787, 788, 790-792,
794, 800, 811-813; of aliens entered in violation of law, act of 1891, ii, 571; of Chinese
in United States without certificates, law of 1892, ii, 582, 583; of criminals, i, 34;
ii, 221; accomplished through information furnished by Immigration Commission,
i, 23; classes liable to, Australia, ii, 634; classes liable to, Canada, ii, 621, 625.
(See also Aliens deported.)
Deposits in immigrant banks, ii, 423, 424.
Deserting seamen: Belong largely to excluded classes, ii, 355; number of, at certain
ports, ii, 359, 360, 363; specific cases, ii, 361; applicants at employment agencies,
ii, 363; letters from steamship companies regarding, ii, 368, 369; form of report by
ship's master, ii. 368; connivance of ships' officers, ii, 357, 361; legislation regarding,
ii, 759, 761; not subject to head tax, ii, 355, 357, 358; proposed new act regarding,
ii, 367. (See also Seamen, alien.)
Des Moines, Iowa, immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Desmond, L. J., author, reference from, ii, 564.
Destination of immigrants: Arriving in United States 1899-1910, i, 105-109; nearly
all Europeans come to join relatives or friends, i, 188.
Detroit. Mich.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152; public
school pupils, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; parochial school pupils,
ii, 64-72, 75.
Detroit College of Medicine, Detroit, Mich., ii, 8.
Diamesis, L., Greek physician in Chicago, letter signed by, ii, 398.
Dickens, Charles, quoted, i, 509, 510.
Dillingham, William P.: Chairman of Immigration Commission, i, 11, 12; investi-
gation in Europe, i, 165; introduced immigration bill, 1906, ii, 575; introduced
bill in Senate providing for Government supervision of ships carrvins steerage
passengers, ii, 602.
Disease: Among steerage passengers, ii, 589, 592, 593, 596; hospitals on shipboard,
'ii, 597; among deserting alien seamen, ii, 361; among stowaways, ii, 363, 364;
Greek bootblacks, ii, 397, 398; seasonal agricultural laborers, i, 600; among children,
11, 546, 547, 556; immigrants in charity hospitals, ii, 258, 259, 267-285; in a foreign
country, President may prohibit immigration during existence of, ii, 572; conclu-
sions, i, 34, 35.
New Zealand, ii, 637.
Displacements, racial: Of Americans and older immigrant races, by recent immi-
K)-530; in bituminous-coal mining, i, 503-507, 532-537; in boot
boot and
labor, i, 594, 595; in silk mills, i, 529; in woolen
rated mills, i, 512-516; of American farmers, by Portuguese, in New England,
•f negroes, by Italians, m the South, i, 568, 570, 571; of Chinese, i, 658, 659';
5se, by recent European emigrants and Japanese, Pacific coast i 658, 668,
Index. 855
669; of Indians and Japanese, by Mexicans,^, 683; of Japanese, by southern and
eastern Europeans, i, 667; leasing of land to immigrants, one cause of, in the West,
i, 672; laborers in Hawaii, i, 712, 716, 721.
Distribution of immigrants: Arriving 1850-1900, abstract of report on, i, 119-160;
by country of birth, i, 134, 135; by period of immigration, i, 124, 125; by geographic
division, i, 130, 131; by class of place of residence, i, 139; in western division,
i, 623; Hebrews in agriculture, i, 576; Japanese, i, 662-664; Mexicans, i, 682.
conclusions, i, 40; recommendations, i, 46; division of information for, Bureau
of Immigration and Naturalization, i, 40, 46; ii, 575, 743; in Argentina, ii, 642,
643; juveniles in Canada, ii, 615, 627.
District of Columbia: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; immi-
grants destined to, i, 105-109; insane in, ii, 232. (See also Washington, D. C.)
Diversified industries, households and employees studied, i, 294.
Division of Information, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, i, 9, 40, 46;
ii, 575, 743. «
Dodson, Martha E., author of report on immigrant homes and aid societies, i, 3; ab-
stract of report, ii, 305-322.
Domestic and personal service: Male breadwinners engaged in, i, 821-829; female
breadwinners, i, 804-806, 830-838; immigrants in, Massachusetts, i, 810; Chinese
in, San Francisco, i, 655, 659; Japanese in, the W'est, i, 672, 673; immigrants in cities,
i, 761, 762; contract-labor law not applicable to, ii, 621; immigrants engaged in,
abroad, i, 360, 362, 363; domestic servants assisted to immigrate to Australia, ii,
631; Canada pays bonus on immigrants engaging in, ii, 608, 613; number immi-
grating to Canada, ii, 613; exempt from Canadian money requirement, ii, 623.
Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc., male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Dressmakers, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Dukhobors: Religious sect of Russia , i, 264; immigration to Canada, ii, 612.
Duluth, Minn.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153; public
school pupils, ii, 10, 11, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; parochial school pupils,
ii, 64-72, 75.
Durand, E. Dana, Director of Census, quoted, i, 18.
Dutch: Definition, i, 231-233; number of emigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215, 625;
population in Europe, i, 214; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320,
641; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467;
ii, 136, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i.
153; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; location
of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; size of apartments and of house-
holds, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426;
visits abroad, i, 461^63; in Canada, ii, 611, 625.
Dutch and Flemish: Number of immigrants admited, i, 171, 214, 215, 232; destination,
i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing,(i, 103;
population in Europe, i, 232, 233; occupation abroad, i, 172, 173; length of residence,
i, 116; occupation, i, 117, 118; prostitution, ii, 332; literacy, i, 175; return move-
ment, i, 112-118, 180, 182.
E.
Eagan, Mary Helen, author of reports on the immigration situation in Australia and
in New Zealand, i, 4; abstracts of reports, ii, 631-635, 637, 638.
Earnings. See Wages and earnings.
East Indian, definition of term, i, 233, 234. (See also Hindu.)
East Indies: Population, i, 233; Dutch in, i, 232.
Economic conditions in Europe, i, 185, 187.
Economic status: Of immigrants in cities, i, 760-767; in Hawaii, i, 714-717.
Eden College, St. Louis, Mo., ii, 8.
Education. See Literacy, Schools, and Higher educational institutions.
Educational test. See Literacy test.
Edwards, Glen, author of report on steerage legislation, i, 4; report, ii, 585-602,
856 The Immigration Commission.
Electric railway transportation: Employees in, i, 336-338, 343-348, 626-629; Mexicans
in, in Southwest, i, 685, 686.
Electric supplies manufacturing, emulo-ees in, i, 66b-64X.
Elenis, G. D,, party to Greek loan contract, ii, 407, 408.
Elizabeth, N. J.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Ellington, Conn., Hebrew tobacco farms, i, 579.
Ellis Island: Detention of immigrants, ii, 309; number of immigrants discharged to
homes and aid societies, ii, 310; action of Commissioner regarding homes and aid
societies, ii, 314, 315, 322.
Elmira, 111., immigrants as charity seekers in, n, 93-115.
Embarkation of inadmissibles should be prevented, i, 26, 27. (See also Inspection
abroad.)
Emigrants: From United States to Canada, ii, 607, 612, 613, 617-619; steamship com-
panies required to furnish lists of outgoing passengers, i, 9; ii, 575, 735, 736, 762. (See
also Aliens departing, Return movement, etc.)
Emigration conditions abroad: Abstract of report on conditions in Europe, i, 161-204;
attitude of European countries, i, 168, 169; emigration discouraged, i, 189, 191, 277;
ii, 584; German-Russians, i, 653; Hebrews, i, 577, 584; oppression of East Indians,
i, 677; Madeira and Azores Islands, i, 704; emigration from Europe no longer abso-
lute economic necessity, i, 25.
Emigration laws: Europe, as a rule, requires steamship companies to return rejected
aliens, i, 197; Austria prohibits solicitation of emigration, i, 1C1; Austrian attempts
at legislation, i, 191; Hungary taking steps to regulate or restrict emigration, i, 277;
Hungary prohibits promotion of emigration, i, 191; Italy prohibits solicitation by
steamship agents, i, 191; under Italian law rejected immigrants may claim damages
from steamship company, i, 197; evasion of Russian law, i, 190, 101.
Employees studied: Number, various industries^ i, 294, 297-313, 320-331, 336-342; in
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States, i, 627-634; schedule forms used, ii,
674-679.
Employers 'opinions: Chinese and Mexicans preferred to Japanese, i, 665, 666; Chinese
preferred to other Asiatics, by California ranchers, i, 672; Japanese preferred to cer-
tain recent immigrants, i, 665, 666; Mexican railroad laborers, i, 684; Mexicans and
Japanese compared, sugar-beet laborers, i, 688; East Indians, i, 678; Asiatic labor
in agricultural industries of California, i, 672; schedule form used, ii, 675-677.
Employment: Most southern and eastern European immigrants practically assured of,
before coming, i, 188, 189; immigrants to Canada must be assured of, ii, 621. (See
also Occupations, Contract labor, etc.)
Employment agencies: Number investigated, ii, 313, 321; f ees charged, ii, 321; recom-
(See also Labor agents.)
Encouraged immigration: To Argentina, ii, 639, 641; Australia, ii, 631; Brazil, ii, 646;
Canada, ii, 607; New Zealand, ii, 637; United States law of 1864, ii, 375, 565.
Engineering and technology, students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83.
England: Counties and boroughs of, ii, 694, 695; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726;
population, i, 235; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives
United States, i, 134, 135, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145;
188, 194-197, 205-211; children of immigrants from, employed, i,
", 506, 627-636; age classification, i, 463^467; earnings, i, 366-403J
literacy, i, 438-447: conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
'-.l^g^^lo31 " ^ immi&rants to» *» 25°; insanity and feeble-mindedness, ii,
1 -'J' 10\172> 173' 357-363; length of residence, i, 116,
u, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on literacy, etc., i, 445,
Index. 857
446, 461-463, ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 762 (see
also English and Welsh); wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-766; family
income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262,
270-276; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 238, 270; crime, ii, 179, 181, 182,
189-193, 198-204, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; status of children, i, 470-474, ii;
143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42, 49^61, 64-72, 76-82; literacy, i, 99, 175,
438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489, ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417^19; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460, ii, 137-142 ; fecundity, ii, 457-500; location of wife, i, 459, 460,
home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of house-
holds, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426;
return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Lawrence,
Mass., i, 513; in Whiting, Ind.,i, 528; in Canada, ii, 612, 625; immigrants to Argentina,
ii, 640, 641; to Brazil, ii, 645, 646.
English and Welsh: Number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 823, 832; occupation, i, 823,
832; in agricultural pursuits, i, 799, 800, 823, 832; in boot and shoe manufacturing, i,
823; in building trades, i, 789, 790, 823; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815, 823,
832; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 832; in cotton mills, i, 823, 832; in
domestic and personal service, i, 804-806, 823, 832; iron and steel workers, i, 784, 785,
823; laborers, i, 780, 781, 823; in laundries, i, 832; in manufacturing and mechanical
pursuits, i, 823, 832; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783, 823; in needle trades, i, 808,
809, 832; in paper and pulp mills, i, 832; peddlers, i, 823, 832; in professional
service, i, 797, 798, 823, 832; salesmen, agents, etc., 793, 794, 816, 817, 823, 832; in
silk mills, i, 832; steam-railroad employees, i, 823; teachers, i, 819, 820, 832; in
textile mills, i, 786, 7875> 811, 812, 823, 832; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 823, 832;
in trade and transportation, i, 823, 832; in woolen mills, i, 832; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 244, 248, 249; in Canada, ii, 612, 614, 626.
English-speaking ability: Immigrants in various investigations, i, 160, 298-313,
474-484, 609-611, 675, 730, 768-770; ii, 151, 152; native and foreign born com-
pared, i, 476; old and new immigration compared, i, 475, 476, 648; retardation of
school children from homes where English is not spoken, i, 43; ii, 40, 41; lack of,
largely responsible for immigrant banks, ii, 417; lack of, requires more supervision
in industries, i, 538; Italian agricultural colonies, i, 564; East Indians, i, 681; Mexi-
cans, i, 690.
Eppler, Samuel A., conducted investigation of alien seamen and stowaways, i, 3; ii,
358.
Eskimo: Age classification of charity patients, ii, 288; residence in United States of
charity patients, ii, 263; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261.
Ethiopian. See Negro.
Ethnical factors discussed, i, 209-283.
Ethnological classification of races, i, 212.
Eurafrican. See Caucasian.
Europe ^Immigration of races from, 1820-1910, i, 60-96; 1850-1900, i, 124; 1882 and
1907, i, 167; investigations in, i, 14, 165-167; attitude of, toward emigration, i,
168, 169; illiteracy in, i, 175-*177; effects of returned emigrants, i, 184, 185; num-
ber of Germans in, i, 242; number and distribution of Italians in, i, 252; Canada's
propaganda in, ii, 607; value of international money orders, 1906-9, ii, 426, 428;
natives of, in United States, i. 124, 134, 135, 137; immigrants from, needed in West,
i, 41, 691; on Pacific coast, i, 644-654; in Hawaii, i, 708, 715; children of immigrants
from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347.
Evansville, Ind., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Examination abroad of aliens' police records, desirable, i, 34, 45. (See also Inspection
abroad.)
Exchange, rate of, in immigrant banking, ii, 430.
Excluded classes: Law regarding, ii, 619-621, 732; legislation, 1875, ii, 579; 1882, ii,
569; 1891, i, 110; ii, 571; 1897, ii, 573; 1907, ii, 575-577; 1910, ii, 577; recom-
mendations, various, i, 9, 47, 48; ii, 562, 573; children unaccompanied by parent, i,
30; Chinese, ii, 578-584; Japanese and Korean laborers, ii, 584; prostitutes, ii,
327-329, 579; aliens entering as seamen, ii, 355-363; as stowaways, ii, 363-367;
Australia, ii, 633, 634; Brazil, ii, 647; Canada, ii, 607, 610, 611, 619-621; New Zea-
land, ii, 637, 638. (See also Aliens excluded.)
Exclusion: On account of mental unsoundness, ii, 227-229; of East Indians, recom-
mended, i, 691.
Executive order: President empowered to prohibit immigration in case of disease in
foreign country, ii, 572; empowered to call international conference or to send com-
missioners abroad, on subject of immigration, i, 10, 28; ii, 576, 577, 743; empowered
to stop immigration on passports issued for entrance to other countries, ii, 577. (See
also Vetoes, Presidents'.)
72289°— VOL 1—11 55
The Immigration Commission.
Expansion of industry, through recent immigration, i, 491, 646.
EnSSteti™- Of Greek bootblacks, ii, 391-108; Greek railroad laborers, n, 405 406;
"Mexican railroad laborers,!, 684; laborers in Maine forests 11, 447; prostitutes,
ii :M9-341; of aliens by other aliens, recommendation regarding, i, 46; Canadian
immigration department protects new arrivals from, ii, 627.
F.
Face, width of, native and foreign born compared, ii, 510-517, 523, 525, 526, 530,
Failures and defalcations, immigrant bankers, ii, 433, 434, 437, 438.
Falkner, Roland P., author of report on. the children of immigrants in schools, i, 2.
Fall River, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152; public
schedule forms used in study of, ii, 653^673; receiving charitable aid, ii, 130-135;
relationship in Greece, ii, 405; effect of size of, on bodily form, ii, 555; parents and
children compared, as regards bodily form, ii, 549, 553. (See also Conjugal condi-
FanSly income: Various investigations, i, 297-312, 412-417, 597, 598, 600, 766, 767;
native and foreign born compared, i, 413, 416; old and new immigration compared,
i, 413, 416, 417; of Mexicans, smallest of all immigrant races in West, i, 689; working
people, Honolulu, i, 712. (See also Wages and earnings and separate races.)
Family life, absence of: Influence which most retards assimilation, i, 42.
Farm labor: Male breadwinners engaged in, i, 802, 821-829; female breadwinners, i,
830-838; Italians in South, i, 568, 569; emigrating from United States to Canada, ii,
613, 614, 617; desired by Canada, ii, 608, 613, 623. (See also Agricultural pursuits.)
Farmers, planters, and overseers: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female
breadwinners, i, 830-838.
Farming abroad: Occupation of great proportion of recent immigrants, i, 494, 495,
498, 663; persons in agricultural investigation who did, i, 607, 608; in industrial
study, i, 358, 360, 361-363; in study of cities, i, 728, 760; majority of Chinese and
Japanese did, i, 663; East Indians, i, 677; Italians, i, 561, 562, 567, 573. (See also
Occupation abroad.)
Fecundity of immigrant women, abstract of report on, ii, 451-500.
Federal control of immigration. See Government control of immigration.
Federal immigration legislation, abstract of report on, ii, 557-584.
Feeble-minded in institutions, 1904, ii, 231, 233, 237, 241. (See also Insane.)
Field work of Immigration Commission: Character of, i, 15; agriculture, i, 556; indus-
tries, i. 295.
.Filipino: Number of employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; length of
residence, i, 349-356; ii, 84, 85; increase in number employed, i, 658; on sugar planta-
tions, i, 715; charity seekers, ii, 95-109; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55, 76-80;
literacy, i, 438-447; in Hawaii, i, 710, 711.
Fillinnre, Millard, nominated for President by Know-Nothing and Whig Parties,
11, 563.
Financial condition of immigrants. See Money on landing.
Financial depression of 1907-8: Hostility toward recent immigrants during, i, 540;
effect on number of aliens departing, i, 113; on immigrant banks, ii, 424, 425, 433;
on transmissions abroad, ii, 426, 427; migration of recent immigrants, i, 500.
For offenses against immigration laws, ii, 733-738, 742, 745, 746, 766-769, 788,
90, 792, 793; steamship companies, for inducing emigration, ii, 386; seduction of
female passengers by seamen, law of 1860, ii, 594 ; importing coolie labor for peonage,
.75, n, 579; paid by prostitutes, ii, 347, 348; under white-slave traffic law, ii, 344,
• rni-iuR in physically and mentally diseased aliens, should be increased,
i. 27; New Zealand law, ii, 638.
Finland: rHviaoM of, ii, 698; population, i, 236, 237, 266, 267; number of Swedes in,
teracy in i, 177; immigrant remittances to, ii, 425; Canada induces immi-
jrraii.,n from n, 607, 608; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 623; crime, ii,
(1/ifT Oil U*1J £ • • ••••wv* P^/VWIVV^JJ j.j .HJT:. \jt*ij j \
1; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347
age clarification i, 463-467; earnings,' i, 366403;' literacy, i, 438-447.'
Russian Empire.)
Finnish- ^-*-'" -
627-636;
(See also
Index. 859
i, 187; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 640-642; employees
studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 136, 286-290;
age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484;
occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356,
636, 637; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc.,
i, 445, 446, 461^63, 477-481; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 117, 118,
363-366; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 407-411; family income, i, 412-417; charity
seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; crime, ii, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; status of children,
i, 470-474; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99,
175, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489; in
labor unions, i, 417, 418; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; fecundity, ii, 469-500;
location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of
apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430^38; boarders and
lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463;
number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528; in Canada, ii, 612, 625.
Finno-Tataric: Definition of term, i, 238, 239; population of stock, i, 238, 239.
Firearm manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-338, 343-348.
First generation, definition of term as here used, i, 777.
Fish, Hamilton, chairman of Senate select committee on steerage conditions, 1853,
ii, 593.
Fishberg, Maurice: On treatment of infants, ii, 547; variability of Hebrew type,
ii,550.
Fishing, Japanese engaged in, California, i, 664.
Fitchburg, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Fiume, Austria-Hungary: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of
immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Flemish: Definition, i, 231-233; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215, 625;
population in Europe, i, 214, 233; number in France, i, 240; number of households
and persons studied, i, 3167320, 557, 601; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347,
627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, ii, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on
English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101,
357-363; length of residence, i, 349-356, 603; residence in agricultural locality, i, 603;
residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446,
477-481; ii, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 363-366; wages and earnings, i, 366^03,
407-411; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals,
ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanitv and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; prostitution,
ii, 332; status of children, i, 470-474; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80;
literacy, i, 99, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; citizenship, i, 484-489; in
labor unions, i, 417, 418; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460;
home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of house-
holds, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426.
(See also Dutch and Flemish.)
Flint Medical School, New Orleans, La., ii, 8.
Floating immigrant labor: Migration of recent immigrants, i, 500; immigrant banks
patronized almost wholly by, ii, 417.
Florida: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; Italians
admitted and departed, i, 568; Japanese raising pineapples and vegetables, i, 592;
insanity, ii, 232; peonage, ii, 444; regulation of banking, ii, 435.
Florida East Coast Railway, case of alleged peonage, ii, 445, 446.
Folkmar, Daniel, author of dictionary of races or peoples, i, 1, 209; abstract of diction-
ary, i, 205-283.
Folkmar, Elnora C., assisted in preparation of dictionary of races or peoples, i, 1, 209.
Food: Required for steerage passengers, various laws, ii, 590-592, 597; consumed by
seasonal farm laborers, i, 599; supplied to newly arrived immigrants, Argentina,
character of, ii, 642.
Ford committee on immigration, findings of, ii, 569, 570.
Fordham University, Fordham, N. Y., ii, 8.
Foreign-born: Proportion of, in white male population 21 years of age or over, i, 155,
156; among prisoners, 1904, and in population, 1900, ii, 165, 168; among juvenile
delinquents, 1904, and in juvenile population, 1900, ii, 169, 170; of voting age, i,
148-156; naturalization, i, 152, 153. (See also separate races, Aliens, Immigrants,
Immigration, etc.)
Foreign exchange, in immigrant banking, ii, 425, 426.
Foundry and machine-shop products manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-348.
The Immigration Commission.
France- Departments of. ii, 695; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721726; population, i,
aoSniX of Flemish in, i/233; number of Italians m , .,252; literacy •among
ench from, i, Z4U; natives 01, ui uuneu. »»«^»o*j ?«" L"- » "w"'"Ji
n»«, ut United States, i, 145; crime, .ii, 164 183-188; insanity and feeble-
idodness i 239-242; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-
34^ 627^'; 4/ctoification, i, 463-467; larnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447;
conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Franco-Prussian War, effect on emigration of Poles, i, 584.
tion,' i, 239, 240; number of persons speaking, i, 235 239; number of
, , ,
immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215, 240, 625; proportion of males, i, 98; destma-
i i 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing, i,
103;' immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; population in Europe i 214, 239 240;
number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 601, 640-642; employees
349-356' 636 637; ii 84. 85; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking,
literacy' etc'., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; number
of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 824, 833; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 824, 833;
in acricultural pursuits, i, 550, 799, 800, 824, 833; in boot and shoe manufacturing,
i 824; in building trades, i, 789, 790, 824; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815,
824, 833; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 833; in cotton mills, i, 824, 833;
i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-766; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-153;
in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237,
244, 249, 270; crime, ii, 173, 198-204, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; status of children,
i, 470-474; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 49-61, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i,
99, 175, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489;
ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417, 418; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii,. 137-142;
fecundity, ii, 469-482, 494-500; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i,
467^470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430; per-
sons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i,
112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528; in
Canada, i, 240; ii, 611, 625; immigrants to Argentina, ii, 640, 641; to Australia, ii, 633;
to Brazil, ii, 645, 646.
French Canadian. See Canadian, French.
Fruitgrowing, deciduous, Japanese displacing Chinese, Pacific coast, i, 659.
Furniture manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 307, 308; households arid
employees studied, i, 294, 323-326, 332, 333; earnings, i, 384-386, 390-392, 394.
G.
< ia« lie, number of persons speaking, i, 272. (See also Scotch.)
< ia infill occupation within the home, i, 751, 752.
i lalician: Immigrants to Hawaii, i, 702; in Canada, ii, 611, 625. (See also Kuthenian.)
< .alician provinces of Spain, population of, i, 279.
General tables for various reports, described, ii, 31, 32, 43-48, 63, 73, 86, 154.
General Theological Seminary, New York, N. Y., ii, 8.
Geneva, N. Y., -Italian agricultural colony at, i, 574.
Genoa, Italy: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197 ^ejections, i, 199; number of immigrants
from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Genoa, Wis., Italian agricultural colony at, i, 561, 563, 564.
GeOTga- I',., (in-.-k physician in Chicago, letter .signed by, ii, 398
Tn?^P\re^~born in' *» 126' 1285 inanity, ii, 232; immigrants destined to, i,
Italians admitted and departed, i, 568; peonage, ii, 445; no regulation of
pnvate or immigrant banks, ii, 435,
Index. 861
German: Definition, i, 240-243; number of persons speaking, i, 235, 241; Teutonic
languages, i, 281; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215, 243; proportion
of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104;
money on landing, i, 103; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; population and dis-
tribution, i, 213, 214, 242; causes of emigration, i, 133; number in United States,
i, 242; number in Austria-Hungary, i, 219; number of households and persons studied,
i, 316-320, 557, 601, 639-642, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 506,
507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 602, 603, 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290; age
at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 609,
612, 769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363, 607, 608, 760; length
of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States,
effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481, 610, 613,
751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; residence in agricultural locality, i, 604;
number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 824, 833; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761,
762, 824, 833; in agricultural pursuits, i, 547, 548, 799, 800, 801, 824, 833; in boot
and shoe manufacturing, i, 824; in building trades, i, 789, 790, 824; in clerical pur-
suits, j, 791, 792, 814, 815, 824, 833; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 833;
in cotton mills, i, 824, 833; in domestic and personal service, i, 804-806, 824, 833;
iron and steel workers, i, 784, 785, 824; laborers, i, 780, 781, 824; in laundries, i, 833; in
manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, i, 824; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783,
824; in needle trades, i, 808, 809, 833; in paper and pulp mills, i, 833; peddlers, i,
824, 833; in professional service, i, 797, 798, 824, 833; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793,
794, 816, 817, 824, 833; in silk mills, i, 833; steam railroad employees, i, 824; teachers,
i, 819, 820, 833; in textile mills, i, 786, 787, 811, 812, 824, 833; in tobacco and cigar
making, i, 824, 833; in trade and transportation, i, 824, 833; in woolen mills, i,
833; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-767; immigrant banks, ii, 413;
family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii,
258-262, 270-276; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 238, 244, 249, 270; crime,
ii, 174, 179-182, 189-193, 198-204, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation
in the home, i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474, 614, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools,
ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33^2, 49-61, 64-72, 76-82; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy,
i, 99, 175, 438-447, 612, 613, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 609-611, 768-770;
ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417^19;
conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; fecundity, ii, 457-500; location of wife,
i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of
apartments and of households, i, 426-430, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438,
743-747; boarders and lodgers, i, 422^26, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet
accommodations, i, 754; care of apartment, i, 755; return movement, i, 112-118,
180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 513, 514; number
in Whiting, Ind., i, 528; in Hawaii, i, 702, 703, 714; in Canada, ii, 611, 625; immi-
grants to Argentina, ii, 640, 641; to Brazil, ii, 645, 646; inspection abroad, i, 200.
German-Russians, in certain western States, i, 653, 654.
German-Swiss, in agriculture, i, 550.
Germany: States of, ii, 696; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; formerly leading
• emigrant-furnishing country, i, 168; number of French in, i, 240; Germans in Empire,
i, 242; Gypsies in, i, 245; Poles in, i, 259; immigrant remittances to, ii, 425, 427, 429;
steerage laws, referred to, ii, 599-601; control stations on frontier, for emigrant inspec-
tion, i, 195, 196; insanity in, ii, 248, 249; illiteracy among recruits, i, 177; deserting
seamen from, ii, 360; Canada induces immigration from, ii, 607; immigrants from
Empire, 1820-1910, i, 65-96, 243; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of, in United States,
i, 134, 135, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; crime, ii, 183-188,
194-197, 205-211; insanity and feeble-mindedness, ii, 239-242; children of immi-
grants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-
467; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Glasgow, Scotland: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of
immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Glass manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 301, 302; households and employees
studied, i, 294, 323-333, 627-634; earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395; unskilled labor in, i,
495; racial displacements, i, 519-527; some representative immigrant communities,
i, 496; racial composition of-a bottle plant in Pennsylvania, i, 524; a plate-glass
plant and community in Pennsylvania, i, 520-522; a window-glass community in
western Pennsylvania, i, 522-524.
Gloucester, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Glove manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 310, 311; households and employees
studied, i, 294, 323-333; earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395.
Gold and silver workers, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Gold mining, Chinese displaced in, California, i, 659.
The Immigration Commission.
Goldenweiser, E. A., author of report on immigrants in cities, i, 2; abstract of report,
• 'yO'J. — •>
Goucher College, Baltimore, Md., ii, 8.
Government control of immigration: Urged by President Grant, 1871, n, 566; recom-
mended by Supreme Court, 1876, ii, 567, 568; assumed, 1882, n, 564; definitely
established by law, 1891, ii, 571; frustrated California's attempts to repress Chinese
immigration, ii, 578. (See alo Immigration law.)
Government supervision over ships at sea, ii, 602.
Grand Rapids, Mich., immigrants as charity seekers in, 11, 93-115.
Grant Ulysses S., quotation from message to Congress, ii, 566, 567.
Great Britain: First steerage passenger legislation, 1809, ii, 591; steerage laws, referred
to, ii, 599-601; deserting seamen from, ii, 360; Canada induces immigration from,
ii,' 608. (See aho teparate countries and United Kingdom. )
Great Britain and Ireland, immigrant remittances to, ii, 427.
Great Russian: Definition of term, i, 263-265; number of, i, 250. (See al o Russian.)
Greece: Provinces and islands of, ii, 696; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; popula-
tion, i, 245; number of Albanians in, i, 244; Greeks in, i, 245; Roumanians in, i,
263; furnishes more immigrants in proportion to population than any other country,
i, 191; activities of steamship ticket agents, i, 191; wages and working conditions of
boys, ii, 402^04; illiteracy among recruits, i, 177; immigrant remittances to, ii,
427; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of, in
United States, i, 134, 136, 137, 623; padrone system, ii, 391-408; crime, ii, 164, 188,
children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; earnings, i,
403; literacy, i, 438-447.
Grc«-k: Definition, i, 243, 244; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215,
•2\'>. 025; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in
I'nitcd States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; population in Europe, i, 214, 245;
number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 733-737; employees studied,
i. ii-JO-asa, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 737-739; ii, 286-290;
age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484,
769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 172, 173, 357-363, 760; length of residence,
i, 116, 349-356, 636, 637, 740; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on
English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481, 751, 769; ii, 263-266,
280-285; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762; in seasonal farm labor, i, 594;
wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 685, 686, 764-766; immigrant banks, ii, 413;
padrone system, i, 29, 30; ii, 387-408; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii,
95, 109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261; 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii,
228, 237, 270; crime, h, 164, 173, 174, 198-204, 211-220; status of children, i, 763;
in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80; proportion of children, i, 739;
literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 768-770; ii,
151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489, 771, 772; in labor unions, i, 418, 419; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756;
rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430,
741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426>
748-751; boarding groups, i, 739; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i,
754; care of apartment, i, 755; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad
i, 461-463; in Canada, ii, 611, 625.
Greek padrone system in the United States, report on, ii, 387-408.
Green County, Wis., cheese industry of, i, 549.
Groese Island, near Quebec, formerly Canadian quarantine station, ii, 592.
-"T,*» , ™i *•' ""*> A> «u*j IIA toptuii, i, £/», jiuiiiuer 01 House-
holds and persons studied, i, 319, 320; wages and earnings, i, 407; in labor unions,
i, 418.
TT
Haik. See Armenian.
11&517C524T Mg1^ letermination of' "' 555' native and foreign born compared, ii, 510-
Hall, Henry, author, referred to, ii, 594.
irg, Germany: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of
imrnigrante from, and number debarred for medical causes, i 202
ib.irg-American Line: Organized, 1846, ii, 594; first steamships, 1856, ii, 594;
t turd-class accommodations of, ii 602
.Hamline University St. Paul, Minn., ii, 8.
Hammonton, N. J., Italian agricultural colony at i 561
lianna, referred to, on statistics of religions in Ireland, i', 249.
Index. 863
Hartford, Conn., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., ii, 8.
Hat and cap makers, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Haverhill, Mass.: Public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 33-35, 71, 72, 75; parochial
school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75.
Havre, France: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of immi-
grants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Hawaii: Immigration conditions in, report on, i, 695-722; population, i, 700; act to
provide government for, ii, 795; effects of annexation, i, 701, 702; early immigra-
tion, i, 699-702; recent, i, 702, 703; assisted, i, 703-708; immigration and emigra-
tion, i, 708-714; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; Portuguese labor imported,
i, 629; cost of importing labor, i, 703-705; employees on plantations, i, 715; wages
of Russian immigrants, i, 707; passports required of Japanese entering, i, 661; chil-
dren in school, i, 714; insane in institutions, ii, 233; immigrants as charity seekers,
ii, 154; Japanese emigration from, to Pacific coast, i, 660, 661, 701; to Canada, ii,
629; Chinese immigration to, regulated by United States laws, ii, 583, 795; reg-
istration of Chinese, ii, 795; Chinese emigration from, to United States, ii, 795;
Chinese citizens of, admission to United States, ii, 803; immigration by way of
regulation regarding, ii, 779, 780.
Hawaiian: Number in Hawaii, i, 700, 713; employees studied, i, 627-636; age classi-
fication of charity patients, ii, 286-290; length of residence of students, ii, 84; resi-
dence in United States of charity patients, ii, 263-266; on sugar plantations, i, 715;
family income, i, 712; charity seekers, ii, 154; . in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261,
270-272; in schools, i, 714; ii, 10-16, 18-27, 76-80.
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association: Induced immigration, i, 703, 704; welfare work
i, 716.
Hayes, Rutherford B., vetoed bill abrogating Burlingame treaty, 1879, ii, 580.
Ilayford, Leslie, author of report on immigration and crime, i, 3;* abstract of report, ii,
159-221.
Head form of immigrants, changes in, ii, 505-517, 520-522, 525-529, 531-533, 536, 539,
540, 542-545, 549, 553, 554.
Head tax: Proposed at various times, ii, 562, 568, 571; legislation, ii, 566-569, 571,
573-576; levied by New York, 1829, ii, 567, 568; by Massachusetts, 1837, ii, 567;
references to, in present law, ii, 731, 732, 747, 760, 762, 764, 766, 774, 775, 780; pro-
posed amendments, 1906, i, 9, 10; material increase proposed, i, 48; discrimination
in favor of men with families, proposed, i, 48; in case of stowaways, ii, 365, 366; not
applicable to alien seamen, ii, 355, 357, 358; persons coming from certain places
exempt from, i, 231 ; Chinese and other Mongolians, California, 1855 and 1862, ii,
578; Chinese entering Canada, ii, 628.
Health, the public, conclusions regarding immigration and, i, 34.
Hebrew: Definition, i, 246, 247; objection to use of term, i, 19; number of immigrants
admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215, 246, 625; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i,
• 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103;
population in Europe, i, 214, 246; causes of emigration, i, 187, 577; number in
Holland, i, 232; number in Roumania, i, 263; number in Russian Poland, i, 260;
number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 640-642, 733-737;
employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; in agricultural investigation, i,
552-557; age classification, i, 463^67, 602, 603, 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290; age at
time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 609,
612, 769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363, 607, 608, 760; length
of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 740; ii, 84, 85; permanence of settlement, i, 181;
residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446,
461-463, 477-481, 610, 613, 751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; residence in
agricultural locality, i, 604; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762; in agricultural
pursuits, i, 39, 575-581; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-767; immigrant
banks, ii, 413; family income, i, 412-417, 766; income of farmers, i, 579; charity
seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-275, 277; insanity and
mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 238, 270; crime, ii, 179-181, 189-193, 211-220; prostitu-
tion, ii, 332, 343; gainful occupation in the home, i, 752; status of children, i,
470-474, 614, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 32^2, 49-61, 64-71,
76-82; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447, 612, 613, 770,
771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 609-611, 768-770; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i,
484-489, 580, 606, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460, 605; ii, 137-142; changes in bodily form, ii, 505-509, 512,
513, 518-535, 542-545, 549; pubescence of boys, ii, 536-541; variability of type in
Europe, ii, 550; treatment of infants, ii, 547; location of wife, i, 459", 460;" home
ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; siz*e of apartments and
864 The Immigration Commission.
in Canada, ii, 611, 625.
Hellenic. See Greek.
Heredity, theories of, ii, 552, 553.
Herkner, Anna, author of report on steerage conditions, i, 3; abstract of report, 11,
291—303
Hervat, definition of term, i, 247. (See also Croatian.)
Herzegovina and Bosnia, number of Serbo-Croatians in i,230 .._,___.___
Herzegovinian- Definition, i, 247; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215, 625;
proportion of males, i, 98; population in Europe, i, 214; employees studied, i,
320-333 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; 11, 286-290; occupation
abroad 'i, 100-102, 357-363; length of residence, i, 349-356, 636, 637; residence in
United States of charity patients, ii, 263-266; wages and earnings, 366-403; charity
seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental
defects ii 270; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27; literacy, i, 99, 438^47; English-speak
ing, i, 474-484; citizenship, i, 484-489; conjugal condition, i, 447-460. (See also
Croatian and Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzegovinian.)
Hickernell, Warren F., assisted in preparation of report on distribution of immi-
HiSmann: Estimate of number of Celts, i, 225, 226, 249; of persons speaking various
languages, i, 235; division of Aryan stock, i, 218.
Higher educational institutions, students in, ii, 76-86.
Highland Scotch, definition of term, i, 272. (See also Scotch.)
Hill, Joseph A., author of reports on distribution of immigrants, occupations of immi-
grants, and fecundity of immigrant women, i, 1, 2, 3; abstracts of reports, i, 119-160,
773^38; ii, 451-500.
Hindi, number of persons speaking, i, 234.
Hindu: Definition, i, 247, 248; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215, 625, 676,
677; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in
United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712;
number in Malaysia, i, 258; number and distribution in United States, i, 676, 678;
number of households and persons studied, i, 639, 642; employees studied, i, 320-
333, 336-347, 627-636; occupation abroad, i, 100-102; length of residence, i, 116,
349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; occupation, i, 117, 118; laborers, i, 676-679; wages
and earnings, i, 670, 678, 680; charity seekers, ii, 95-109; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 237; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 64-66, 76-82; literacy, i, 99, 438^47,
681; English-speaking, i, 681; standard of living, i, 680; return movement, i,
112-118; in Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States, i, 676-682; in Hawaii, i,
710, 711; conclusions and recommendations, i, 41, 47, 691; in Canada, i, 676; ii,
611, 623, 625, 629.
Hoar, George F., could not support legislation discriminating against race, ii, 584.
Hoboken, N. J.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, 152.
Holland: Number of Flemish in, i, 233: Canada induces immigration from, ii, 607,
608; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 135, 137, 623. (See also Netherlands.)
Hollander. See Dutch, Flemish, and Dutch and Flemish.
Holyoke, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Home ownership: Various investigations, i, 298-312, 467-470, 728, 756-759; old and
new immigration compared, i, 469; sugar-plantation laborers, Hawaii, i, 716, 717.
Homes: Care and equipment of, among immigrants in cities, i. 753-755; gainful occu-
pation in, immigrants in cities, i, 751, 752.
Homes and aid societies, immigrant: Abstract of report on, ii, 305-322; information
regarding, furnished to authorities, i, 23; conclusions, i, 30, 31; in Argentina, ii,
642; in Canada, ii, 615, 627.
Homesteads: Act of 1862, discussion with regard to immigrants, ii, 564; offered to
white laborers, Hawaii, i, 716-719; in Australia, ii, 631; Brazil, ii, 647; Canada, ii,
614, 617.
Honolulu, Hawaii: Charity seekers in, ii, 154; average family income, working peo-
ple, i, 712. (See also Hawaii.)
Hop growing: Chinese labor displaced by Japanese, Pacific coast, i, 658, 659; Japanese
seasonal labor, i, 667.
Hosiery and knit-goods manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-348.
Hospitals: On emigrant-carrying ships, ii, 298, 299, 301, 597, 598; report on charity
hospitals, n, 253-290; per capita cost of treatment, ii, 258; law regarding treatment
of immigrants, ii,*738, 749, 752-754.
Index. 865
Houlton, Me., a justice of, attitude toward contract-labor law, ii, 448.
Hours of work: Effects of recent immigrants on, i, 540, 541; longer in bituminous coal
mines of Pennsylvania than elsewhere, i, 38; longer than average in Japanese busi-
ness establishments, Pacific coast, i, 675; irregular among immigrant bankers, ii,
422; seasonal agricultural laborers, i, 597, 598; Greek bootblacks and peddlers, ii,
394, 395.
Households: Selection of, for study, i, 315; schedule forms used, ii, 653-673; number
studied, various industries, i, 294, 297-313, 315-317; in cities, i, 727, 732-736; in
agricultural investigation, i, 557; in the West, i, 640; study of immigrants in cities,
i, 727-772; size of, i, 428^30: farm households studied, i, 601-615, 639; Italian, in
agriculture, i, 560. (See also Boarders and lodgers, etc.]
Housing conditions: Immigrants in cities, i, 729; size of apartments and of house-
holds, i, 426^30, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 729, 743-747; sanitary con-
ditions, i, 729, 753-755; boarding-boss system described, i, 422, 499; among seasonal
agricultural laborers, i, 598, 599; Chinese, i, 657; East Indians, i, 680: German-
Russians, i, 653, 654; Greeks, ii, 393-395; Hebrews, i, 579; Italians, i. 565, 652;
Mexicans, i, 689; Poles, i, 586; Russians in Hawaii, i, 706, 707; conclusions, i, 36, 37.
Housekeepers and stewardesses, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Howell, Benjamin F., member of Immigration Commission, i, 11, 165.
Hucksters and peddlers: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female bread-
winners, i, 830-838.
Hun, definition of term, i, 248. (See also Magyar.)
Hungarian: Immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803,
825, 834; occupation, i, 825, 834; in agricultural pursuits, i, 800, 825, 834; in boot
and shoe manufacturing, i, 825; in building trades, i, 789, 825; in clerical pursuits,
i, 791, 814, 825, 834; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 834; in cotton mills,
i, 825, 834; in domestic and personal service, i, 805, 825, 834; iron and steel workers,
i, 784, 825; laborers, i, 781, 825; in laundries, i, 834; in manufacturing and mechan-
ical pursuits, i, 825, 834; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 825; in needle trades, i, 809,
834; in paper and pulp mills, i, 834; peddlers, i, 825, 834; in professional service,
i, 797, 798, 825, 834; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 794, 817, 825, 834; in silk mills, i, 834;
steam railroad employees, i, 825; teachers, i, 819, 834; in textile mills, i, 787, 811,
825, 834; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 825, 834; in trade and transportation, i,
825,834; in woolen mil Is, i, 834; insanity and mental defects, ii,244, 249; fecundity,
ii, 469-482, 494-500; changes in bodily form, ii, 510, 511, 518-524, 526; desertion of
seamen, ii, 361 ; in Canada, ii, 611, 626. (See also Magyar.)
Hungary: Provinces of, ii, 696; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; number of Germans
in, i, 242; Gypsies, i, 245; Roumanians, i, 263; Slovaks, i, 277; illiteracy, i, 177;
insanity, ii, 248, 249; law forbids promotion of emigration, i, 191; local supervision
prevents many of excludable classes from emigrating, i, 196; natives of, in United
States, i, 134, 135, 137, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; children of immigrants
from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347. (See al o Austria-Hungary.)
Hungary and Bohemia, insanity and feeble-mindedness among natives of. in United
States, ii, 239-242.
Hungary Hollow, 111., a representative immigrant community, i, 496.
Hunky. See Magyar.
Hunyak. See Magyar.
Husband, W. W.: Secretary of Immigration Commission, i. ]2.
Huxley, classification of races by, i, 218, 224, 256, 257.
I.
Iberians, immigration and emigration of, Hawaii, i, 710, 711.
Iceland: Population, i, 270; number of Scandinavians in, i, 271; Canada induces
immigration from, ii, 607. (See also Scandinavia.)
Icelander: Number of employees studied, i, 627-636; charity seekers, ii, 95-108;
in Canada, ii, 611, 626.
Idaho: Population and number of foreign-born, i, 127, 129, 149, 155, 623; citizen-
ship, i, 150; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; regulation of banking, ii, 435.
Identification: See Certificates.
Illinois: Population and number of foreign-born, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizen-
ship, i, 150, 152; Hebrews in, i, 247, 576; Polish farmers, i, 583; Greek peddlers, ii,
393, 394; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; output of coal
(see Middle West); immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; emigration to Canada, ii, 617;
immigrant banks, ii, 414, 435; no regulation of private or immigrant banking, ii, 435.
866 The Immigration Commission.
Illiteracy: Defined, i, 156; in Europe, i, 175-178; in Italy, i, 251; among Greek
peasantry, ii. 402; among Slovaks, i, 276; in Norway, the least in Europe, i, 269;
among United States recruits, i, 177; Europe and United States compared, i, 177.
178; among immigrants, i, 98-100, 498; largely responsible for immigrant banks, ii,
417; employees in industries studied, i, 298-313, 438-447; Greek bootblacks, ii, 396;
East Indians, i, 681; Mexicans, i, 689, 690; Australian law, ii, 633-635; New Zealand,
ii, 637, 638. (See also Literacy.)
Illyrian. See Croatian and Slovenian.
Immigrant banks. See Banks, immigrant.
Immigrant fund, referred to, i, 9; ii, 731, 748.
Immigrant homes and aid societies. See Homes and aid societies, immigrant.
Immigrant stations, treatment of incoming aliens at, ii, 309-318.
Immigration to United States: Changed character of, i, 13, 60-65; from Canada, ii,
618, 619; Federal Government assumed control of, 1882, i, 26; no efforts by Gov-
ernment to induce, i, 25; promotion of, prohibited, i, 189; to be limited, proposed,
i, 47, 48. (See also Aliens admitted.)
Immigration and emigration compared, i, 113, 114.
Immigration Commission: Creation of, i, 9-11; ii, 576, 742; brief statement of investi-
gations, i, 5-21; membership, i, 11, 12; organization, i, 12; conclusions, i, 23-44;
recommendations, i, 45-48; views of minority, i, 49.
Immigration districts, list of, ii, 778, 779, 813, 814.
Immigration law: Federal immigration legislation, abstract of report on, ii, 557-584;
law of 1907, as amended 1910, ii, 731-744; white-slave traffic act, ii, 744-747; immi-
gration regulations, ii, 747-780; to whom applicable, ii, 748, 749; excluded classes,
ii, 327-329, 619-621, 732, 733; aliens debarred, i, 110; emigration prevented, i, 170;
direct Federal control granted, i, 110; foreign Governments willing to cooperate, i,
28; legislation of 1907, i, 194; ii, 575-577; inadequate as regards criminals, i, 27, 34;
as regards padrone system, ii, 406; evasions and violations, ii, 330, 331, 357, 361, 363,
364, 400, 401, 570-572; references to advertising, ii, 734; anarchists, ii, 732, 742;
appeals, ii, 735, 740, 750, 751, 758, 800; assisted immigrants, ii, 732; boards of special
inquiry, ii, 740, 756, 763; bond, ii, 738, 740, 751, 756, 757, 771, 800, 808, 815; Canal
Zone, inspection of aliens from, ii, 741; children unaccompanied by parent, ii 732
749; Chinese, ii, 578-584, 800, 808; Commissioner-General, duties of, ii, 739, 741-
contract labor, i, 110; ii, 375-379, 569-572, 732-734, 739; coolies, ii, 578; criminals,
i, 27, 34; ii, 732, 793; deportation, 733, 737-739, 741, 762, 763, 769-774 787 788
790-792, 794, 800, 811-813; disease, i, 194; ii, 732, 734, 752, 773; emigrants, lists of
outgoing, 11, 735, 736, 762; hospital treatment, ii, 738, 749, 752-754; Immigration
Commission, ii, 742; insanity and mental defects, ii, 227 229 245-247 251 732
£S' ™' II*' JSP6?*0*' "' 737' 749' 787' 799> 80°; insular possessions, ii,' 736^
779, 780, 796, 803; international conference, ii, 743; labor i 661- ii 399 733 (
•to contract labor -above); manifests, ii, 735, 736, 762, 769, 787; medical examh
fiMii ii 7 </ v.^V v*\Q • t-M/-\^-»4-rt1 «]<£*»»_J_ / •_ *, i . •. i
see
examma-
* TOT TCO TCO i 1 • i / / >'v-'"j i*.i.vv*..i.v^c*.L \_x jvctiiJ.il ic*»
, 11, 737, 752, 753; mental disorders (see insanity and mental defects, above)'
<wi ^77^^TQ?107^ ^mi?1JTantSt!ii.i' 7?5; Polygamists, ii, 732; prostitutes, ii, 330,
.31, 577, 732, 733, 744, 745, 769; public charges, ii, 732, 769 770 774- reiections ii
•; seamen, ii, 355, 357, 359, 361, 364, 367, 368 skilled labor, ii, 733'; mUc ting by
tran8nort.ftt.inn rnmrwmioH ii 7Q4- sfpQrQO'o r.rvnrlU^^o !• on-r onn 8 ••
, /o^, steerage conditions, 11, 297-299; stowaways, ii,
r-809; white-slave traffic (see prostitutes, above): New
United States and Canadian laws, compan "
702; Australia, ii, 633-635; Brazil, ii, 646; 64'
29; New Zealand, ii, 637, 638. (See als
Im"!)?™1'1011 8it.yation ir? other countries, abstract of report on, ii, 603-647
-siavTti^m^)^' "f 744~747; conclusions, iJw^See^o Prostitution11^
320-333, 336-347; literacy, i, 438-147 ' chlldren of ^^^ants from, employed,
-3, 336-347, _,-wu,
berry pickers in Wisconsin
Index. 867
258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 230, 231, 270; in schools, ii,
10-16, 33-^2, 49-61, 64-66; literacy, i, 438^47. (See also East Indian.)
Indian, South American, children in public schools, ii, 10-16.
Indian, Spanish, children in public schools, ii, 10-16.
Indian Territory: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109.
Indiana: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; immigrants destined
to, i, 105-109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; output of
coal (see Middle West); Hebrew farmers, i, 576; Polish farmers, i, 583; insanity, ii,
232; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of banking, ii, 435.
Indianapolis, Ind.: Immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigrant banks ii,
413.
Indo-Celtic, -European, -Germanic. See Aryan.
Induced immigration: Report on, ii, 371-386; prohibited, i, 25; law regarding, ii,
376, 377; conclusions, i, 29; law encouraging immigration, 1864, ii, 564, 565; favored
farms, i, 590; from Japan, i, 662; westward, i, 621; from Philippines to Hawaii, i,
704, 705; board to promote white settlement, Hawaii, i, 702-708; to Argentina, ii,
639; Australia, ii, 631; Canada, i, 192; ii, 607-610; South America, i, 192
Industrial Commission, investigation by, ii, 574.
Industrial communities, various, described, i, 495-497.
Industrial condition abroad. See Occupation abroad.
Industrial depression, effects of, i, 179-181, 188. (See also Financial depression of
1907-8.)
Industrial organization and methods, effects of recent immigration on, i, 538-540.
Industrial significance of recent immigration, i, 491-541.
Industries, immigrants in. See Manufacturing and mining.
Information, Division of, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, i, 40, 46; ii,
575, 743.
Inman Line, inaugurated third-class or steerage accommodations, 1850, ii, 594.
Insane: Report on immigration and insanity, ii, 223-251; excluded, ii, 569, 619, 620;
law regarding, ii, 732, 738, 752, 773; in United States and foreign countries, ii,
248, 249; immigration, i, 28; ii, 245, 246; in hospitals and institutions, ii, 230, 232-
237, 239, 240; treated in certain New York hospitals, ii, 238, 247, 267, 268, 270-274,
276-279, 282, 285, 290; excluded from Australia, ii, 633, 634; Brazil, ii, 647; Canada,
ii, 619, 620, 625; New Zealand, ii, 637.
Inspection:
Abroad —
Recommendations of Native American Association, 1838, ii, 562; of joint
committee, 1892, ii, 572; 1907, ii, 576; of Bureau of Immigration, i, 201;
President authorized to provide for, i, 11, 28; prevents emigration of
great numbers of diseased aliens, i, 34, 197; account of, i, 193-204; by
whom conducted, i, 197, 198; rejections, i, 110, 195, 199; by steamship
companies, i, 26, 195, 196, by United States officials, i, 26, 27, 195, 203, 204;
of alien seamen, ii, 357, 760; 'control stations on German frontier, i, 195, 196;
East Indians rejected at Asiatic ports, i, 677; methods in Belgium, i, 195;
Greece, i, 196; Hungary, i, 196; Italy, i, 195, 196.
At Canadian ports, ii, 623, 626.
At United States ports —
Inauguration of, i, 110, 194; law regarding, ii, 737, 749, 752, 753, 787, 799, 800;
under law of 1891, i, 194; ii, 571; effective in excluding diseased aliens, i,
34; alien seamen, ii, 355, 362; proportion debarred after inspection abroad,
i, 195, 202-204; history of, i, 194. (See also Aliens debarred, etc.)
Inspectors, Government, should be placed on all vessels carrying third-class or steer-
age passengers, i, 46.
Insular possessions, immigration law regarding, ii, 736, 779, 780, 796, 803.
Intermarriage: Possible effect on change of type, ii, 550, 551; type of heredity in, ii,
552; Japanese and white races, Pacific coast, i, 676; Mexican and white races, i, 690.
International agreements for regulation of immigration, possible, i, 166.
International conference on subject of immigration to United States, President author-
ized to call, i, 10; ii, 743.
Interstate commerce in prostitutes, prohibited, ii, 577, 744-747.
Investigations, immigration: Earliest congressional, 1838, ii, 562; Senate select com-
mittee, steerage conditions, 1853, ii, 593; under Secretary of Treasury, steerage con-
ditions, 1873, ii, 596; joint congressional committee, Chinese question, 1876-7, ii,
868 The Immigration Commission.
Investigators, in guise of immigrants, shouldt be sent across ocean at intervals by
Bureau of Immigration, i, 46.
Iowa: "- ---'• 10" 10
Iranians, number in Persia, i, 259
Ireland
natives of, in United States, i, 134, 135, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States,
i, 145; crime, ii, 164, 183-188, 194-197, 205-211; insanity and feeble-miridedness, ii,
239-242; children of immigrants from, employed, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 627-636;
age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460.
Irish: Definition, i, 248-250; language, i, 248, 249; number of immigrants admitted, i,
97, 171, 214, 215, 249, 250, 625; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109;
previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; immigrants
from Honolulu i 712; population in Europe, i, 214; number in United States, i,
250- number of household and persons studied, i, 316-320, 601, 641, 642, 733-737;
employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-
467, 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on literacy, i, 446, 447,
771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363, 760; length of residence, i,
116, 349-356, 636, 637, 740; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on literacy,
etc , i, 445, 446, 461^63, 751; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; number of breadwinners,
i, 778, 803, 825, 834; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762, 825, 834; in agricul-
tural pursuits, i, 799-801, 825, 834; in boot and shoe manufacturing, i, 825; in build-
ing trades, i, 789, 790, 825; in clerical pursuits, i, 789, 791, 792, 814, 815, 825; in
collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 834; in cotton mills, i, 825, 834; in domestic
and personal service, i, 655, 804-806, 825, 834; iron and steel workers, i, 784, 785,
825; laborers, i, 780, 781, 825; in laundries, i, 834; in manufacturing and mechanical
pursuits, i, 825, 834; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783, 825; in needle trades, i, 808,
809, 834; in paper and pulp mills, i, 834; peddlers, i, 825, 834; in professional service,
i, 797, 798, 825, 834; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793, 794, 816, 817, 825, 834; in silk
mills, i, 834; steam railroad employees, i, 825; teachers, i, 819, 820, 834; in textile
mills, i, 786, 787, 811, 812, 825, 834; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 825, 834; in
trade and transportation, i, 825, 834; in woolen mills, i, 834; wages and earnings,
i, 366-403, 405^11, 764-767; family income, i', 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii,
95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-275, 277; insanity and mental defects,
ii, 228, 237, 238-244, 248, 249, 270; crime, ii, 164, 174, 179, 181, 182, 189-193, 198-
204, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation in the home, i, 752; status
of children, i, 470-474, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42, 49-61,
64-72, 7^82; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447, 770, 771;
citizenship, i, 484-489, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; fecundity, ii, 457-500; location of wife, i, 459,
460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apart-
ments and of households, i, 426-430, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438 743-747
boarders and lodgers, i, 422^26, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommo-
dations, i, 754; care of apartment, i, 755; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182;
visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 513; number in Whiting,
Ind., i, 528; in Canada, ii, 611, 614, 625.
Iron and steel manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 297, 298; households and
employees studied, i, 294, 323-326, 332, 333; male breadwinners engaged in, i, 783-
329; earnings i, 384-386, 390-392, 394; fewer skilled and specialized
employees than formerly, i, 495; Japanese in plant at Pueblo Colo i 664
in I™ mmmg: H°U8enolds and employees studied, i, 294, 323-326, 332, 333; earn-
I wraelite .' See Hebrew .
01? I"*!' \ '•' C ?' of \ ^1°* charitv Patients, ii, 286-290; length of resi-
udents, ii 84 85; length of residence of charity patients, ii, 263-266,
?^U^Qer^9 fetad^n?er8' ij 559' 778' 803' 826' 835; in agricultural pur-
suite, i, 39, 559, 562-565, 567-575, 651, 652, 800, 826, 835; in boot Ind shoe manu-
Index. 869
facturing, i, 826; in building trades, i, 789, 826; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 811, 826,
835; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 835; in cotton mills, i, 826, 835;
and pulp mills, i, 835; peddlers, i, 826, 835; in professional service, i, 797,' 798, 826,
835; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 794, 817, 826, 835; in silk mills, i, 835; steam railroad
employees, i, 826; teachers, i, 819, 835; in textile mills, i, 787, 811, 826, 835; in
tobacco and cigar making, i, 826, 835; in trade and transportation, i, 826, 835; in
woolen mills, i, 835; wages and earnings, i, 670, 686, 687; immigrant banks, ii, 413;
padrone system, i, 29; ii, 391, 392; exploitation, ii, 406; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-
262, 270-275, 278; insanity and mental defects, ii, 238, 244, 249, 270; crime, ii-, 164,
173, 174, 179, 181, 189-193, 198-204, 211-221; in schools, ii, 76-82; fecundity, ii, 457-
482, 494-500; changes in bodily form of Sicilians and Neapolitans, ii, 505-545;
number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 514; immigrants to Hawaii, i, 702; in Canada, ii, 611,
625, 626; immigrants to Argentina, ii, 640-641; to Brazil, ii, 645, 646.
Italian, North: Number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215, 625; proportion
of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104;
money on landing, i, 103; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; population in Europe,
i, 214; number in Austria-Hungary, i, 219; number of households and persons
studied, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 639-642, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333,
336-347, 506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-167, 602, 603, 737-739; ii, 136; age
at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 609,
612, 769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363, 607, 608, 760; length
of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; residence in United States, effect
on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461^63,477^81, 610, 613, 751, 769;
ii, 147-151; residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; number of breadwinners,
i, 778, 803; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762, 826, 835; in agricultural pur-
suits, i, 799, 800; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 685, 764-767; family
income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; insanity and mental defects,
ii, 228, 237; crime, ii, 211-220; prostitution, ii,332; gainful occupation in the home,
i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474, 614, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31,
33^2, 49-55, 64-71; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447,
612, 613, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 609-611, 768-770; ii, 151, 152;
citizenship, i, 484^89, 606, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417^19; con-
jugal condition, i, 447-460, 605; ii, 137-142; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home
ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of
households, i, 426-430, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders
and lodgers, i, 422-426, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754;
care of apartment, i, 755; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad,
i, 461-463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528.
[talian, South: Number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215, 625; proportion
of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104;
money on landing, i, 103; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; population in Europe,
i, 214; number in Austria-Hungary, i, 219; number of households and persons
studied, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 639-642, 733-737; employees studied, 320-333, 336-347,
506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 602, 603, 737-739; ii, 136; age at
time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 609,
612, 769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 172,173, 357-363, 607, 608, 760; length
of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; residence in United States, effect
on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481, 610, 613, 751, 769;
ii, 147-151; residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; number of breadwinners,
i, 778, 803; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762, 826, 835; in agricultural pur-
suits, i, 594, 595, 799, 800; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 685, 764-767;
family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 228, 237; crime, ii, 174, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation
in the home, i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474, 614, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools,
ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33^2, 49-55, 64-72; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99,
175, 438-447, 612, 613, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 609-611, 768-770;
ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489, 606, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions,
i, 417-419; conjugal condition, i, 447^60, 605; ii, 137-142; changes in bodily form,
ii, 505; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid,
i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430, 741-743; per-
sons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426, 748-751; water
supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754; care of apartment, i, 755; return
movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463.
Italian emigration law, prohibits issuing of passports to criminals subject to exclusion
from United States, i, 28,
870 The Immigration Commission.
* a, 6*5, ™, ™ ™,
number of French in, 1,240,251; Gypsies,!, 245; Italians, i, 252; Albanians, Greeks,
Slavs and Spaniards, i, 151; illiteracy, i, 177, 251; crime and secret organizations,
i 251- insanity, ii, 248, 249; immigrant remittances to, ii, 425, 427, 429; investigations
in by Royal Italian Agricultural Commission, i, 165; solicitation of emigration by
steamship ticket agents prohibited,!, 191; endeavors to prevent emigration to United
States of excludable persons, i, 193; penal certificates, ii, 221; medical examination
of emigrants i 195' steerage laws, referred to, ii, 599, 600, 601; Government super-
vision of ships at sea, ii, 602; emigration from, i, 184, 252; rejected immigrants
may claim damages from steamship company, i, 197; deserting seamen from, ii, 360;
immigrants from 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of, in United
States, i, 1'34, 136, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; crime, ii, 164,
183-188, 194-197, 205-211; insanity and feeble-mindedness, ii, 239-242; children
of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i,
463--167; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438^47; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
J.
Jacksonville, Fla., deserting seamen at port of, ii, 360.
Jamaica. See West Indies, number of immigrants from.
Jamaican, immigrants to Canada, ii, 612.
Janitresses, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Janopoulos and Manetas Bros., promoters of Greek shoe-shining parlors, ii, 398.
Japan: Population and distribution, i, 253; religions, i, 253; agreement with United
States regarding immigration, i, 41; ii, 584; discourages emigration to United States,
ii, 584; agreement with Canada, ii, 623; immigrant remittances to, ii, 427; immi-
grants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 136, 137, 623;
in city employments in the West, i, 672; children of immigrants from, employed, i,
320-333, 336-347, 627-636; literacy, i, 438-447.
Japanese: Definition, i, 253; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215, 253, 660;
proportion of males, i, 98, 662; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United
States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; number and distribution, i, 253; number in
United States, i, 624, 655, 660; number of households and persons studied, i,
316-320, 553, 557, 601, 639-642; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636;
age classification, i, 463-467, 602, 603, 662, 663, 676; ii, 286-290; age at time of coming,
effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 609, 612; occupation
abroad, i, 100, 101, 357-363, 607, 608; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636,
637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc.,
i, 445, 446, 477-481, 610, 613; ii, 263-266; residence in agricultural locality, i, 604;
occupation, i, 117, 118, 364, 658, 663, 664; in agricultural pursuits, i, 591, 592, 667,
672; in business for self, i, 673, 674; in canneries, i, 658; in city employments, i,
672; in domestic and personal service, i, 673; laborers, i, 659, 661, 666; in sugar-
beet fields, i, 594, 687, 688; displacements, i, 594, 659, 667-669; strike breakers, i,
I; wages and earnings, i, 407, 646, 658, 665, 670, 678, 683; cost of laborers' eub-
iistence, i, 675; charity seekers, ii, 93-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272;
insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 238, 270; prostitution, ii, 332, 337, 338, 346;
in U/'hrt/tle 11 lfk_1ft 1C O7 fiA fia no Of\. lit- ._ • r\r\ snr, A A*, „-, f^ n-. n, -r-i -i • 1
>oi, tm, ii, o//; eligible classes, i, 661; legislation, i, 661; ii, 757, 758; in Pacific
and Rocky Mountain States, i, 660-676; ii, 415; in Hawaii, i, 699-703, 709-717;
«"S!52? S£SS°^£ti™' jfe?1. .47; schedule forms used in investigation,
>80, 681; in Canada, i, 661; n, 611, 623, 626, 628,
in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States,
Japhetic. See Aryan.
Java, population of, i, 233.
Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa , ii 8
iks, Jeremiah W., member of Immigration Commission, i 12
Hebrew m male P°Pulation> *> 1515 citizenship, i, 152.
Aid Societv of
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., ii, 8,
Index. 871
Johnstown, Pa., public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 33-35, 75.
Joliet, 111.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Juvenile immigration to Canada, ii, 615.
K.
Kalamazoo, Mich., immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Kalliontzis, Const., Greek physician in Chicago, letter signed by, ii, 398.
Kansas: Act organizing Territory of, referred to, ii, 564; foreign-born in, i, 127, 129,
149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; insane in, ii, 232; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation
of banking, ii, 435; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; output
of coal (see Southwest); immigrants destined to, i, 105-109.
Kansas City, Mo.: Public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63;
parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; immigrant banks, ii, 413.
Kaplanis, S. I., party to Greek loan contract, ii, 407, 408.
Kaplanis Bros.: Convicted of violating contract-labor law, ii, 406; parties to Greek
loan contract, ii, 407.
Keane, classification of races by, i, 211, 223-225, 257, 281.
Keltic. See Celtic.
Kenrick Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., ii, 8.
Kentucky: Foreign-born in, i, 127,129; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; insanity,
ii, 232; few immigrants in bituminous coal mining, i, 505, 506; peonage, ii, 445;
no regulation of private or immigrant banks, ii, 435.
Key West, Fla., deserting seamen at port of, ii, 360.
Kindergartens, children of various races in, ii, 24-26.
King, W. L. Mackenzie, Canadian Minister of Labor, ii, 627, 629.
Know-Nothing movement, ii, 562-564.
Korea, number of Japanese in, i, 253.
Korean: Definition, i, 253; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215, 253; exclusion
of, i, 691; ii, 577; proportion of males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous resi-
dence, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; number of households and persons studied,
i, 642; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636^ occupation abroad, i, 100-
102; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84; on sugar plantation, i, 715;
insanity and mental defects, ii, 237; in schools, i, 714; ii, 10-16, 76-80; literacy,
i, 99, 438-447; return movement, i, 112-118; in Hawaii, i, 701, 702, 709-711; law
regarding immigration, i, 661; ii, 757, 758; recommendation, i, 47.
Koutsoufanis, L. M., Greek steamship agent, ii, 382.
Krainer. See Slovenian.
Kruszka, Waclaw, writer, quoted, i, 581-583.
Kurds, number in Persia, i, 259.
Labor, demand for, during Civil War, ii, 565.
Labor, skilled: Definition of term, ii, 758; recommendations, i, 47; imported to
establish industries, i, 541; in plate glass manufacture, i, 519-523, 525, 526; in Pat-
erson silk mills, i, 529; may be imported if not available in United States, i, 29, 47;
ii, 377, 381, 621; law regarding, ii, 733; immigrants reporting occupation as, 1899-
1910, i, 100-102, 172-174; Chinese, excluded for ten years by law of 1882, ii, 580;
bonus paid by Canada for, ii, 608; imported to Hawaii, i, 706; Japanese in Hawaii,
i, 716.
Labor, unskilled: Definition of term, ii, 758; conclusions and recommendations, i, 37-
39,47; induced immigration of, i, 189; ii, 381-386; immigrants reporting occupation
as, 1899-1910, i, 100-102, 172-174, 358, 361; male breadwinners engaged in, i,
779-782; immigrants in cities, i, 761, 762; recent immigration, i, 37; an oversupply,
i, 39; effects on industry, i, 493, 494; lack of training and experience, i, 498; employ-
ment made possible by use of machinery, i, 494, 495; in glass industry, i, 519, 520;
recent immigrants in the West, i, 645; Chinese in California, i, 655, 656; East
Indians on Pacific Coast, i, 678, 679; Greeks on railroads, ii, 405, 406; Japanese in
West, i, 666; Mexicans, i, 682-689; Poles, i, 581; scarcity of, in Europe, as result of
emigration, i, 169; cost of importing to Hawaii, i, 703; on sugar plantations, Hawaii,
i, 715; bonus paid by Canada for, ii, 608; immigration to Canada, ii, 613. (See also
Laborers.)
Labor agents: Immigration induced by, i, 29; ii, 381, 382, 384; in New York, supply
labor for South, ii, 445; in Boston, supply labor for Maine forests, ii, 447; Japanese,
in West, i, 664, 665; fees charged Greek railroad laborers, ii, 405, 406. (See also
Employment agencies.)
872 The Immigration Commission.
Labor organizations: Vigilant in. preventing importation of skilled labor, ii, 381 ; effects
upon of employment of recent immigrants, i, 501, 530-538; effects of, i, 534, 647;
in bituminous coal mining, i, 532-537; in cotton-goods manufacturing, i, 537, 538;
not any among seasonal farm laborers, i, 600, 601; in packing houses and fruit
associations, i, 693; immigrants in, various industries, i, 298-313, 417-419; native
and foreign born compared, i, 418; old and new immigration compared, i, 419;
opposition to employment of Asiatics, i, 663; among Chinese, i, 656, 668; among
Japanese, i, 664, 665, 668, 669, 675, 688.
Laborers- Definition of term, ii, 788,794; male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829;
female breadwinners, i, 830-838; exclusion of Chinese, ii, 581,582, 783-785, 788,789,
792, 793; Japanese excluded, ii, 584. (See also Labor, unskilled.)
Lancaster, Pa., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Land area: Of Argentina, ii, 639; of Brazil, ii, 645; of United States and Australia
compared, ii, 631.
Lands, government: Homestead act of 1862, ii, 564; in Hawaii, i, 718-721; in Canada,
ii, 614, 617.
Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio, ii, 8.
Languages: Various families of, defined, i, 217-219; classification of Slavic tongues, i,
274, 275; of Teutonic group, i, 281; number of persons speaking various, i, 235.
Lapouge, de, classification of races by, i, 218.
Lapps: Northern Finns, i, 236; number of, i, 269; children in public schools in
United States, ii, 10-16.
Larimer, Asbury C., member of Immigration Commission, i, 11, 12, 165.
Lauck, W. Jett, author of report on immigrants in manufacturing and mining, i, 2, 3;
abstract of report, i, 285-541.
Laundries: Female breadwinners employed in, i, 830-838; number of employees
studied, the West, i, 627-634; Chinese in San Francisco, i, 655, 659.
Law: Males engaged in practice of, i, 818; students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83; no provision
for enforcement of Thirteenth Amendment, ii, 446, 447; regarding banking, various
States, ii, 434-436; steerage law, ii, 561, 564, 602. (See also Legislation, Immigration
law, Steerage legislation, etc.)
Lawrence, Mass.: Population, i, 512-516; history of immigration to, i, 512-516;
f< irt>ign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Leather manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 309, 310; households and
employees studied, i, 294,323-333; racial displacements, i, 529, 530; earnings, i,
384-386, 388-395. (See also Boot and shoe manufacturing and Glove manufacturing )
Lech. See Polish. 6''
immigration legislation, Steerage legislation, Law, Im-
migration law, etc.) , .
Letts. See Lithuanians.
Libau, Russia: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of immi-
grants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202
ion of .number of Japanese passports to Canada, by agreement between Gov-
*
in, Abraham, favored encouragement of immigration, ii, 564 565
Lincoln, Nebr., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115
Lindsay, William Schaw, writer, referred to, ii, 594.
Linnaeus, classification of races, i, 210 257
Russians m Hawaii, i, 707; inadequate school facilities
south, i, 572. (See also Illiteracy )
spAyt Commi88ion » .mea^. of restriction, i, 47, 48; minority
Index. 873
172, 173, 357-363, 760; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; ii,
84, 85; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i,
445, 446, 461^63, 477-481, 610, 613, 751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; resi-
dence in agricultural locality, i, 604; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762;
wages and earnings, i, 366-411, 764-767; immigrant banks, ii, 413; family income,
i, 412^417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272;
insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; crime, ii, 173, 198-204, 211-220;
status of children, i, 470-474, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42,
49-55, 64-66, 72, 76-80; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447,
612, 613, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 609-611, 768-770; ii, 151, 152;
citizenship, i, 484-489, 606, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417, 419;
conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home
ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and
of households, i, 426-430,, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430^-438, 743-747; boarders
and lodgers, i, 422-426, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i,
754; care of apartment, i, 755; return movement, i, -112-118, 180, 182; visits
abroad, i, 461-463; number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 515; number in Whiting, Ind.,
i, 528.
Littauer amendment, House of Representatives, 1906, i, 10; ii, 576.
Little Russian: Definition of term, i, 267; number, i, 250. (See also Russian and
Ruthenian.)
Liverpool, England: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of
immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202; nearly all British
embarked from, prior to 1847, ii, 592.
Livi, investigations of, referred to, ii, 550.
Living conditions. See Housing conditions.
Living expenses: East Indians on Pacific coast, i, 680; Japanese, i, 675; Mexicans, i,
689; ranch hands, California, i, 670; seasonal farm laborers, i, 599; Greek peasants
abroad, ii, 403. (See also Rent paid.)
Lloyd, Jessie C., author of report on immigrants as charity seekers, i, 2; abstract
of report, ii, 87-157.
Loans of immigrant bankers, ii, 424, 425.
Location of wives of immigrants: In various industries, i, 459, 460; old and new immi-
gration compared, i, 460; recent immigrants in the West, i, 649; Japanese, i, 662,
663; East Indians, i, 677, 678, 680; Mexicans, i, 689; in Hawaii, i, 700.
Locomotive building and repairing, employees studied, i, 336-338, 343-348.
Lodge, Henry Cabot, member of Immigration Commission, i, 11.
Londonderry, Ireland: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; number of immigrants from,
and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Longstaff, estimate of, as to number of Irish in Canada, i, 249.
Los Angeles, Cal.: Public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii,
49-63; parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; study of immigrant families in West
limited to, i, 638.
Lost time, curtailed number of working days due to oversupply of labor, i, 39, 367.
Louisiana: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; Italians
admitted and departed, i, 568; Italian communities studied, i, 560, 566; Hebrew
farmers, i, 576; insanity in, ii, 232; regulation of banking, ii, 435; cases of peonage,
ii, 445; American Republican party established, ii, 561.
Louisville, Ky., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115.
Lowell, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i,152; history of
immigration, i, 508-512; early cotton mills described, i, 507-510; public school
pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63; parochial school pupils, ii,
64-72, 75.
Lowland Scotch: Definition, i, 272, 273; number, i, 273.
Lumber industry: Employees in West, i, 626-629; East Indians in mills of Northwest,
i, 678; Japanese in, i, 664; peonage in camps in Minnesota and North Dakota, ii,
447; in camps in Maine, ii, 447-449.
Luxemburg: Number of Germans in, i, 243; natives of, in United States, i, 134,
135, 137.
Lynn, Mass.: Public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63;
parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
M.
Macalester College, St. Paul, Minn., ii, 8.
Macdonald, A. Fraser, writer, referred to, ii, 594.
Macedonia, population of, i, 282.
72289°— VOL 1—11 56
The Immigration Commission.
Macedonian: Number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320; employees stud-
ied i 320-333 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; age at time of com-
ing' effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation abroad,
i 7;'')7-363- length of residence, i, 349-356; residence in United States, effect on
literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461^63, 477-481; occupation, i, 364; wages and earnings,
i 366-403, 408, 409; padrone system, ii, 392, 393; in schools, ii, 10-16; English-
speaking, i, 474-484; citizenship, i, 484-489; in labor unions, i, 418; conjugal con-
dition i 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; rent paid, i, 419^22; persons per
room, i, 430^438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426; visits abroad, i, 461-463. (See
Machinery*: Has made possible the employment of unskilled labor, i, 495; in leather
factories, i, 529; in glass works, i, 519-522, 524-526; plate-glass plant not using,
described, i, 523, 524.
Machinists, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Mack, Julian W., hearing before Immigration Commission, i, 19.
McKeesport, Pa.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
McKellip Veterinary College, Chicago, 111., ii, 8.
McLaurin, Anselm J., member of Immigration Commission, i, 11, 12.
McLean, Francis H., assisted in study of immigrants as charity seekers, i, 2; ii, 91, 92.
McMaster, J. B., article in Forum referred to, ii, 563.
Madeira, immigration from, to Hawaii, i, 704, 708; ii, 629.
Magyar: 'Definition, i, 255, 256; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215,
255, 625; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104;
money on landing, i, 103; population in Europe, i, 214, 238, 255; number in Austria-
Hungary, i, 219; number in Roumania, i, 263; number of households and persons
studied, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 642, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347,
506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290; age at
time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 769-771;
occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 172, 173, 357-363, 760; length of residence, i, 116,
349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; ii, 84, 85; Residence in United States, effect on English-
speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481, 751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266,
280-285; residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366,
761, 762; in agricultural pursuits, i, 591; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411,
764-767; immigrant banks, ii, 413; family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers,
ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-275; insanity and mental defects,
ii, 228, 237, 238, 270; crime, ii, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation
in the home, i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii,
10-16, 18-31, 33^2, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i,
99, 175, 438-447, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 768-770; ii, 151, 152;
zenship, i, 484-489, 771, 772; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal condition, i,
7-460; ii, 137-142; location of wjfe, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756;
rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households studied, i,
-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i,
26, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754; care of apart-
lent, i, 755; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463:
number in \\ hitmg, Ind., i, 528. (See also Hungarian )
Maine: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; immigrants destined
insanity, 11 232; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of banking, ii,
>; contract-labor law, 11, 448; peonage, ii, 447-449
ii 611 9Ch001 PUI>il8' "' 1(M6; lmmiSrants to Australia, ii, 635; to Canada,
Malaysia, number of East Indians in, i, 258.
den, Mass., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115
Sex dO ^ partlcularly tog* or low percentages of, i, 98. (See also Citizenship,
§e, immigration to Canada, ii 611
U>AnALLA_XAU VTTT T\ i i • ,7-' ".,
?, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii,
immigration from' to Hawaii, i, 704-708; yearly earnings of field
el
Is, etc., male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829
and value of products, 1880-1905, i, 491.
Index. 875
Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits: Male breadwinners engaged in, i, 821-829;
female breadwinners, i, 830-838; immigrants in cities, i, 761, 762; Chinese, in San
Francisco, i, 659.
Manufacturing and mining: Abstract of report on immigrants in, i, 285-541; branches
studied, i, 293, 294; scope and method of investigation, i, 293-296; schedule forms
used, ii, 653-662, 668-^670, 674-681; wage-earners employed east of Rocky Moun-
tains, i, 492, 493; immigrants largely employed in West, i, 626; effect of new immi-
gration on establishment of new industries, i, 541; conclusions regarding, i, 37-39.
Manx, a dialect spoken on Isle of Man, i, 225.
Mark, Mary Louise, author of report on immigrants in cities, i, 2, 12; abstract of report,
i, 723-772.
Marseille, France: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; number of immigrants from, and
number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Maryland: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; immigrants
destined to, i, 105-109; number of employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries,
i, 492; insanity, ii, 232; immigrant banks, ii, 414; no regulation of private or immi-
grant banking, ii, 435
Masons, brick and stone, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Massachusetts: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; number of Hebrews, i, 247;
Hebrew farmers, i, 576; Polish farmers, i, 583; citizenship, i, 150, 152; immigrants
destined to, i, 105-109; emigration from, to Canada, ii, 617; number of employees
in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; female immigrants in domestic service
and in textile millsr i, 810; insanity, ii, 232; commitments to penal institutions, ii,
204-211; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of immigrant banking, ii, 435-437;
bank commissioner referred to, ii, 438; immigration law of 1837 referred to, ii, 567.
'Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, Boston, Mass., ii, 8.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., ii, 8.
Masso, opinion of, as to length of time Italians stay in United States, i, 252.
May laws of Russia, effect on emigration, i, 577, 584.
Meat packing. See Slaughtering and meat packing.
Mechanics, number emigrating to Canada, ii, 613. (See also Manufacturing and
mechanical pursuits.)
Medical inspection. See Inspection.
Medicine: Males engaged in practice of, i, 818; students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83.
Membership of Immigration Commission, i, 11.
Mennonites, immigration to Canada, ii, 612.
Mentally defective, conclusions regarding immigration of, i, 28. (See also Insane,
Feeble-minded in institutions, and separate races.)
Merchants and dealers: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female bread-
winners, i, 830-838.
Meriden, Conn.: Public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 49-63;
parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75.
Messengers, etc.: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female breadwinners, i,
830-838.
Messina, Sicily: Inspection of emigrants, i, 197; rejections, i, 199; number of immi-
grants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Mestizo, definition of term, i, 258.
Metalliferous mining and smelting: Employees in, i, 626-629; Mexicans employed
in, i, 686, 687; wages, i, 686, 687.
Methods of investigation described, i, 20, 165, 731, 732.
Mexican: Definition, i, 255, 256; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215, 625, 682;
great increase improbable, i, 689; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in
United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; number in United States, i, 682,
683; effect on economic conditions, i, 41; number of households and persons studied,
i, 316-320, 640-642; employees studied, i, 320^-333, 336-347, 506, 507, 627-636; age
classification, i, 463-467; age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and
literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation in Mexico, i, 100, 101, 357-363; length of
residence, i, 41, 116, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect
on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461^63, 477-481; occupation, i,
117, 118, 363-366, 682-688; in seasonal farm labor, i, 688; displacing other races, i,
683; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 670, 683, 685-688; family income,
i, 412-417; padrone system, ii, 392; exploitation, ii, 406; charity seekers, ii, 95-109;
public charges, i, 690; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237; crime, ii, 211-220;
prostitution, ii, 332; in schools, ii, 10-16, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99,
438-447, 689, 690; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 675, 690; ii, 151, 152; citizenship,
The Immigration Commission.
Rocky Mountain States, i, 624, 6S2-691; regulation regarding immigration, ii,
764-766- conclusions, i. 41. 691.
Mexico- Population, i, 256; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, '65-96; 1908-10, i, 256;
Japanese from, i, 660, 661; border ports of entry, ii, 764; natives of, in United
States, i, 134, 136, 137, 155, 156, 623; children of immigrants from, employed, i,
320-333, 336-347, 627-336; literacy, i, 438^*47.
Miami Medical College, Cincinnati, Ohio, ii, 8.
Michigan: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152; number
of Hebrew farmers, i, 576; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492;
emigration to Canada, ii, 617; insanity, ii, 232; immigrant banks, ii, 414, 435;
.luiinn of bunking, ii, 435.
Middle West: Expansion in bituminous coal mining industry, i, 504; output of coal,
and number of employees, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, i, 504; racial classification
of mine employees, i, 504, 506; history of labor organizations in coal industry, i,
534-536; immigration to boot and shoe manufacturing industry, i, 519.
Migration westward: Of immigrants from Eastern States, i, 621, 624, 645, 651, 721;
encouraged by employers, i, 621; retarded by presence of Asiatics in West, i, 694;
coal miners from Pennsylvania, i, 532-536; Poles, i, 584.
Migratory habits: Of recent immigrants, i, 499, 500; Japanese laborers in West, i,
'.; length of residence in locality, farm households studied, i, 604.
MihalopouloB Brothers, promoters of Greek shoe-shining parlors, ii, 398.
Military service in Europe, desire to escape, a cause of emigration, i, 185.
Miller, Justice, quotation from opinion of Supreme Court on State immigration laws,
ii, 568.
Milliners, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Millis. II. A., author of report on Japanese and other immigrant races in the Pacific
Coast and Rocky Mountain States, i, 2; abstract of report, i, 617-694.
Milwaukee, Wis.: Study of immigrants in, i, 723-772; households and persons studied,
2-734, 736; size of apartments, i, 741, 742; persons per room, i, 729, 743, 745,
grants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigration to tanneries, i, 530; foreign-born
m male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153.
Minors: Tax on all foreign, California, 1853, ii, 578; emigrants to Canada, ii, 613;
Canada pays bonus on, ii, 608.
Miners and quarrymen, male breadwinners reported as, i, 782, 783, 821-829.
Mining: Japanese in certain "Western States, i, 664; immigrants in cities, i, 761.
(bee also Anthracite coal mining, Bituminous coal mining, Copper minino- and
smelting Iron-ore mining, Manufacturing and mining, and Metalliferous mining
and smelting.)
Mining accidents.- See Accidents.
d women reporting, ii, 483; fecundity, ii, 484-500
Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citi
citizenship, i, 150, 152; immi-
i"ii-.r woim-n. ii, 482; peonage, ii
eonage ii 447; contract-laW law, ii, 448; immigrant
5; emigration to Canada> !i' 61?-
°£ Canada' disallowed
Columbia immigration
cases of peonage, ii
Index.
8??
Mobile, Ala., alien seamen deserting at, ii, 360.
Mohammedans: Number in Seryia, i, 231; venders of peanuts, California, i, 678;
proportion of, among East Indians, i, 676.
Moldavian, immigration to Canada, ii, 612. (See also Roumanian.)
Money on landing: Financial condition of immigrants, i, 102, 103; amount shown,
1899-1910, i, 103; 1905-1909, i, 178, 179; lack of, sends immigrant into unskilled
labor i, 498, 499, 562; "show money" supplied by padrones, ii, 404, 405; recom-
mendations of House of Representatives, 1906, ii, 576; legislation regarding, ii, 766;
value of property of United States immigrants to Canada, ii, 617.
Money sent abroad: By immigrants, 1907, i, 103, 179; ii, 426, 427; through immigrant
banks, ii, 1907-1909, ii, 425, 426; large amount of, is to assist others to emigrate, i,
189; mainly due to low standards of living, i, 38; average amount of transmissions, ii,
427, 428; methods, ii, 428^30; value to European countries in improved economic
conditions, i, 169; Japanese laborers, on Pacific coast, i, 675; East Indians, i, 681.
Money exchange, in immigrant banking, ii, 425.
Money orders: Value and average amount of international, ii, 426, 428; of banking
houses, ii, 428-430.
623, 629. (See also Head tax.)
Mongolian: Definition, i, 256, 257; population, i, 257; exclusion of, ii, 578; head tax,
ii, 578; insanity and mental defects, ii, 230, 231.
Mongols, number in Persia, i, 259.
Montana: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 151, 155, 623; population, i, 623; citizen-
ship, i, 150, 152; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; insanity, ii, 233; regulation
of banking, ii, 435.
Montenegrin: Definition, i, 257; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215, 625;
proportion of males, i, 98; population in Europe, i, 214; number of households and
persons studied, i, 316-320; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age
classification, i, 463-467; ii, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-
speaking, i, 481-484; occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 357-363; length of residence, i,
349-356, 636, 637; residence in United States, effect on literacy, etc., i, 461-463,
477-481; ii, 263-266; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 408; in charity hospitals, ii,
258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 270; in schools, ii, 10-16; literacy,
i,99,438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484 ; citizenship, i, 484-489; in labor unions,
i, 418; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; visits abroad, i,
461-463.
Montenegro: Races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; number of Serbo-Croatians in, i, 230;
distribution of immigrant remittances, ii, 429. (See also Bulgaria, Servia, and
Montenegro.)
Montevideo, immigration to Argentina by way of, ii, 640.
Moors, number in Spain, i, 279.
Moravian. See Bohemian and Moravian.
Mortgages: In immigrant banking, ii, 424; Greek padrone system, ii, 404-408; trans-
lation of Greek loan contract, ii, 407, 408.
Mother-tongue, census enumeration of foreign-born according to, provided for, i, 18.
Mulattoes, number in West Indies, i, 258.
Miiller, Friedrich, classification of races, i, 257.
Muscovite. See Russian.
Musicians and teachers of music, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
N.
Naples, Italy: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; rejections, i, 199; number of immi-
grant's from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202. (See also Bank of
Nationality, census enumeration of foreign-born according to, provided for, i, 18. (See
also Country of birth, Races or peoples, and Nativity and race.)
Native- American movement, ii, 561, 562.
Native-born: Not entering industries, i, 502, 503; insanity, ii, 230, 232, 233; crime,
ii 173 183-187, 189-211; prostitution, ii, 332; number of Americans in Cuba, i, 231;
emigration to Canada, ii, 607, 612-614, 617-619.
Native-born White: Number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 601, 641,
733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 507, 627-636; age classifica-
tion i 463-467 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290; occupation, i, 363-366, 761, 762; on sugar
s78 The Immigration Commission.
plantations, i, 715; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-767; family income,
! 41-M17 766; charity seekers, ii, 93-146, 154; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262,
L'Vo _'7~>: insanity, ii, 238, 270; crime, ii, 179-181, 189-193, 198-204; gainful occupa-
tion in the home, i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474, 614, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools,
419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430, 741-743; persons
ii, 625.
Nativist societies, formation of, ii, 561.
Nativity and race:
List of immigrant-furnishing countries and their races, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726;
of male breadwinners, i, 547, 778; female breadwinners, i, 803; persons studied
in agriculture, i, 557, 602; bituminous coal mining, i, 300, 506, 507; boots and
shoes, i, 306; cigar and tobacco making, i, 313; clothing, i, 305; collars, cuffs,
and shirts, i, 308; cotton goods, i, 304; furniture, i, 307; glass, i, 301; gloves, i,
310; iron and steel, i, 297; leather, i, 309; manufacturing and mining, i, 316,
319-348, 493; oil, i, 311; silk, i, 303; slaughtering and meat packing, i, 298, 299;
Hmrar, i, 312; woolen and worsted, i, 302; heads of city households studied, i,
..'.: men engaged in white-slave traffic, ii, 342, 343; persons in gainful occupa-
tions, California, 1870, i, 656; principal races of old and of new immigra-
tion, various industries, i, 297-313, 316, 322, 348, 353, 354, 356.
Native and foreign born compared as regards —
Age classification of employees, i, 466, 467; boarders and lodgers, i, 423, 424,
426, 728, 730, 749, 750, 759; breadwinners in various occupations, i, 821-
838; care of apartment, i, 729, 755; charity hospitals, ii, 258, 267-269;
charity seekers, ii, 100, 101, 103, 104, 109, 118, 119, 124; conjugal condition
i, 458, 459, 606; crime, ii, 163, 164, 166, 167, 172-182; earnings, i, 387, 389,'
756; housing conditions, i, 431, 432, 434, 436-438, 728-730, 741-759; in-
sanity, ii, 230, 232-235, 251; literacy, i, 442-445, 613, 770; number of school
children, 11, 17, 22, 34; retardation of school children, ii, 30; students in
higher educational institutions, ii, 80, 83; persons per room i 729 744
46, 747; rent paid, i, 420, 421, 730, 758, 759; size of apartments, i, 428!
742; size of households, i, 430, 743; status of children, i, 472, 473, 615 763;
11, 145, 146; toilet accommodations, i, 755; water supply i 753
mntry of birth, Native-born, Foreign-born, New immigration
Old
92, ii, 572; uniform rule, law of «™, „,
1; of Chinese, prohibited, ii, 788. (See also Citizenship )
— *- of native and foreign born compared, ii, 516-524 526
- ii, 547. (Seeako Naples, Italy, Italian, etc.)
1<dQ 1 r\P\ • ^i f -I r»^,*-»,~.Vi C*v -I T erri . • •
Index. 879
Negro, foreign: Definition, i, 257, number of immigrants admitted, i, 215, 231, 258,
population and distribution, i, 257; number of households and persons studied, i
733-737; employees studied, i, 627-636; age classification, i, 737-739- ii 286-290*
QOO Cl f" fl mo f\£ r*rvr>i i-nr* f*k££r\r+-t- ^i-* 1 N , ,«, r-C TTI _ . . j ' . i i • *»4<wt. i
, , , ; ome .ownersp, , ; ren pa, , 7-759; sze of
ments and of households, i, 741-743; persons per room, i, 743-747; boarders and
rs, i, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754- careofapart-
, i, 755; in Hawaii, i, 700, 703; immigrants to Canada, ii, 611.
^~L,~,VM.^ ^0.^ i v/iw , YV cig^o -tvnvj. caj. 1.1 ings, i, / u"± — /u/, ia.iiu.iy income, l
766; chanty seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-272- insanity
and mental defects, ii, 230, 23.1, 270; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupations in the
home, i, 752; status of children, i, 143-147, 763; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27 49-55
76-80; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 770, 771; English-speaking, ii, 151,
152; citizenship, i, 771, 772; home .ownership, i, 756; rent paid, i, 757-759; size of
apartments and of households, '
lodgers, '
ment, i,
Negro, Indian, and Mongolian: Age classification, i, 146-148; number in agricultural
pursuits, i, 800; in building trades, i, 790; in clerical pursuits, i, 792, 815; in domes-
tic and personal service, i, 806; iron and steel workers, i, 785; laborers, i, 781; miners
and quarrymen, i, 783; in needle trades, i, 809; in professional service, i, 798; sales-
men, agents, etc., i, 794, 817; teachers, i, 820; in textile mills, i, 787, 812.
Netherlands: Provinces of, ii, 697; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; population, i,
232; no emigration problem of importance, i, 168; illiteracy among recruits, i, 177;
insane in, ii, 248, 249; steerage laws referred to, ii, 600; immigrants'from, 1820-1910,
65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 135, 137; children
of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i,
463-467; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
(See also Holland.)
Netherlander. See Dutch, Flemish, and Dutch and Flemish.
Nevada: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155, 623; population, i, 623; citizenship, i,
150; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; private banking virtually prohibited, ii,
434.
New Bedford, Mass.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152;
public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 33-35, 75; Portuguese in, i, 592.
New Britain, Conn.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152;
public school pupils, ii, 12, 13, 17-23, 33-35, 71, 72, 75; parochial school pupils, ii,
64-72, 75.
New England: Early cotton mills described, i, 507-510; immigration to boot and shoe
industry, i, 517, 5*18; peonage, ii, 447-449. (See also separate States.)
New Hampshire : Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; immigrants
destined to, i, 105-109; insanity, ii, 232; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of
banking, ii, 435.
New and old immigration: Described, i, 13, 14, 23, 24, 166, 170; number of immi-
grants, i, 13, 60-65, 167, 180-183; new immigrants admitted are best of their class,
i, 24; permanence, i, 24; return movement, i, 180-183; proportions of sexes, i, 171;
money on landing, i, 178, 179; proportions destined to join friends or relatives, i,
188; illiteracy, i, 175, 176; alcoholism, i, 35; age classification, i, 172; proportions
in each occupation group, i, 174; in various industries, i, 297-313, 316, 322, 348,
353, 354, 356; in bituminous coal mining, i, 503-505, 507; in agriculture, i, 39,
543-615, 651-654; in New England cotton mills, i, 510-512; new immigration
monopolizes unskilled labor in many industries, i, 37, 38; reasons for employment
of recent immigrants, i, 493, 494; training and experience abroad, i, 494, 495; pro-
portions in Pacific coast population, i, 41; studied in cities, i, 727, 728: effects of
recent immigrants on industrial expansion, i, 494, 541; on organization and methods,
i, 538-540; on liability to accidents, i, 539; on working relations, i, 540; on wages
and hours of work, i, 540, 541, 646, 647; on native Americans and older immigrant
employees, i, 500-530; on labor organizations, i, 530-538; hostility toward recent
immigrants, during industrial depression, i, 540; comparisons between, in the West,
i, 644; comparisons as regards English-speaking, i, 648; home ownership, i, 728;
keeping boarders and lodgers, i, 729, 751; charity patients, ii, 290; use of immigrant
banks and sending of money abroad, ii, 415; number of aliens arriving, i, 59-65;
as regards admissions and rejections, United States and Canada, ii, 624. (See also
separate races.)
New Jersey: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152; Hebrew
colonies, i,- 576, 578; Italian colonies, i, 560, 561; immigrants destined to, i, 105-
109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; insanity, ii, 232;
immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of immigrant banking, ii, 435, 436; bank
commissioner, referred to, ii, 438.
880 The Immigration Commission.
parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; large proportion of Italians, i, 570; alien
M'umen deserting at, ii, 360.
NYw Orleans University, New Orleans, La., ii, 8.
New South Wales: Population in 1788, ii, 632; immigration and emigration, 1851-
1901 ii, 632; assisted immigration, ii, 633. (See also Australia.)
New York (State): Foreign-born in, i, 126, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152;
Hebrew farmers, i, 576; Italian colonies, i. 560, 5J72-575; Polish settlements, i, 583;
farm laborers, i, 596; wages of seasonal farm laborers, i, 597; immigrants destined
t<>. i. 105-109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; insanity,
ii. 232: proportion of foreign-born among feeble-minded, ii, 237; immigrant banks,
ii, 414; regulation of immigrant banking, ii, 435, 436; State superintendent of
hanks, quoted, ii, 437; records of crime, ii, 193-197; immigration law of 1824, ii,
567, 568; emigration to Canada, ii, 617.
New York, N. Y.: Population in 1900, ii, 290; foreign-born in male population, i,
151; citizenship, i, 152; study of immigrants in, i, 723-772; households and persons
studied, i, 732-734, 736; size of apartments, i, 741, 742; persons per room, i, 729,
743, 745, 746; boarders and lodgers, i, 728, 748, 749; home ownership, i, 728, 756;
rent paid, i, 729, 757, 758; gainful occupation in the home, i, 751; public school
pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63; parochial school pupils, ii,
64-72, 75; study of changes in bodily form, ii, 501-556; treatment of infants, ii,
546, 547; immigration of mentally defective, ii, 246; immigrants in charity hospi-
tals, ii, 257-290; records of crime, ii, 183-193; enforcement of law regarding prosti-
tutes, ii, 346, 347, 350; night court cases, 1908-9, ii, 332; Greek flower venders under
padrone system, ii, 393; unscrupulous labor agents, ii, 445; peddlers of steamship
tickets, ii, 421; immigrant banks, ii, 415; immigration to clothing industry, i, 516,
517; female immigrants in needle trades, i, 807; alien seamen deserting at, ii, 359,
360; seamen discharged and resigned, ii, 362; number of stowaways arriving, ii,
364; money requirement at port of, i, 102.
New York College and Hospital for Women, New York, N. Y., ii, 8.
New York county and supreme courts, 1907-8, ii, 193-197.
New York Court of General Sessions, 1908-9, ii, 189-193.
New York Homeopathic Medical College, New York, N. Y., ii, 8.
New York Law School, New York, N. Y., ii, 8.
New York State Commission in Lunacy, quoted, ii, 245, 246.
New York University, New York, N. Y., ii, 8.
New Zealand: Immigration situation in, ii, 637, 638; immigration law, ii, 637, 638;
immigrants to Australia, ii, 633; to Canada, ii, 611; natives of, coming to United
Newton, Senator, from Virginia, framed first United States law for regulation of steer-
age, ii, 601.
Nicefero, Italian sociologist, quoted, i, 251.
Norfolk, Va., alien seamen deserting at, ii, 360.
Norse. See Scandinavian.
North Briton, term for Lowland Scotch, i, 235.
North Carolina: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128; Italians admitted and departed, i, 568;
Italian communities, i, 560, 566; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; insanity, ii
32; cases of peonage, 11, 445; regulation of banking, ii, 435
Dakota: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; Hebrew
farmers, i 576; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; insanity, ii, 232; peonage, ii,
44 rate banking virtually prohibited, ii, 434; emigration to Canada, ii, 617!
German Lloyd, began steam service to New York 1859 ii 594'
North Italian. See Italian, North.
Northwestern University, Evanston, 111., ii 8
tfl-icts of, ii 697; language, population, and emigration, i, 270, 271; prac-
.ically no illiteracy, i, 178; insanity, [i, 248, 249; steerage laws referred to, ii,P600;
\ SSfoSrt*^ f'°m' U' 607> 6085 number of immigrants from, 1820-
1910, i. 6o-96; 1882 and 1907. i 187 914 971- ™f;,r , nt ,-„ Trill. _ '• 10,
Index. 881
Norwegian: Definition, i, 269, 270; language, i, 270; number of immigrants admitted,
i, 214, 270; population in Europe, i, 214, 270; number in United States, i, 270;
number of households and persons studies, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 639-642- employees
studies, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 46&-467; ii, 136, 286-290;
age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and, literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484-
occupation abroad, i, 357-363; length of residence, i, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85;
residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc i 445 446
/Ifil /IftQ A77_AQ1 • ii 1/17 1K1 oco octf. . LsJ - • ' • i, i i '••!
i, 826; in building trades, i, 789, 790, 826; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815,
826, 835; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i, 835; in cotton mills, i, 826, 835;
in domestic and personal service, i, 804-806, 826, 835; iron and steel workers i
784, 785, 826; laborers, i, 780, 781, 826; in laundries, i, 835; in manufacturing and
mechanical pursuits, i, 826, 835; miners and quarrymen, i, 782, 783, 826; in needle
trades, i, 808, 809, 835; in paper and pulp mills, i, 835; peddlers, i, 826, 835; in
professional service, i, 797, 798, 826, 835; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 793, 794, 816,
817, 826, 835; in silk mills, i, 835; steam railroad employees, i, 826; teachers, i, 819-
820, 835; in textile mills, i, 786, 787, 811, 812, 826, 835; in tobacco and cigar making,
i, 826, 835; in trade and transportation, i, 826, 835; in woolen mills', i, 835; wages
and earnings, i, 366-403, 407-411; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii,
95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii,
270; crime, ii, 198-204; status of children, ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31,
49-55, 64-66, 71, 76-82; literacy, i, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; ii, 151,
152; citizenship, i, 484-489; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417, 418; conjugal con-
dition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; fecundity, ii, 482-500; location of wife, i, 459, 460;
home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of house-
holds, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426;
visits abroad, i, 461-463; in Hawaii, i, 702, 703; in Canada, ii, 612, 625. (See also
Scandinavian.)
Notary public, use of term by immigrant bankers, ii, 422.
Novicow, opinion of, concerning Slavic temperament and character, i, 274.
Number of immigrants admitted: Proposed to limit number of each race, i, 47; pro-
posed to limit number at each port, i, 48. (See also Aliens admitted and separate
races.)
Nurses and midwives, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
O.
Oakland, Cal.: Immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115; stature of children, ii,
555.
Occupations: Of first and second generations if immigrants, abstract of report on, i,
773-838; white male breadwinners, i, 821-829; white female breadwinners, i, 830-
838; persons in industrial study, i, 363-366; in Pacific coast study, i, 640-642; in
study of cities, i, 761, 762; departing aliens, i, 117, 118; Chinese on Pacific coast,
i, 655-659; East Indians, i, 676, 678, 679; Japanese, i, 663, 667; Mexicans, i, 682,
683; Russians, in Hawaii, i, 707; gainful, within the home, i, 751, 752. (See also
Children, status of; Wives at work, and separate races and occupations.)
Occupations abroad: Of immigrants to United States, i, 100-102, 172-175; old and
new immigration compared, i, 498; persons in industrial study, i, 297-313, 357-363;
in agricultural study, i, 607, 608; study of cities, i, 760; Italians in the South, i,
567; Chinese and Japanese in the West, i, 663; East Indians, i, 677; immigrants to
Canada, ii, 613, 614; lack of training of recent immigrants, i, 494, 495.
Ohio: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152; Hebrew
farmers, i, 576; Polish settlements, i, 583; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109;
employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; output of coal (see Middle
West); insanity, ii, 232; proportion of foreign-born among feeble-minded, ii, 237;
fecundity, ii, 469-482, 494-500; immigrant banks, ii, 414; regulation of immigrant
banking, ii, 435, 436; bank commissioner, quoted, ii, 438.
Oil refining: Summary of data secured, i, 311, 312; households and employees studied,
i, 294, 323-333; earnings, i, 384-386, 390-392, 394, 396-403; racial displacements in,
i, 527, 528.
Oklahoma: Foreign-born in, i, 127; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; employees
in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; output of coal (see Southwest);
insanity, ii, 232; private banking virtually prohibited, ii, 434.
Old immigration. See New and old immigration.
Oneida, N. Y., Italian agricultural colony, i, 574.
882 The Immigration Commission.
Orange, N. J., immigrants as charity seekers in; ii, 93-115.
Orchards, Japanese seasonal labor in, i, 667.
Order of the Star Spangled Banner, ii, 563.
Order of United Americans, ii, 563.
Organization of Immigration
Organized labor. See Labor organizations.
( )rient . immigrant remittances to, ii, 425, 427.
oriental immigration, conclusions regarding, i, 41.
orientals: In Hawaii, i, 700, 709, 713, 715; in Canada, 11, 611, 627-629. (See also
Chinese. Japanese, Korean, Hindu, etc.)
Oshkosh, \\ is.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, J53.
Osmanlis. See Turkish.
Ottoman Empire, population of, i, 282.
Ottomans. See Turkish.
( ) ven-rowding. See Congestion.
Overland immigration: By way of Canada, ii, 619; Canadian regulation regarding,
ii, 761-764; Mexican regulation regarding, ii, 764-766; inspection of immigrants
provided by law of 1891, ii, 571.
Oversupply of unskilled labor, results of, i, 39.
Ownership of homes. See Home ownership.
Ownership of land: Italian farmers, i, 572, 573; Japanese farmers, i, 670, 671 ; Polish
farmers, i, 585.
P.
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States: Japanese and other immigrant races,
abstract of report on, i, 617-694; conclusions regarding, i, 41; schedule forms
used in investigation, ii, 653-662,668-670, 674-677, 680, 681; few immigrant banks,
ii, 415. (See also separate States.)
Pacific Islander: Definition, i, 258; number, i, 258; number of immigrants admitted,
i, 97, 215, 258; proportion of males, i, 98; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101; length of
residence, i, 116; occupation, i, 117, 118; insanity and mental defects, ii, 237;
literacy, i, 99; return movement, i, 112-118.
Pacific Islands: Number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; natives of, in
United States, i, 134, 136, 137.
Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., ii, 8.
Packers and shippers, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Packing industry. See Slaughtering and meat packing.
Padrone system: Definition of term, ii, 391; report on, ii, 387-408; present status, i,
29; ii, 392, 393; conclusions regarding, i, 29, 30; opinion of Commissioner General
of Immigration, ii, 383; peonage laws not applicable to, ii, 406; shoe-shining parlors,
ii, 447; Japanese laborers in West, i, 664, 665; seasonal farm labor, i, 596, 597; meth-
ods of importing laborers, ii, 383, 384.
Pai niers, glaziers, and varnishers, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Palatines, suffering and deaths among emigrants, 1710, ii, 589.
Palermo, Sicily: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; rejections, i, 199; number of immi-
grants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Palestine: Population, i, 281; number of Hebrews, i, 246.
Panama Canal: Probable effect on immigration to Pacific coast, i, 41, 694; to Hawaii,
I 'anna Marya, Tex., Polish agricultural colony, i, 583.
Papailiou, G. A., Greek physician in Chicago, letter signed by, ii, 398.
Paper and pulp mill operatives, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Paper and wood-pulp manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-348.
Paper products manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-348.
Parmelee, Julius H., assisted in preparation of report on fecundity of immigrant
women, i, 3.
Parochial schools, study of children in, ii, 63-73.
Pareis, fire- worshipers, i, 258.
Part-Hawaiian: Number in Hawaii, i, 700, 713; children in schools, Hawaii, i, 714:
average family income, i, 712.
Sa?e m°I}ey £dvance1d- See Assisted immigration and Induced immigration .
foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship i 352
Passenger act. See Steerage legislation.
enger cases of United States Supreme Court, 1849, referred to, ii, 567.
Index. 883
Passports: Not required by United States law, i, 28, 193; law regarding, ii, 732, 757,
758; required of Japanese entering United States, i, 661, 701; ii, 584; of Japanese to
Hawaii, i, 661; Italy will not issue, to criminals, i, 28, 193, 196; to other countries,
or insular possessions, not valid to enter United States, i, 11, 577; ii, 584; certificates
of emigration recommended by Ford Committee, ii, 570; Canadian regulations
regarding, ii, 622, 623; number granted to Japanese entering Canada, limited, i, 661;
lly U— »/.
Paterson, N. J.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152: immi-
grant banks, ii, 413.
Patras, Greece: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; rejections, i, 199; number of immi-
grants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Patten, Maine, a justice of, attitude toward contract-labor law, ii, 448.
Pauperism: Common among immigrants in early days, but little now, i, 35; conclu-
sions regarding, i, 35. (See also Charity seekers.)
Paupers: Excluded by law, ii, 619; assisted to emigrate to United States in early days,
i, 29, 35, 192; congressional investigation of immigration of, 1838, ii, 562; early
attempts at legislation against, ii, 562-564. (See also Public charges, Charity
seekers, etc.)
Pawtucket, R. I.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152; immi-
grants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Pay rolls, examination of, i, 295; schedule forms used, ii, 678, 679.
Pennsylvania:
Foreign-born in, ir 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152; Jewish popu-
lation, i, 247; Hebrew farmers, i, 576; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; in-
sanity, ii, 232; emigration to Canada, ii, 617; number of immigrant banks, ii,
414, 435; regulation of banking, ii, 435, 437; employees in manufactures, mines,
and quarries, i, 492; representative glass communities, i, 520-526.
Bituminous coal mining —
Progress in, i, 503, 504; racial classification of employees, i, 503, 504, 506; dis-
placement of labor, i, 38; history of laboj organization, i, 532-534.
Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery, Philadelphia, Pa., ii, 8.
Pennsylvania College for Women, Pittsburg, Pa., ii, 8.
Pensacola, Fla., deserting alien seamen, ii, 360.
Peonage: Report on, ii, 439-449; inquiry authorized, i, 16; ii, 443; definition of term,
ii, 444; Greek bootblacks, ii, 404-406; importation of orientals for purpose of, pro-
hibited, 1875, ii, 579; laws not applicable to padrone system, ii, 406.
12.
immigration compared, i, 24, 179-185; East
Indians not permanent, i, 677; Mexicans, i, 682. (See also Residence in United
States and Return movement.)
Persia, population of, i, 259.
Persian: Definition, i, 258, 259; religion, i, 259; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712;
population, i, 259; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classifica-
tion of charity patients, ii, 286-290; length of residence, i, 349-356, ii, 84; residence
in United States, of charity patients, ii, 263-266; wages and earnings, i, 366-403;
charity seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-272; insanity and
mental defects, ii, 270; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 76-80; literacy, i, 438-447; citi-
zenship, i, 484-489; immigrants to Canada, ii, 612.
Persons per household, number of, i, 317, 428-430, 742, 743.
Persons per room, number of, i, 36, 430-438, 743-747; various industries studied, i, 298-
312. (See also Housing conditions and Congestion.)
Petrulas, Christ., Greek physician in Chicago, letter signed by, ii, 398.
Pharmacy, students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83.
Philadelphia, Pa.: Study of immigrants in, i, 723-772; households and persons
studied, i, 732-734, 736; size of apartments, i, 741, 742; persons per room, i, 729, 743,
745, 746; boarders and lodgers, i, 748, 749; home ownership, i, 756; rent paid, i, 757,
758; sanitary equipment of homes, i, 729; gainful occupation in the home, i, 751;
public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63; parochial school
pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; immigrant banks, ii, 413; immigration to glazed-kid industry,
i, 529, 530; alien seamen at port of, ii, 359, 362; stowaways, ii, 364.
Philippine Islands: United States immigration regulations not applicable to, ii, 747;
registration of Chinese, ii, 797; certificates of Chinese, ii, 803; executive order
regarding Chinese, ii, 798; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; immigration to
Hawaii, i, 702, 704.
Piraeus, Greece: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; number of immigrants from, and
number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
The Immigration Commission.
Pittsburg, Pa.: Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 32-35, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63;
immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigrant banks, ii, 413, 415; foreign
departments in banks, ii, 418.
Pittsburg College of the Holy GhoSt, Pittsburg, Pa., ii, 8;
Pittsburg College of Pharmacy, Pittsburg, Pa., ii, 8.
Plan and scope of investigation, i, 13-10.
Plate glass. See Glass manufacturing.
Polack. See Polish.
tion,
1882
cities of United States, i, 145; crime among natives of, ii, 194-197, 205-211.
Police records abroad, of immigrants, recommendation regarding, i, 45.
Polish: Definition, i, 259, 260; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215,
260, 625; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104;
money on landing, i, 103; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; population in Europe,
i, L'lV, 250, 259; number in Austria-Hungary, i, 219; number in Russian Poland,
i, 260; number in United States, i, 583, 584; number of households and persons
studied, i, 316-320, 552, 557, 601, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-
347, 506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 602, 603, 737-739; ii, 136,
286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446,
447, 481-484, 609, 612, 769-779; occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 172, 173, 357-363,
607, 608, 760; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637, 740; ii, 84, 85;
residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446,
461-463, 477-481, 610, 613, 751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; residence in
agricultural locality, i, 604; number of breadwinners, i, 581, 778, 803, 827, 836;
occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762, 827, 836; in agricultural pursuits, i, 581-
587, 595, 800, 827, 836; in boot and shoe manufacturing, i, 827; in building trades,
i, 789, 827; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 814, 827, 836; in collar, cuff, and shirt man-
ufacturing, i, 836; in cotton mills, i, 827, 836; in domestic and personal service,
i, 805, 827, 836; iron and steel workers, i, 785, 827; laborers, i, 581, 781, 827; in
laundries, i, 836; in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, i, 827, 836; miners
and quarrymen, i, 783, 827; in needle trades, i, 809, 836; in paper and pulp mills,
i, 836; peddlers, i, 827, 836; in professional service, i, 797, 798, 827, 836- sales-
men, agents, etc., i, 794, 817, 827, 836; in silk mills, i, 836; steam railroad employees
i, 827; teachers, i, 820, 836; in textile mills, i, 787, 811, 827, 836; in tobacco and
!, ii, 174, 198-204 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation in the
IK' Vft!?i ' *£$?£ SU^en' *' 470~474' 614> 763; ii. 143-147; in schools, ii,
^SJrM^n4^^^ childjen, i, 739; literacy
- , . , . i . - £* ,.- . f j — ^^ ) **j j-u i _i_T:ij . JLC;V^ U.11U.L t V . 11.
3 in bodily form, n, 510, 511, 518-524, 526; location of wife, i,
m°™ment, i, 112-118, 180,
abroa ' - n, , -
ta abroad, i, 461-463; number in Lawrence Mass i 513 514-
, little emigration for, i, 185, 187
olygamiste: Excluded by law, ii, 571, 620, 621; law re^ardinc* ii 7Qo
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, N Y ii 8 g' '
242; proportion of foreign-born amon? ^jf^118 Bationalities among foreign-born, ii,
niles, 1900. ii, 169 170- miiviivV •« i ,e a^ults> 1900, ii, 165, 168; among juve-
^^^^'^^t^^^^^^^^ig^
139-
Index. 885
^
145; instability of, in cities, i, 36; New York, ii, 290; Cleveland, Ohio, ii, 469;
Australia compared, ii, 631; Australasia, 1788, ii, 632; Australia, 1901, ii, 632;
Argentina, 1895 and 1897, ii, 639; Brazil, 1907, ii, 645.
Portage County, Wis., Poles in potato industry, i, 585.
Portland, Oreg.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153.
Porto Rican: Number of households and persons studied, i, 319, 320; length of resi-
dence of students, ii, 84, 85; on sugar plantations, i, 715; laborers in San Francisco,
i, 663; charity seekers, ii, 154; in schools, i, 714; ii, 77; in Hawaii, i, 702, 703, 713.
Porto Rico: Immigration by way of, regulations regarding, ii, 779, 780; insane in insti-
tutions, ii, 233; immigrants destined to, i, 105-309.
Ports of arrival, proposal to restrict immigration by limiting number admitted at, i, 48.
Ports of embarkation, medical inspection abroad, i, 197-199, 202.
Portugal: Provinces and islands of, ii, 697; illiteracy in, i, 177; number of immigrants
from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of, in United States, i, 134,
136, 137, 623; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636;
age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i. 3C6-403; literacy, i, 438^447.
Portuguese: Definition, i, 260; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214, 215,
260, 592, 625; proportion oi males, i, 98; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence
in United States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712;
population in Europe, i, 214, 260; number in United States, i, 652 ; number of house-
holds and persons studied, i, 316-320, 552, 553, 557, 601, 639-642; employees studied,
i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-167, 602, 603; ii, 136, 286-290;
age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481^84,
609, 612; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173, 357-363; length of residence, i,
116, 349-356, 603, 636, 637; ii, 84; length of residence, effect on English-speaking,
literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481, 610, 613; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285;
residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366; in agri-
cultural pursuits, i, 592-595, 651-653; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411;
immigrant banks, ii, 413; family income, i, 412-417, 712; charity seekers, ii, 95-153;
ii, 154; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii,
228, 237, 270; status of children, i, 470-474; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31,
33^2, 49-55, 64-66, 72, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447, 612, 613; English-
speaking, i, 474^84, 609-611; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489; ii, 152, 153; in
labor unions, i, 417^419; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; location of
wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apart-
ments and of households, i, 426, 430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and
lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463;
number in California, i, 652; number in Lawrence, Mass., i, 514; in Hawaii, i, 702-
704, 708, 712-715, 717; ii, 154, 629; immigrants to Canada, ii, 612; to Brazil, i, 260;
ii, 645, 646.
Postal savings banks abroad, remittances through, ii, 429.
Postal substations, operated by immigrant bankers, ii, 422.
Post-Office Department: Reports of auditor for, referred to, ii, 426; allows immigrant
bankers to operate substations, ii, 422.
Potato famine in Ireland, 1847, increased emigration to United States, ii, 591.
Powder manufacturing: Employees studied, i, 627-634; Chinese employed in, i, 655.
Powderly, T. V., quoted, i, 200, 201.
Previous residence in United States: Reported by only about 12 per cent of immi-
grants from Europe, i, 184; immigrants admitted, 1899-1910, i, 104.
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen, number of breadwinners reported as, i, 821-838.
Prisoners, alien, in United States in 1908, ii, 211-220. (See also Crime.)
Professional service: Male breadwinners engaged in, i, 795-798, 821-829; female bread-
winners, i, 818-820, 830-838; leading pursuits in, among immigrants, i, 798; immi-
grants in cities engaged in, i, 761, 762.
Progress of Chinese, Japanese, and Mexicans in the West, i, 660, 666, 670, 671, 683-685.
(See also Assimilation.)
Promotion of emigration by steamship ticket agents, i, 190. (See also Induced immi-
gration.)
Property owned by immigrants: In Hawaii, i, 717, 718; East Indians in United States,
almost none, i, 681. (See also Home ownership.)
Prostitutes: Excluded by law of 1875, ii, 567, 579; Senate committee proposed to add
to excluded classes, 1906, i, 9; amendment to law with regard to, 1907, ii, 575;
excluded by present law, i, 110; ii, 577, 620; law regarding, ii, 732, 733, 744, 745, 769;
importation of, i, 30; rejections, ii, 330; nationality, ii, 332, 333; excluded from
Australia, ii, 633; excluded, and liable to deportation, from Canada, ii, 620, 625.
(See also Prostitution.)
The Immigration Commission.
Prostitution: Abstract of report on, ii, 323-350; increase in, largely caused by immi-
gration, ii, 164; Japanese on Pacific coast, i, 675; crimes connected with, ii, 173,
187, 204, 210, 211, 218; girls from immigrant homes and aid societies supplied to
houses of, ii, 320-322. (See also Prostitutes and White-slave traffic.)
Protection of newly arrived immigrants: In Argentina, ii, 641-643; in Brazil, ii, 647.
(See also Homes and aid societies and Aid furnished to immigrants.)
Providence, R. I.: Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63;
parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75; immigrant banks, ii, 413; Italian agricultural
colony near, i, 561.
Prussia, number of Lithuanians in, i, 254.
Prussian immigration to Canada, ii, 611.
Pubescence of boys, ii, 536-541.
Public charges: Massachusetts immigration law of 1837 provided against immigrants
becoming, ii, 567; legislation regarding, i, 110; ii, 569; present law, ii, 732, 769, 770,
774; immigrants debarred as likely to become, 1892-1910, i, 111; recommendation,
i, 45; immigrants via Canada, in New York almshouses, ii, 570; persons liable to
become, excluded from Canada, ii, 619, 620, 625; excluded from Australia, ii, 633,
634; excluded from Brazil, ii, 647. (Bee also Charity seekers, Charity hospitals,
Paupers, etc.)
Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, conducts medical examination at immi-
grant stations, i, 34.
Public schools, study of children in, ii, 9-48, 70-72. (See also Schools.)
Purpose of investigation, i, 12.
Pypin, classification of Slavic tongues, i, 274.
Q.
Quatrefages, de, classification of races by, i, 257, 258.
Queensland, immigration and emigration, ii, 632, 633. (See also Australia.)
Queenstown, Ireland: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; rejections, i, 199: number of
immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
R.
Race, use of term explained, i, 17.
Races: General description of, i, 223-225; number of basic, i, 210, 211; of Europe,
anthropologically defined, i, 218.
Races or peoples: Abstract of dictionary of, i, 205-283; native to immigrant-furnishing
countries, list of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; classification according to, instead of by
countries, explained, i, 97, 170, 209, 210, 234, 235; European, population and emi-
gration, i, 214. (See also separate rades.)
Race distribution of employees: In manufacturing and mining, i, 332-335, 343-348'
m Western Division, i, 635, 636. (See also Racial classification )
Race prejudice: In manufacturing and mining, i, 501, 502; against Chinese, i, 657;
aLMinst Japanese, i, 660, 661, 666, 673, 675, 676; against East Indians, i, 682 causes
Misplacement of races m Hawaii, i, 712, 713.
Racial classification: Adopted by Immigration Commission, i, 17; of New England
ton-mill operatives i, 511, 512; of bituminous coal mine employees, i, 506- of
employees of various glass factories, i, 522-524, 526, 527. (See also Country of birth,
itive-born, Foreign-born Nationality, Nativity and race, New and old immigra-
tion, Races or peoples, and separate races.)
Racial displacements. See Displacements, racial.
5f«Jp 11 Fore^^°rn in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153.
Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Mass., ii, 8.
;m"1orthDaLtb°ca v^V^^'™^' 4°5' 4°6; peona^e in Mi™esota
i camps, 11, 447; East Indians m construction work in California
-I., pays bonus on immigrants who will work on, ii, 608. (See aho
i:a.nH.y.^\ . K.. jr., prepared report on immigrant banks, i, 3; abstract of report, ii,
Ranke, Otto, investigations of phenomena of growth referred to ii m
E-
'730- («-'- Causes of emigr,
- • • -
; on the Morlaks, i, 229. ' ' 3; statlstlcs of religions in Ireland,
Index. 887
Recommendations: Of Immigration Commission, i, 30, 45-48, 691; ii, 577, 602;
White-slave traffic law a result of, i, 30; ii, 577; Government supervision of ships
carrying steerage passengers, ii, 602; East Indians, i, 691; of various persons regard-
ing immigrant banking, ii, 437, 438; of Industrial Commission, ii, 574; of various
Congressional committees, ii, 570-572. (See also Investigations.)
Recruits, military, per cent of illiteracy among, various countries, i, 177.
Red Russian, definition of term, i, 267. (See also Ruthenian.)
Registration: System of registration, certification, and identification of Chinese,
proposed 1882, ii, 580; of Chinese, required, ii, 581-583.
Regulation of immigration, President authorized to send commissioners abroad for,
i, 10, 28.
Regulations regarding —
Admission or exclusion, ii, 748-769; cattlemen, ii, 776; deportation, ii, 769-774;
head tax, ii, 747, 748; insular territory, ii, 779,780; miscellany, ii, 776-780;
transit, ii, 774, 775. (See also Immigration law.)
Rejections, law regarding, ii, 750. (See also Aliens debarred.)
Religions: Of India, i, 248; of Russia, i, 264; United Greek Church, i, 267; of Serbo-
Croatians, i, 230; number of Christians in Persia, i, 259, majority of Japanese on
Pacific coast adhere to Buddhist faith, i, 675; cooperation of Canadian immigration
department with church authorities, ii, 627.
Religious oppression: Little emigration due to, i, 185, 187; aliens coming to United
States to escape, recommendations regarding, i, 10; ii, 574, 575.
Remittances abroad. See Money sent abroad.
Rent paid: In various industries, i, 298-4512; in manufacturing and mining, i, 419-422;
average per apartment, room, and person, i, 420; native and foreign born compared,
i, 420, 421; old and new immigration compared, i, 421, 422; immigrants in cities, i,
729, 730, 756-759; higher in cities on Atlantic coast than on Great Lakes, i, 729.
(See also separate races.)
Repatriation: Of Canadians in United States, desired by Canada, ii, 617; of certain
classes of immigrants to Brazil, ii, 647.
Reports of Immigration Commission, list of, i, 21.
Residence in locality, length of: Immigrants in cities, i, 730; in agricultural pursuits,
i, 604.
Residence in United States, length of: Immigrants in manufacturing and mining, i,
348-356; in cities, i, 728, 740; in agriculture, i, 573, 603; in the West, i, 636, 637,
645 ; of insane aliens, ii, 246, 247; of alien prisoners, ii, 174, 175,211,218-220; of charity
patients, ii, 263-266, 279-285, 290; of departing aliens, i, 116, 183; of students of
higher educational institutions, ii, 84, 85; effects of, on ability to speak English, i,
477-481, 610, 648, 690, 769; on literacy, i, 445, 446, 613, 771; on citizenship, i, 488,
690; on return visits abroad, i, 181, 461-463; on keeping of boarders and lodgers, i,
751; on congestion, i, 746; on charity seeking, ii, 147-151; on bodily form, ii, 507,
527-535, 548; on retardation of school children, ii, 41. (See also Previous residence
1 in United States, Return movement, and Visits abroad.)
Restriction of immigration: Recommendations, i, 47, 48; favored by Senate, 1906-7,
i, 11.
Retardation of school children, ii, 26-31, 36-43.
Return movement: Permanent and transient emigration, i, 179-181; largely com-
posed of recent immigrants, i, 24, 181; character of, i, 184; causes, i, 184; effects of,
in Europe, i, 169, 184, 185; influence on emigration from Europe, i, 187, 188; effect
of industrial depression, i, 500, 514; men without families, i, 38; effect on foreign-
born population, i, 124, 125; Bravas, i, 600; Mexicans, i, 682; Italians, from Lawrence,
Mass., i, 514; of United States emigrants to Canada, ii, 618; steamship companies
required to furnish lists of outgoing passengers, ii, 575. (See also Aliens departing,
Emigration, Previous residence in United States, Residence in United States,
Visits abroad, etc.)
Rhode Island: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152;
immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; Italian communities, i, 560; employees in manu-
factures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; insanity, ii, 232; fecundity of women, ii, 457-
469, 494-500; immigrant banks, ii, 414; private banking virtually prohibited, ii,
434; bank commissioner quoted, ii, 438.
Ripley, W. Z., classification of races, i, 218, 224, 225, 245, 253, 255, 265, 269, 280.
Robinson, author of Loom and Spindle, quoted, i, 508, 509.
Rochester, N. Y.: Immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigrant banks, ii, 413.
Rockford, 111.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Rocky Mountain States: Abstract of report on, i, 617-694; conclusions, i, 41 ; few
immigrant banks, ii, 415. (See also Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States.)
Romance or Italic population, i, 226.
Romany. See Gypsy.
888 The Immigration Commission.
Rooms, average number per apartment, immigrants in cities, i, 741, 742. (See also
Congeetion/Houeing conditions, Persons per room, etc.)
Rope,rt\vine, and hemp manufacturing, employees in, i, 336T348.
Rose (' investigations of phenomena of growth, referred to, 11, 553.
Rotterdam, Netherlands: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; rejections, i, 199; number
of immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
R,.umania- Departments of, ii, 697; races of, ii. 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; population,
i ••»;;*• number of Roumanians in, i, 263; Gypsies, i, 245; Hebrews, i, 246; illiteracy
in, i, 177; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of, in
United Stat«-, i, 13-1; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347;
literacy, i, 438^47.
t T~V /» "j.*
in Austria-Hungary, i, 219; number in Roumania, i, 263; number in Servia, i, 231;
number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 642; employees studied, i,
320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 286-290; age at time of
coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484; occupation
abroad, i, 100-102, 172, 173, 357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356; ii, 84; resi-
dence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-
463, 477-481; ii, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366; wages and
earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-766; family income, i, 412, 417; charity seekers,
ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects,
ii, 237, 238; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447;
English-speaking, i, 474—484; citizenship, i, 484-489; in labor unions, i, 418; con-
jugal condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470;
rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per
room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i, 112-118,
180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; in Canada, ii, 612, 625.
Royal Italian Agricultural Commission, investigation by, i, 165.
Rudler, estimate of population of Holland, i, 232.
Runners: Employed by immigrant banks to solicit patronage, ii, 420, 421; by steam-
ship agents to solicit emigration, ii, 384.
Rural immigration, origin of Italian, i, 561-563. (See also Agriculture, recent immi-
grants in.)
Russia: Divisions of, ii, 697, 698; races of, i, 266; ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; population,
i, 265, 266; illiteracy, i, 177; Germans in, i, 242; Gypsies, i, 245; Hebrews, i, 246,
Poles, i, 259; Roumanians, i, 263; Lithuanian and Lettish population, i, 254, 255;
immigrant remittances to, ii, 425, 427, 429; steerage laws referred to, ii, 599, 600;
deserting seamen from, at New York, ii, 360; emigration, except of Poles and
Hebrews, prohibited, i, 168, 190, 260; emigration not general, i, 186; steamship
ticket agents induce emigration, i, 190, 191; immigration from, i, 214 215 243 265'
mil i yes of, in United States, i, 134, 135, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States,
i, 145; crime 11, 164, 183-188, 194-197, 205-211; insanity and feeble-mindedness, ii,
2; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age
•^SP^Jl' ^o"467,' earnin£8> i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condi-
Index. 889
etc., i, 793, 794, 816, 817, 827, 836; in silk mills, i, 836; steam railroad employees,
827; teachers, i, 819, 820, 836; in textile mills, i, 786, 787, 811, 812, 827, 836; in to-
bacco and cigar making, i, 827, 836; in trade and transportation, i, 827, 836; in woolen
mills, i, 836; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-766; family income, i,
412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insan-
ity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237, 244, 249, 270; crime, ii, 164, 174, 198-204, 211-
220; status of children, ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80;
literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484; ii, 151, 152; citizenship,
i, 484-489; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 418, 419; conjugal condition, i, 447-460;
ii, 137-142; fecundity, ii, 469-482, 494-500; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home owner-
ship, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-
430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426; return move-
ment, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; in Hawaii, i, 703, 705, 707, 708,
710, 715, 721; in Canada, ii, 612, 625; immigrants to Brazil, ii, 645, 646. (See also
Great Russian, Little Russian, White Russian, and Ruthenian.)
Russian Empire: Number of Finns in, i, 237; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96;
1882 and 1907, i, 167. (See also Russia.)
Russniak. See Ruthenian.
Ruthenian: Definition, i, 267-269; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 171, 214,
215, 269, 625; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104;
money on landing, i, 103; population in Europe, i, 214, 268; number in Austria-
Hungary, i, 219; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, employees
studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463^467; ii, 286-290; age
at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484;
occupation abroad, i, 100-102, 172, 173, 357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-
356; ii, 84; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc.,
i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-481; ii, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366;
wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405^411, 764-766; family income, i, 412-417; charity
seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; status of children, i, 470-474; in schools,, ii, 10-16, 18-27,
33-37, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447; English-speaking, i, 474-484,
citizenship, i, 484-^89; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal condition, i, 447-460;
location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size
of apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders
and lodgers, i, 422-426; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i,
461^63; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528.
S.
Safarik, opinion of, on Slovak dialects, i, 276, 277.
Sailing vessels: Steerage conditions, 1819-1855, ii, 589-594; number of immigrants
landed at Castle Garden, 1856-1873, ii, 595; tonnage employed in carriage of emi-
grants, Europe to United States, January to June, 1847, ii, 595.
St. Louis, Mo.: Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 74-teachers, ii, 52-63; immi-
grants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; immigrant banks, ii, 413, 415; foreign depart-
ments in banks, ii, 418; immigration to boot and shoe industry, i, 519.
St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo., ii, 8.
St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, Md./ii, 8.
St. Mary's Theological Seminary, Cleveland, Ohio, ii, 8.
St. Paul, Minn., immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
St. Paul College of Law, St. Paul, Minn., ii, 8.
St. Vincent's Seminary, German town, Pa., ii, 8.
Salesmen, agents, etc., male breadwinners reported as, i, 793-795, 821-829.
Saleswomen, female breadwinners reported as, i, 815-817, 830-838.
Salient characteristics of recent immigrant labor supply, i, 4987500.
Saloon keepers and bartenders, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
Salopoulos, N., Greek consul-general at Chicago, letters from, ii, 397, 398.
Salt refining near San Francisco, Japanese engaged in, i, 664.
Salvation Army, English, promotes emigration to Canada, ii, 608.
an Francisco, Cal.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153; p
lie school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, _ ii, 52-63; parochial school
_£1~ I GA TO >7K.' TTYTrviinTo-nf a aa /->V>or*i tir aoolrora 11 QQ_1 1 .^ • mirnHar nf TT.Qaf
pupils, ii, 64, 72, 75; immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; number of East
Indians admitted at port, January to September, 1910, i, 677.
Sanitation. See Housing conditions, Toilet accommodations, Water supply, etc.
Sanscritic. See Aryan.
Sardinia. See Italy, number of immigrants from.
Sargent, Frank P., quoted, i, 201.
72289°— VOL 1—11 57
890 The Immigration Commission.
Savannah, Ga., deserting alien seamen, ii, 360.
Savings: of Hast Indians, i, 681; of Japanese, i, 675; of immigrants in Hawaii, i, 717.
(See also Home ownership, Money sent abroad, etc.)
Saw and planing mill employees, male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829.
im migration to Canada, ii, 611.
Scandinavia: Illiteracy almost nonexistent, i, 178; immigrant remittances to, ii,
425, 427; natives of, in United States, insane and feeble-minded among, ii, 239-242.
(See also Norway, Sweden, Holland, Netherlands, etc.)
103; population and distribution, i, 271; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101; length of
residence, i, 116; occupation, i, 117, 118; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237,
244, 249; crime, ii, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; in schools, i. 714; ii, 10-16; lit-
eracy, i, 99, 175; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; emigrants from United
States to Canada, i, 271. (See also Norwegian, Swedish, Dutch, Flemish, and Dutch
and Flemish.)
Schedule forms used by Immigration Commission, ii, 651-687; instructions to agents,
ii, 688-727; apportionment of schedules in industrial study, i, 295.
Schools: Children of immigrants in, abstract of report on, ii, 1-86; schedule forms
us»-d, ii, 682-686; conclusions regarding, i, 43; Italians in the South, i, 572; children
• >f immigrants in agricultural pursuits, i, 580, 600, 614; in Hawaii, i, 707, 714; in
cities of United States, i, 761-763; Mexicans, i, 690; school attendance abroad, ii,
38, 39. (See also Children, status of.)
Scope of investigation: Recent immigrants in agriculture, i, 550-559; seasonal agri-
cultural laborers, i, 593, 594; Bohemian farmers, i, 588; Italians, i, 566, 567, 573;
Poles, i, 582, 583; agriculture in the West, i, 638; changes in bodily form of de-
482; immigrant banks, ii, 413, 414; homes and aid societies, ii, 312-315, 318; manu-
facturing and mining, i, 293-296; industrial households, i, 315-317; employees i
320-331, 336-342; Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States, i, 625-644; Mexicans,
i, 683; peonage; ii, 444-446; steerage conditions, ii, 295; white-slave traffic, ii, 329
330; conditions in Europe, i, 165, 195.
Scotch: Definition, i, 271; language, i, 225; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97,
214, 215, 243, 625; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States,
I fWl • Tnr*Tir*ir /*n I a r* H i r» r* •« 1 f\O •YMW**,^^** «•.-&*. •£«„.. . TT 1__1-- * *-n r* i »
04; money on landing, i, 103, immigrants from Honolulu, i, 712; population in
Europe, i, 214, 273; number in United States, i, 273; number of househo:
households and
« jf. . I .MI lii.-rary, etc.,'!, 445, 44G, 401-463; ii. 147-151, 263-266, 280-285- number
±SS2SSJLl^'»»'ff52SPW»! ;> I,17.' H8, 363-366, 828, 837; in
Index. 891
Scotch-Irish: Definition, i, 249; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age
classification of charity patients, ii, 286-290; length of residence, i, 349-356 ; residence
in United States of charity patients, ii, 263-266; wages and earnings, i, 363-403;
charity seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and
mental defects, ii, 270; in schools, ii, 10-16, 49-61; literacy, i, 438-447; citizenship,
i, 484-489; location of wife, i, 459, 460.
Scotland : Counties of, ii, 698; population, i, 273; insanity, ii, 248, 249; Irish immigrants
to, i, 250; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167; natives of,
in United States, i, 134, 135, 137, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; crime, ii,
164, 183-188, 205-211; insanity and feeblemindedness, ii, 239-242; children of
immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; in bituminous coal
mining, i, 506; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447;
conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Scranton, Pa.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152; public
school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 71, 72, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63; parochial school pupils,
ii, 64-72, 75.
Seamen, alien: Abstract of report on, ii, 351-369; recommendation, i, 45; legislation
regarding, ii, 758-761, 799, 800; not subject to immigration law, ii, 355, 359; proposed
new immigration act, ii, 367; naturalization of, ii, 829; Chinese on American ships,
ii, 583, 584; number of Chinese entering United States ports, ii, 357; number desert-
ing, ii, 356-358, 363; discharged and resigned, ii, 362, 363; brought over with under-
standing that they will desert, ii, 357, 361; extracts from reports of Commissioner-
General of Immigration concerning, ii, 355-358; not subject to Australian immi-
gration law, ii, 633.
Seamstresses, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830^-838. (See also Needle trades.)
Seasonal labor: Definition of term, i, 551; races studied, i, 551, 593-601; Italians in
New York, i, 573, 575; East Indians, i, 679; Mexicans, i, 687, 688; Chinese, i, 659;
recent immigrants, in West, i, 649; immigrants from Hawaii, i, 711; wages and hours
of labor, i, 597; padrone system, i, 596, 597; assimilation slow, i, 575, 600; white
labor in hop-fields, i, 693; crews of pickers organized by employers, i, 693; in Cali-
fornia, i, 668; white, obtained through employment agencies, i, 693.
Seattle, Wash. : Immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115; prosecutions for white-slave
traffic, ii, 350.
Second generation, definition of term as here used, i, 777.
Segregation of immigrants: Effects of, i, 496, 497; old and new immigration, i, 536,
540, 648; in agriculture, i, 569, 570; by employers, i, 647; assimilation of Japanese
in spite of, i, 675.
Selection of immigrants, Canada's policy, ii, 607, 608, 610-613.
Senate Committee on Immigration, amendments proposed by, 1906, i, 9, 10.
Separation of sexes in steerage: Legislation of 1860, ii, 594; of 1882, ii, 597. (See also
Steerage conditions and Steerage legislation.)
Seraphic, A. A., padrone-system inspector, and author of report, i, 3; ii, 391; report,
ii, 387-408.
Serb. See Croatian.
Serbo-Croatian population and distribution, i, 230. (See al o Croatian and Slovenian.)
Serbo-Horvatian. See Croatian.
Sergi: Classification of races, i, 218; opinion of, as to origin of Italians, i, 250.
Serres, classification of races, i, 277.
Servants and waiters: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female breadwinners,
i. 804-806, 830-838. (See also Domestic and personal service.)
Servia: Departments of, ii, 698; population, i, 231; illiteracy, i, 177; number of Gypsies
in, i, 245; Roumanians, i, 263; Serbo-Croatians, i, 230; immigrant remittances to,
ii, 429. (See also Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro.)
Servian- Definition, i, 273; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 214, 215; pro-
portion of males, i, 98; population in Europe, i, 214; number in Austria-Hungary,
L 219- number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 733-737; employees
studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, .627-636^6 Classification, ^ 463^467^ 737-739; 11,
^OU — £*J\J ]
447,
fng^Hteracy, etc.', i,~445,~446, 461-463, 477-481, 751, 769; ii, 263-266; occupation, i,
363-366, 761 762 wages and earnings, i, 36(M03, 405-411 ,764-766; family income,
i 412-417- charity seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, 11, 258-261, 270-272;
insanity and mental defects, ii 270; gainful occupation in the home i 752;
status of children, i, 763; in schools, n, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55, 64-66 76-80, pro-
portion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99, 438-447, 770, 771; English-speaking,!,
892 The Immigration Commission.
474_484, 768-770; citizenship, i, 484-489, 771, 772; in labor unions, i, 418; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470,
756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430,
741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426,
748-751; boarding groups, i, 739; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754;
care of apartment, i, 755; visits abroad, i, 461^463; immigrants to Canada, ii, 612.
Sewing-machine manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-348.
Sex: Of immigrants, 1820-1910, i, 57-60, 82-96; 1899-1910, 97, 171; departing aliens,
i, 115, 183; charity patients, ii, 262, 286-288; immigrants in cities, i, 736, 737;
immigrants in industries, i, 318-331, 336-342; population of Hawaii, i, 700.
Shaw. Frank L., author of report on federal immigration legislation, i, 4; abstract of
report, ii, 557-584.
Sheets, Nellie F., assisted in preparation of report on immigrants in cities, i, 2.
Shenandoah, Pa.: Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 71, 72; teachers, ii, 52-63;
parochial school pupils, ii, 64-72, 75.
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838. (See also
Collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing.)
Shoe industry, employees studied, in West, i, 627-634. (See also Boot and shoe
manufacturing.)
Shoe-shining parlors: Peonage and padrone system, ii, 393-405, 447; Greeks in
almost entire control, ii, 402; promoters of, ii, 398.
Shutdowns, oversupply of labor causes curtailed number of working days, i, 39, 367.
Siarhras, A. I. and D. I., parties to Greek loan contract, ii, 407, 408.
Siamese students in higher educational institutions, ii, 77, 84.
Siberia: Emigration of Russians to, i, 265; immigration from, to Hawaii, i, 705, 721.
Sicilian: Definition of term, i, 273, 274; population, i, 273; large proportion among
Italians in Louisiana, i, 568; in Italian agricultural communities, i, 565; measure-
ments of native and foreign born compared, ii, 506-509, 514, 515, 518-524, 526
532, 533, 542-545; treatment of infants, ii, 547. (See also Italian, South.)
Sicily: Population, i, 273; emigration from, i, 273, 274. (See also Italy, number of
immigrants from.)
Silesian, definition of term, i, 241.
Silk goods manufacturing and dyeing: Summary of data secured, i, 303, 304; house-
holds and employees studied, i, 294, 323-333; earnings, i, 384-386, 388-395; immi-
gration to Patereon, N. J., i, 529; established where cheap woman and child labor
is available, i, 541.
Silk-mill operatives, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Simmons College, Boston, Mass., ii, 8.
Sims, Edwin W., United States district attorney in Chicago, quoted, ii, 336, 344, 350
prosecutions, ii, 347, 350.
Size of apartments and of households: Immigrants in industries, i, 426-430; in cities,
741-743. (See also Congestion, Housing conditions, Persons per household and Per-
sons per room.)
Skill.-d labor. See Labor, skilled.
Slaughtering and meat packing: Summary of data secured, i, 298, 299; households
and employees studied, i, 294, 323-333; earnings, i, 396-404
Slav: Definition of term, i, 274-276; classification of Slavic tongues, i, 274- popula-
, tion of Slavic race, i, 275; treatment of infants, ii 547
Slavic. See Slav.
Stovonia and Croatia, number of Serbo-Croatians in, i, 230
198^204 : efiniti°n °f term' *' 277' 2785 "' 173' 199> immigrants and crime, ii, 173,
Slavonic population, i, 226. (See also Slav.)
keeping arrangements. See Persons per room
Sleeping quarters in steerage, described, ii, 296
Sleswick, number of Danes in, i, 271
Slovak: Definition, ' """ "=a
Index. 893
residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363-366, 761, 762;
in agricultural pursuits, i, 591; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-767;
immigrant banks, ii, 413; family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153;
in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237,
270; crime, ii, 211-220; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation in the home, i, 762;
status of children, i, 470-474, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42,
49-55, 64-66, 76-80; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-447, 612,
613, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 609-611, 768-770, ii, 151, 152; citizen-
ship, i, 484-489, 606, 771, 772; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417^19; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; changes in bodily form, ii, 510, 511, 518-524, 526;
location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422,
757-759; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430, 741-743; persons per
room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i, 422-426, 748-751; water supply,
i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754; care of apartment, i, 755; return movement,
i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528.
Slovaktown, Ark., a Slovak agricultural colony, i, 591.
Slovenian: Definition, i, 277-279; language, i, 278; number of immigrants admitted,
i, 214, 215, 279; population in Europe, i, 279; number of households and persons
studied, i, 316-320, 640-642, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347,
627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 737-739; ii, 286-290; age at time of coming,
effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484, 769-771; occupation
abroad, i, 357-363, 760; length of residence, i, 349-356, 636, 637, 740; residence
in United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463,
477-481, 751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 363-366, 761, 762; wages
and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411, 764-767; family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity
seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 270; gainful occupation in the home, i, 752; status of children, i, 470-474,
763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55, 64-66, 76-80; proportion of chil-
dren, i, 739; literacy, i, 444-447, 770, 771; English-speaking, i, 474-484, 768-770; ii,
151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489, 771, 772; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal
condition, i, 447-460; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470, 756;
rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households, i, 426-430,
741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i,' 422-426,
748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754; care of apartment, i,
755; visits abroad, i, 461-463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528. (See also Croatian and
Slovenian.)
Smelting: Employees studied, in West, i, 627-629; Japanese in Utah and Nevada,
i, 664. (See also Metalliferous mining and smelting.)
Smerlis, promoter of Greek shoe-shining parlors, ii, 398, 399.
Smith, Joseph R., author, referred to, ii, 594.
Societies, aid. See Homes and aid societies.
Sources of immigration, conclusions regarding, i, 23, 24. (See also Country of origin.)
South: Expansion in bituminous coal mining, i, 505, 506; output of coal, and number
of employees, West Virginia and Alabama, i, 505; racial classification of employees,
i, 505, 506; history of labor organizations, i, 534; Italians in agriculture, i, 566-572;
peonage, ii, 443-446; few immigrant banks, ii, 415.
South America: Immigration situation in Argentina and in Brazil, ii, 639-643, 645-647;
number of Italians in, i, 252; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; natives of, in
United States, i, 134, 136, 137; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333,
336-347, 627-636; literacy, i, 438-447. (See also Argentina and Brazil.)
South American: Number of employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; length
of residence, i, 349-356; charity seekers, ii, 96-101; literacy, i, 438-447; citizenship,
i, 484-489. .
South Australia: Immigration and emigration, 1851-1901, ii, 632; assisted immigra-
tion to, ii, 633. (See also Australia.)
South Carolina: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109;
Italians admitted and departed, i, 568; insanity, ii, 232; cases of peonage, ii, 445;
no regulation of private or immigrant banking, ii, 435.
South Dakota: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; Hebrew
farmers, i, 576; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; insanity, ii, 232; regulation of
banking, ii, 435; emigration to Canada, ii, 617.
South Glastonbury, Conn., Italian agricultural colony near, i, 561.
South Italian. See Italian, South.
South Omaha, Nebr.: Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23; teachers, ii, 52-63.
South Sea Islanders, immigrants to Hawaii, i, 700, 702, 703.
Southampton, England: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; number of immigrants from,
and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
The Immigration Commission.
Southwest: Expansion in bituminous coal mining, i, 504; output of coal, and number
of employees, Kansas and Oklahoma, i, 504; racial classification of employees, i,
504, 506; history of labor organizations, i, 536, 537; few immigrant banks, ii, 415.
Space required for steerage passengers: Legislation, i, 11; ii, 590-599; regulations of
British Board of Trade, 1908, ii, 598; lounging and dining rooms recommended, ii,
598 599- superficial deck area versus cubical system, ii, 599; height between decks,
ii 599-601; United States, British, German, and Italian laws, ii, 600, 601.
Spain: Provinces of, ii, 698; population, i, 279; number of Gypsies in, i, 245; illiteracy,
i 177- steerage laws, referred to, ii, 599-600; number of immigrants from, 1820-1910,
i 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167, 214, 280; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 136, 137;
children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; earnings, i,
366-403; literacy, i, 438-447.
from Honolulu, i, 711, 712; number in Europe, i, 214, 279; in Cuba, i, 231; in Hawaii,
i, 713; number of households and persons studied, i, 316-320, 641, 642; employees
studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 286-290; age
classification, i, 463^167; ii, 286-290; age at time of coming, effect on English-
speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447; 481-484; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172,
173. 357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in
United States, effect on English-speaking, literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463, 477-
481; ii, 263-266, 280-285; occupation, i, 117, 118, 363^366; on sugar plantations,
i, 715; wages and earnings, i, 366-403, 405-411; family income, i, 412-417; charity
seekers, ii, 95-109; in charity hospitals, ii, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental
defects, ii, 228, 237, 270; prostitution, ii, 332; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-27, 49-55,
64-66, 76^0; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438^47; English-speaking, i, 474-484; ii, 151, 152;
citizenship, i, 484-489; in labor unions, i, 418; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; loca-
tion of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i, 419-422; size of
apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i, 430-438; boarders
and lodgers, i, 422-126; return movement, i, 112-118, 180, 182; visits abroad, i,
461^63; in Hawaii, i, 713, 715; immigrants to Canada, ii, 612; to Argentina, ii, 640,
641; to'Brazil, ii, 645, 646.
Spanish- American: Definition, i, 280; number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215,
280; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on
landing, i, 103; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101; length of residence, i, 116; ii, 84;
occupation, i, 117, 118; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237; in schools, ii, 10-16,
18-27, 49-55, ^^J.^O^iteracy, i, 99; return movement, i, 112-118.
effect of recent immigrants
Mexicans,
1910, i, 71
and earnings, etc.)
State control of immigration, end of, ii, 564, 567.
Staterooms versus dormitories, for steerage passengers, ii, 601 602
ical review of immigration, 1820-1910, abstract of, i, 51-118; sources of data, i,
Statistics: Of immigration to United States, required by law of 1819 i, 55" ii 561 590'
t$^£3^^*?^> i> 176J unpublished, of Bureau of Immigration
Index. 895
Steamship ticket agents: Emigration induced by, i, 25, 189-192; ii, 384-386; bonus
paid to, by Canada, ii, 607, 608; peddlers in New York City, ii, 421; immigrant
bankers as, ii, 415, 416, 433; various State laws regarding, ii, 436.
Steel industry. See Iron and steel manufacturing.
Steerage conditions: Abstract of report on, ii, 291-303; conclusions, i, 30; recommen-
dations, i,46; ii, 602; trans- Atlantic, ii, 295-302; coastwise, ii, 302, 303; early, caused
suffering and death, ii, 589, 590; regulated by law of 1819, ii, 561; law amended 1847
and 1848, ii, 564; investigation of, 1873, ii, 596; law of 1882 amended 1907, ii, 577;
on sailing vessels, 1819-1855, ii, 589-594; on steamships, ii, 594-602; present unfavor-
able conditions the result of nonenforcement of existing laws, ii, 602; section' 42,
law of 1907, ii, 743, 744; Government supervision of ships at sea, recommended, ii,
602; emigrant-carrying ships to Argentina, ii, 642. (See also Steerage legislation.)
Steerage legislation: Abstract of report on, ii, 585-602; act of 1819, ii, 590, 591; of 1847,
ii, 591, 592; of 1848, ii, 592, 593; of 1855, ii, 593, 594; passenger act of 1882, ii, 596,
597; navigation act amended, 1907, ii, 743, 744; recent legislation, ii, 597-600; cubic
air space per passenger required, 1908, ii, 601; vessels subject to laws -of both country
of departure and country of destination, ii, 601; bills providing for Government
supervision of ships at sea, pending in Congress, ii, 602. (See also Steerage con-
ditions, Immigration law, Legislation, etc.) _
Stella, Antonio, quoted as to treatment of Italian infants, ii, 547.
Stenographers and typewriters, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Story, Justice, dissenting opinion from Supreme Court decision regarding New York
immigration law, ii, 567.
Stowaways: Report on, ii, 351-369; regulation regarding, ii, 761; number entering
United States, ii, 363-367; specific cases, ii, 363, 364; not regarded as immigrants, ii,
365.
Street railway transportation, Japanese employed in, Los Angeles, i, 664. (See also
Electric railway transportation.)
Strike-breakers: Recent immigrants as, in West, i, 646; Japanese, i, 664; Mexicans, i,
685, 686.
Sugar-cane growing, Italians in, i, 570, 571.
Sugar industry of Hawaii, i, 699, 714-716, 720-722; planters' association, i, 703, 704, 716.
Sugar refining: Summary of data secured, i, 312, 313; households and employees
studied, i, 294, 323-326, 332, 333; earnings, i, 384-386, 390-392, 394. (See also Beet-
sugar industry.)
Summer boarders on Hebrew farms, i, 578.
Sunny- side, Ark., Italian agricultural colony, i, 567, 568;
Superintendent of immigration, office authorized 1891, ii, 571.
Superior, Wis.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153.
Supervision, greater, required among non-English-speaking employees, i, 538.
Supreme Court, United States: Recommended national control of immigration, 1876,
ii, 567, 578; New York immigration law of 1824, ii, 567; Massachusetts immigration
law of 1837, ii, 567; various other State laws declared unconstitutional, ii, 568;
decision in Keller case, ii, 331.
SUE
Sweden: Divisions of, ii, 699; population, i, 214, 271; illiteracy, i, 177; insanity, ii,
248 249* steerage laws, referred to, ii, 600; Canada induces immigration from, ii,
607', 608; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1*882 and 1907, i, 167, 214, 271;
natives of, in United States, i, 134, 135, 137, 155, 156, 623; in cities of United States,
i, 145; crime, ii, 205-211; children of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347,
627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i, 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447;
conjugal condition, i, 447-460. (See also Scandinavia.)
Swedish: Definition, i, 271; number of immigrants admitted, i, 214; population in
Europe, i, 214; number in Finland, i, 236, 271; number of households and persons
studied, i, 316-320, 557, 601, 639-642, 733-737; employees studied, i, 320-333,
336-347, 506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467, 737-739; ii, 136, 286-290;
age at time of coming, effect on English-speaking and literacy, i, 446, 447, 481-484,
769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 357-363, 760; length of residence, i, 349-356,
636 637, 740; ii, 84, 85; residence in United States, effect on English-speaking,
literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461^463, 477-481, 751, 769; ii, 147-151, 263-266, 280-285;
residence in agricultural locality, i, 604; number of breadwinners, i, 778, 803, 828,
837- occupation, i, 363-366, 761, 762, 828, 837; in agricultural pursuits, i, 548, 549,
800' 828 837- in boot and shoe manufacturing, i, 828; in building trades, i, 789,
790, 828; in clerical pursuits, i, 791, 792, 814, 815, 828, 837; in collar, cuff, and shirt
manufacturing, i, 837; in cotton mills, i, 828, 837; in domestic and personal service,
i 804-806, 828, 837; iron and steel workers, i, 784, 785, 828; laborers, i, 780, 781,
896 The Immigration Commission.
steam railroad employees, i, 828; teachers, i, 819, 820, 837; in textile mills, i, 786,
787, 811, 812, 828, 837; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 828, 837; in trade and trans-
portation, i, 828, 837; in woolen mills, i, 837; wages and earnings, i, 366-403,
405-411, 764-767; family income, i, 412-417, 766; charity seekers, ii, 95-153; in
charity hospitals, ii, 258-262, 270-275; insanity and mental defects, ii, 238, 270;
crime ii, 198, 204; prostitution, ii, 332; gainful occupation in the home, i, 752;
status of children, i, 470-474, 763; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42,
49-55, 64-66, 71, 72, 76-80; proportion of children, i, 739; literacy, i, 438-447, 770,
771. English-speaking, i, 474-484, 768-770; ii, 151, 152; citizenship, i, 484-489,
771. 77L'; ii, 152, 153; in labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii,
1:17-142; fecundity, ii, 457-500; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i,
7-470, 756; rent paid, i, 419-422, 757-759; size of apartments and of households, i,
'i-430, 741-743; persons per room, i, 430-438, 743-747; boarders and lodgers, i,
422-426, 748-751; water supply, i, 753; toilet accommodations, i, 754; care of
apartment, i, 755; visits abroad, i, 461^463; number in Whiting, Ind., i, 528; in
Canada, ii, 612, 625; immigrants to Brazil, ii, 645, 646. (See also Scandinavian.)
Swiss: Definition, i, 241, 280; population, i, 280; employees studied, i, 320-333,
336-347, 627-636; length of residence, i, 349-356; number of breadwinners, i, 778,
803, 829, 838; occupation, i, 829, 838; in agricultural pursuits, i, 549, 550, 800, 829,
838; in boot and shoe manufacturing, i, 829; in building trades, i, 790, 829; in
clerical pursuits, i, 792, 815, 829, 838; in collar, cuff, and shirt manufacturing, i,
838; in cotton mills, i, 829, 838; in domestic and personal service, i, 806, 829, 838;
iron and steel workers, i, 785, 829; laborers, i, 781, 829; in laundries, i, 838; in
manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, i, 829, 838; miners and quarrymen, i,
783, 829; in needle trades, i, 809, 838; in paper and pulp mills, i, 838; peddlers, i,
829, 838; in professional service, i, 798, 829, 838; salesmen, agents, etc., i, 794, 817,
829, 838; in silk mills, i, 838; steam railroad employees, i, 829; teachers, i, 820.
838; in textile mills, i, 787, 812, 829, 838; in tobacco and cigar making, i, 829, 838;
in trad.- and transportation, i, 829, 838; in woolen mills, i, 838; wages and earnings,
.403; charity seekers, ii, 96-101; literacy, i, 438-447; citizenship, i, 484-489;
fecundity, ii, 469-500; location of wife, i, 459, 460; in Canada, ii, 612, 626; immi-
irrant.s to Argentina, ii, 640, 641; to Brazil, ii, 645, 646.
Switzerland: Cantons of, ii, 699; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; population, i,
: number of French in, i, 240; Germans, i, 242; Italians, i, 252; illiteracy, i,
177; insanity, ii, 248, 249; no emigration problem of importance, i, 168; Canada
mducea immigration from, ii, 607; immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and
^ 366-403; literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460.
Syracuse, N. Y., immigrant banks in, ii, 413.
Syria, population and number of Christians, i, 281.
47 4«rftd -™ . . - n eracy, , ,
84, 769-771; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173 357-363 760- lemrtti
En^±nCV nV4&-356' 740; »• 84' 85' «**>*<" « United Sta^ e'ffecf on
-speaking, literacy, etc., 445, 446, 461-163, 477-481, 751, 769; ii, 147-151
P2s66^r^' !' I'E8' 363-36?> ™.!«?-. '"-1 f-m labor, i, 594
apartment, i, 755; return
•"'•nt i 112-118 180
Ma*,, i, 514,515*
Index. 897
T.
Tableware, glass. See Glass manufacturing.
Tacoma, Wash.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 153
Tailors: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 821-829; female breadwinners, i, 830-838.
Tampa, Fla.: Households studied in cigar and tobacco investigation, i, 313; deserting
alien seamen, ii, 360.
Tanneries. See Leather manufacturing.
Tariff, sugar industry of Hawaii stimulated by protection, i, 701.
Tasmania: Immigration and emigration, 1851-1901, ii, 632; assisted immigration ii
633. (See also Australia.)
Tataric. See Finno-Tataric, Russian, etc.
Tatars, number in Roumania, i, 263. (See also Russian and Turkish.)
Tax: Of foreign miners, Californiar 1853, ii, 578; of Chinese, California, i, 657; ii, 578;
income, Hawaii, i, 704, 717; 75 per cent of income tax appropriated for encouraging
immigration, Hawaii, i, 704. (See also Head tax.)
Teachers: In public school investigation, ii, 48-63; schedule form used, ii, 686; male
breadwinners reported as, i, 818; female breadwinners, i, 818-820, 830-838. (See
also Schools.)
Tehuantepec, isthmus of, immigration to Hawaii by way of, i, 721.
Telegraph and telephone operators, female breadwinners reported as, i, 830-838.
Temple College, Philadelphia, Pa., ii, 8.
Tennessee: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129; Italian communities, i, 560, 566; Italians
admitted and departed, i, 568; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; number of
immigrants in bituminous coal mines, negligible, i, 505, 506; regulation of banking,
ii, 435; cases of peonage, ii, 445; insanity, ii, 232.
Teutonic: Definition of term, i, 281; population, i, 226; classification of languages,
i, 281. %
Texas: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; German farmers, i,
548; Polish farmers, i, 583; Japanese in agriculture, i, 592; Italian communities, i,
560, 566; Italians admitted and departed, i, 568; immigrants destined to, i, 105-
109; competes with Canada for immigrants, ii, 609; regulation of banking, ii, 435;
insanity, ii, 232.
Textile-mill operatives: Male breadwinners reported as, i, 786-788, 821-829; female
breadwinners, i, 610-613, 811, 812, 830-838; females in Massachusetts, i, 810. (See
also Cotton goods manufacturing, Silk goods manufacturing and dyeing, Woolen
and worsted manufacturing, Carpet manufacturing, and Hosiery and knit goods
manufacturing.)
Theodore, Const., Greek physickn in Chicago, letter signed by, ii, 398.
Theological Seminary of Evangelical Lutheran Church, Chicago, 111., ii, 8.
Theology, students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83.
Third-class accommodations: Have replaced steerage on several trans-Atlantic ships,
ii, 600; on sailing vessels only, until 1850, ii, 594. (See also Steerage conditions.)
Thurston, L. A., former commissioner of immigration, Hawaii, quoted, i, 702, 703.
Ticket agents. See Steamship ticket agents.
Tips paid to Greek bootblacks, taken by padrones, ii, 402.
Tobacco and cigar making: Summary of data secured, i, 313; households and em-
ployees studied, i, 294, 323-333, 627-634; earnings, i, 396-403; established where
cheap woman and child labor is available, i, 541; Chinese in, San Francisco, i,
655, 659; male bread winners reported as in, i, 821-829; female breadwinners, i,
830-838.
Toilet accommodations: For steerage passengers, laws of 1848 and 1908, ii, 593, 599;
of households of immigrants in cities, i, 754, 755. (See also Steerage conditions
and Housing conditions.)
Toledo, Ohio, immigrant banks in, ii, 413.
Toronto, Ontario, stature of children in, ii, 555.
Tourists: Arriving in United States, destinations of, 1899-1910, i, 105; regulation
regarding, ii, 775. (See also Transits.)
Trachoma: Defined, i, 110; classed as a dangerous contagious disease, 1897, i, 194;
specialists are employed to detect, i, 198.
Tractability: Characteristic of races of recent immigration, i, 500, 501; Mexican
railroad employees, i, 684.
Trade, immigrants in cities engaged in, i, 761, 762.
Trade and transportation: Male bread winners engaged in, i, 821-829; female bread-
winners, i, 830-838.
Trade unions. See Labor organizations.
Traders, clerks, etc., number emigrating to Canada, ii, 613.
898 The Immigration Commission.
Trans-Atlantic traffic. See Steerage conditions, Steamship companies, Third-class
accommodations, etc.
Transient immigration. See Return movement.
Transits, law regarding, ii, 732, 748, 774, 807-809
Transportation:
Interstate, of prostitutes, forbidden, ii, 578, 745; companies prohibited from in-
ducing immigration, ii, 386, 734; elimination of American ships from emigrant-
carrying trade, ii, 594, 595; of steerage passengers, lines now engaged in, i, 190;
number of trans-Atlantic steerage passengers, 1899-1910, i, 183, 184; steerage
conditions, i, 30; ii, 295-303; legislation regarding, ii, 589-602; fare advanced
to contract laborers, i, 29; immigrants in cities engaged in, i, 761, 762; facilities
poor in Hawaii, i, 719; from Japan to Honolulu, cost of, i, 703; continuous
journey from own country to destination demanded of some immigrants to
Canada, ii, 622, 623, 629; transshipment of immigrants for New Zealand pro-
hibited, ii, 638.
Provided for immigrants by —
Argentina, ii, 643; Australia, ii, 631; Brazil, ii, 647; Canada, ii, 609, 616; New
Zealand, ii, 637. (See also Electric railway transportation, Steam railway
transportation, Street rail way transportation, Assisted immigration, Steerage
conditions, etc.)
Treaties: Agreement between United States and other powers for repression of trade
in white women, ii, 327; between United States and China, various, ii, 578-581, 583.
783, 784.
Treatment of immigrants in charity hospitals, various causes of, ii, 267-285. (See also
Charity hospitals.)
Trieste, Austria-Hungary: Inspection of emigrants, i, 198; rejections, i, 199; number
of immigrants from, and number debarred for medical causes, i, 202.
Tripoli, Greek bootblacks from, ii, 399. -
Tsinteare: Definition of term, i, 262; number of, i, 282.
Tufte College, Medford, Mass., ii, 8.
Turkey: Divisions of, ii, 699; races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; population, i, 282;
number of Greeks in, i, 245; Roumanians in, i, 263; Serbo-Croatians in, i, 230;
*j AW i i I j MWUAUKACM&1B J.117JJJ.} Ill
Asia and Turkey in Europe.)
Turkey in Asia: Number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96. (See also Turkey )
iirkey in Europe: Number of immigrants from, 1820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907 i
• 001 .' .f, . ' .' > > WV) Ali XVVJU.Uid/lli.0), i, Ll\JO . Ill
1' V m Turkey> !| 282; number of households and persons studied, i,
* r*mT-vi/^i7/-i/-kci ati* j-1i j-t.4 •! oorv ooo nnrt n,*^ v-i^— ^^^ *i * .*
280-285; occupa-
padrone system, ii,
258-261, 270-272;
I«T, John, quotation from message to Congress, ii, 562
I yiM'writer manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-^348.
U.
134; oversupply of unskilled labor
study of cit lea , ^upations: persons in industrial study and in
Unions. 8* I ,;it>or organizations.
Index. 899
United Kingdom: No emigration problem of importance, i, 168; emigration to Briiish
colonies encouraged and assisted, i,. 168; number of immigrants from 1820-1910 i
65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167. (See also separate countries.)
United Norwegian Lutheran Seminary, Minneapolis, Minn., ii, 8.
Universities of Buffalo, California, Chicago, Cincinnati, Illinois, Kansas, Maryland,
Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Pittsburg, investigations in, ii, 8. (See also Higher
educational institutions.)
Utah: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155, 623; citizenship, i, 150; immigrants
destined to, i, 105-109; farm households studied, i, 639; regulation of banking, ii,
435.
Utica, N. Y., immigrant banks in, ii, 413.
V.
»
Valdese, N. C., Italian agricultural colony, i, 563.
Value of manufactures east of Rocky Mountains, 1880-1905, i, 491.
Vegetable growing, Japanese seasonal labor in, i, 667. (See also Agriculture and
Seasonal labor.)
Vehicles. See Agricultural implement and vehicle manufacturing.
Vermont: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 155; citizenship, i, 150; immigrants
destined to, i, 105-109; no regulation of private or immigrant banks, ii, 435; insan-
ity, ii, 232.
Veterinary science, students of, ii, 76-79, 82, 83.
Vetoes, Presidents': Arthur, bill suspending Chinese immigration for 20 years, 1882,
ii, 580; Cleveland, bill providing for educational test, 1897, ii, 573, 574; Hayes,
abrogation of Burlingame treaty, 1879, ii, 580. (See also Executive order.)
Victoria: Immigration and emigration, ii, 632, 635; assisted immigration, ii, 633;
Chinese immigration, ii, 635. (See also Australia.)
Vineland, N. J.: Italian agricultural colony, i, 561, 565; Hebrew colonies, i, 578, 579.
Vineyards, Japanese seasonal labor in, i, 667. (See also Agriculture and Seasonal
labor.)
Virginia: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; employees
in bituminous coal mines mainly of recent immigration, i, 506; regulation of bank-
ing, ii, 435; cases of peonage, ii, 445; insanity, ii, 232.
Visits abroad: Employees in manufacturing and mining, i, 461—463; Italians migra-
tory, ii, 532. (See also Return movement, Previous residence in United States,
etc.)
Vlach, definition of term, i, 262.
Volicos, J. N., Greek physician in Chicago, letter signed by, ii, 398.
Voting age, nativity of males of, i, 148-156. (See also Citizenship.)
W.
Wages and earnings:
Effects of recent immigrants on, i, 540, 541, 646; recent immigrants and Japanese
displacing Chinese at higher wages, Pacific coast, i, 658; vary for old and new
immigrant races on street railways in West, i, 646; only slightly increased for
recent immigrants and Mexicans in West, i, 646; in bituminous coal mines of
Pennsylvania, lower than elsewhere, i, 38; effect of labor organizations in West,
i, 647; farm labor in West, i, 654, 669, 670, 672, 679; immigrants employ
fellow-countrymen at lower than current, i, 654; sugar-beet laborers, i, 687;
seasonal farm labor, i, 597, 670; of Asiatics, California, higher than formerly, i,
679; Chinese, i, 656, 658, 659; East Indians, i, 676, 678, 679; Japanese, i, 658,
665, 667, 669, 670, 672, 673, 675, 683; Mexicans, i, 646, 683; on sugar planta-
tions, Hawaii, i, 707, 715, 720; .results of European investigation regarding, i,
186,187; a cause of emigration, i, 185, 186; of Greek boys, ii, 403, 404; increased,
in Europe, as result of emigration of labor, i, 169, 277.
Hourly earnings —
Beet sugar, i, 688; glass bottles, i, 524; plate glass, i, 521; slaughtering and
meat packing, i, 403, 404.
Daily earnings —
No criterion of annual income, i, 39, 370, 371; bituminous coal mines, i, 300,
396-403, 534; cigars and tobacco, i, 313, 396-403; construction work, i,
396-403; oil refining, i, 311, 396-403; slaughtering and meat packing, i,
396-403; coal mines of New Mexico, i, 686; farm labor, California, i, 670;
seasonal agricultural labor, i, 600; glass bottles, i, 524; manufacturing and
mining, i, 370-374, 379-383, 396-403; metalliferous mining and smelting,
i, 686; street railways, the West, i, 646, 685, 686; of East Indians, i, 678,
680; of Mexicans, i, 683, 685-687; laborers in Hawaii, i, 707, 715.
900 The Immigration Commission.
Wages and earnings — Continued.
Weekly earning —
Xo criterion of annual income, i, 367; of Italians, in glass industry, i, 524;
maiHiiacturinir and mining, i, 366-370, 374-378, 383-396; various industries,
i. 297-312.
Annual earnings —
Less than wages would indicate, on account of lost time, i, 39, 367, 370, 371:
of Greek bootblacks, ii, 402; of Greek flower peddlers, ii, 393; immigrants
in cities, i, 764-767; in manufacturing and mining, i, 405-411; various
industries, i, 297-313: native and foreign born compared, i, 406, 408, 411;
old and new immigration compared, i, 406, 409, 411; of field laborers in
Manchuria, i. 705.
(See also Family income and separate races and industries.}
Wage-earners: Increase in number, manufacturing and mining, 1880-1909, i,
491-493; per cent foreign-born, i, 493; number and sex of those studied in manu-
facturing and mining, i, 294; in agricultural pursuits, i, 547. (See also Bread-
winners, Employees studied, Occupations, and separate races and industries.)
Walcher, G., investigations of , referred to, ii, 546.
Wales: Counties of, ii, 699; population, i, 214, 283; number of immigrants from,
3820-1910, i, 65-96; 1882 and 1907, i, 167_; natives of, in United States, i, 134, 135,
137, 623; in cities of United States, i, 145; children of immigrants from, employed,
i, 320-333, 336-347, 506, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; earnings, i, 366-403;
literacy, i, 438-447; conjugal condition, i, 447-460. (See alfo England and Wales.)
Walker, J. Bruce, assistant superintendent of emigration for Canada, in London,
quoted, ii, 615, 616.
Washington: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 151, 155, 623; citizenship, i, 150, 152;
Hebrew farmers, i, 576; Norwegian farmers, i, 548; immigrants destined to, i, 105-
109; farm households studied, i, 639; emigration to Canada, ii, 617; regulation of
banking, ii, 435.
Washington, D. C., immigrants as charity seekers in, ii, 93-115. (See also District
of Columbia.)
Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., ii, 8.
Water supply, of households of immigrants in cities, i, 753. (See al o Housing con-
ditions, Toilet accommodations, etc.)
Waterbury, Conn.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Wawarsing, N. Y., Hebrew agricultural colony, i, 577.
Weekly earnings. See Wages and earnings.
Weight of native and foreign born, compared, ii, 510, 512, 514, 516, 519, 525, 526,
534-536, 538.
Welfare work. See Homes and aid societies, Benefits in addition to wages, and Aid
furnished to immigrants.
\\Vlsh: Definition, i, 282, 283; language, i, 225, 282, 283; number of immigrants, i,
97, 171, 214, 215, 283, 625; destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United
States, i, 104; money on landing, i, 103; population in Europe, i, 214, 283; number
i households and persons studied, i, 316-320; employees studied, i, 320-333 336-
47, 506, 507, 627-636; age classification, i, 463-467; ii, 136, 286-290; age at time of
"in ing, effect on literacy, i, 446, 447; occupation abroad, i, 100, 101, 172, 173,
357-363; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356, 636, 637; ii, 84, 85; residence in United
States, effect on literacy, etc., i, 445, 446, 461-463; ii, 147-151, 263-266; residence
£tU]Sl ??aliS^604; occuPation> i, 117, H8, 363-366; wages and earnings,
03 405-411, 764-766; family income, i, 412-417; charity seekers, ii, 95-153
m charity hospitals, n, 258-261, 270-272; insanity and mental defects, ii, 228, 237
status of children, i, 470-474; ii, 143-147; in schools, ii, 10-16, 18-31, 33-42
:9-61, 64-66, 76-80; literacy, i, 99, 175, 438-147; citizenship, i, 484-489- ii 152
n labor unions, i, 417-419; conjugal condition, i, 447-460; ii, 137-142; fecundity
>; location of wife, i, 459, 460; home ownership, i, 467-470; rent paid, i
f apartments and of households, i, 426-430; persons per room, i
Ii rdTf?rJ°dgerV' .422~4265 retum movement, X 112-118, 180, 182
Z England Wdsh'j *'"*"' * ™**> Ind" '• 52* in Canada' *>™' <*«
\\ end or Wind. See Slovenian.
na(a oF i?1™^11^ ". 609, 610; population, i, 621-623;
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States, and separate
situation in Argentina and
Index. 901
West Indian: Number of immigrants admitted, i, 97, 215; proportion of males i 98-
destination, i, 106-109; previous residence in United States, i, 104; money on
landing, i, 103; employees studied, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; occupation abroad
i, 100, 101; length of residence, i, 116, 349-356; occupation, i, 117, 118; wages and
earnings, i, 366-403; charity seekers, ii, 95-109; insanity and mental defects ii
237; in schools, 11, 10-16, 18-31, 64-66; literacy, i, 99, 438-447; citizenship i 4844
.489; return movement, i, 112-118; in Canada, ii, 612, 626. (See al o Cuban Porto
Rican, etc.)
West Indies: Races of, ii, 685, 700, 713, 721, 726; number of immigrants from, 1820-
1910, i, 65-96; Dutch in, i, 232; natives of, in United States, i, 134 136 137- children
of immigrants from, employed, i, 320-333, 336-347, 627-636; literacy i 438-447
(See al>o Cuba, Porto Rico, etc.)
West Seneca, N. Y., representative immigrant community, i, 496.
West Virginia: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128; employees in manufactures, mines, and
quarries, i, 492; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; regulation of banking, ii, 435;
cases of peonage, ii, 445; insanity, ii, 232. (See also South, bituminous coal mining.)
Western Australia: Immigration and emigration, 1851-1901, ii, 632; assisted immigra-
tion to, ii, 633. (See alo Australia.)
Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, ii, 8.
Western Theological Seminary, Chicago, 111., ii, 8.
Wheeler, William R., member of Immigration Commission, i, 12, 166.
White, W. J., director of Canadian propaganda in United States, annual report emoted
ii, 608-610.
White Russian: Definition of term, i, 265; population, i, 265. (See al o Russian.)
White-slave traffic: Abstract of report on, ii, 323-350; conclusions, i, 30; recom-
mendations, i-,.46; information regarding, furnished to authorities, i, 23; between
Europe and United States, i, 30; legislation for suppression of, ii, 577. (See also
Prostitution.)
White-slave traffic act: Of June 25, 1910, ii, 744-747; result of Commission's investi-
gations, i, 30.
Whiting, Ind., population, and immigration to oil refineries, i, 527, 528.
Wilkes-Barre, Pa., immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Williams, Wm., commissioner at Ellis Island, action regarding homes and aid societies,
ii, 314, 315, 322.
Willis, H. Parker, editorial adviser to Immigration Commission, i, 12.
Wilmington, Del., immigration to leather factories, i, 529.
Wind or Wend. See Slovenian.
Window glass. See Glass manufacturing.
Wisconsin: Foreign-born in, i, 126, 128, 149, 151, 155; citizenship, i, 150, 152; Hebrew
farmers, i, 576; Italian communities, i, 560; Polish farmers, i, 583; cheese industry
of Green County, i, 549; wages of sugar-beet laborers, i, 597; immigrants destined
to, i, 105-109; employees in manufactures, mines, and quarries, i, 492; voting laws
lenient, i, 153; immigrant banks, ii, 414; private banking virtually prohibited, ii,
434; insanity, ii, 232; emigration to Canada, ii, 617.
Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons, Milwaukee, Wis., ii, 8.
Wissler, Clark, investigations of phenomena of growth, referred to, ii, 553.
Wives, location of. See Location of wives.
Wives at work: Families having income from, i, 413^415, 766; seasonal farm labor,
i, 597, 598, 600. (See also Family income and Woman and child labor.)
Wolf, Simon, hearing before Immigration Commission, i, 19.
WTpman and child labor: Establishment of certain industries in localities where such
is available, i, 541; in textile industry, displaced by males of recent immigration,
i, 540; among recent immigrants, San Francisco, cheaper than Japanese, i, 663;
seasonal farm labor, i, 594-598; Russian, in Hawaii, i, 707. (See also Family income,
Wives at work, and Children, status of.)
Women: Citizenship of, by marriage, ii, 828; fecundity of, abstract of report on, ii,
451-500.
Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., ii, 8.
Woods, Erville B., assistant to statistician of Immigration Commission, i, 12.
Woolen and worsted manufacturing: Summary of data secured, i, 302, 303; households
and employees studied, i, 294, 323-333; earnings, i,' 384-386, 388-395; industry in
Lawrence, Mass., described, i, 512-516; female breadwinners reported as woolen-
-mill operatives, i, 830-838; Chinese in woolen manufacturing, San Francisco, 1870,
i, 655.
Woonsocket, R. I.: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152
902 The Immigration Commission.
Worcester, Mass.: Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63; immi-
grants a« charity seekers, ii, 93-115; foreign-born in male population, i, 151 ; citizen-
ship, i, 152.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass., ii, 8.
Working conditions: Poor, accepted by recent immigrants, i, 538, 539; effect of recent
immigrants, i, 501; poorer in bituminous coal mines of Pennsylvania than else-
where, i, 38; seasonal agricultural labor, i, 596, 597; peonage, ii, 439-449; planta-
tions, Hawaii, i, 714-717.
Working relations between old and new immigrants, i, 540. (See also Race prejudice,
Assimilation, etc.)
Worsted. See Woolen and worsted manufacturing.
Wright, Luke E., executive order regarding Chinese, ii, 798.
Wyoming: Foreign-born in, i, 127, 129, 149, 155, 623; population, i, 623; citizenship,
i, 150; Hebrew farmers, i, 576; immigrants destined to, i, 105-109; regulation of
banking, ii, 435.
Y.
Yearly earnings. See Wages and earnings.
Yearly income. See Family income ana Wages and earnings.
Yokaris Brothers, promoters of Greek shoe-shining parlors, ii, 398.
Yonkers, N. Y.: .Public school pupils, ii, 14, 15, 17-23, 74; teachers, ii, 52-63; foreign-
born in male population, i, 151; citizenship, i, 152.
Youngstown, Ohio: Foreign-born in male population, i, 151; citizenship i 152-
immigrants as charity seekers, ii, 93-115.
Z.
Zinc smelting and manufacturing, employees in, i, 336-338, 343-348.
o
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